Chapter TenChapter Ten

The Organization and Funding The Organization and Funding of Schoolsof Schools

School Organization TodaySchool Organization Today

Hierarchical ModelHierarchical Model (Top (Top Down)Down)

Concentric Ring ModelConcentric Ring Model

Hierarchical Model of School Hierarchical Model of School OrganizationOrganization

Most models are hierarchical (top-down) Most models are hierarchical (top-down) These schemes picture the state These schemes picture the state

legislature, school board, and other legislature, school board, and other administrative structure as layers “above” administrative structure as layers “above” the local school. the local school.

Teachers are depicted at the bottom, often Teachers are depicted at the bottom, often placed “below” the school custodian and placed “below” the school custodian and secretary. secretary.

Concentric Ring Model of School Concentric Ring Model of School OrganizationOrganization

The Concentric The Concentric Ring Model Ring Model demonstrates the demonstrates the central role of the central role of the teacher in the teacher in the organizational organizational scheme. scheme.

It may help to It may help to emphasize the emphasize the importance of importance of teachers in the teachers in the structure of modern structure of modern education. education.

Professional Relationships in Professional Relationships in Education: Line and StaffEducation: Line and Staff

Line relationshipsLine relationships represent the direct represent the direct authority of one individual to another such authority of one individual to another such as the principal’s relationship to you. as the principal’s relationship to you.

Staff relationshipsStaff relationships are less formal and are less formal and have no supervisory or evaluation have no supervisory or evaluation component, such as the department chair, component, such as the department chair, team leader or mentor. team leader or mentor.

Educational AdministrationEducational Administration

The Federal GovernmentThe Federal Government The State GovernmentThe State Government The Local School DistrictThe Local School District The Local SchoolThe Local School

Federal Government Administration Federal Government Administration

Local communities and states traditionally Local communities and states traditionally maintained a great deal of power regarding maintained a great deal of power regarding education.education.

During the 1800s, schools gradually came under During the 1800s, schools gradually came under the authority of the states, although local the authority of the states, although local communities continued to play a major role. communities continued to play a major role.

By the twentieth century, some control of By the twentieth century, some control of schools gradually began to shift to the national schools gradually began to shift to the national level. level.

Direct Federal ControlDirect Federal Control

The U.S. Congress directly funds and The U.S. Congress directly funds and administers the schools in the nation’s administers the schools in the nation’s capitol, Washington D.C. capitol, Washington D.C.

The Federal Government controls schools The Federal Government controls schools attended by children…attended by children… of National Park employeesof National Park employees living in “outlying possessions”living in “outlying possessions” on Indian reservations on Indian reservations on military baseson military bases

U.S. Department of Education: A U.S. Department of Education: A Short HistoryShort History

In 1867, the first Department of Education was established In 1867, the first Department of Education was established by an act of Congress. by an act of Congress.

Assisted with the important work of the Freedmen’s Bureau Assisted with the important work of the Freedmen’s Bureau schools.schools.

Collected statistics to document the progress of education. Collected statistics to document the progress of education. In 1868, the Department of Education was “downgraded” to In 1868, the Department of Education was “downgraded” to

the status of an “Office” within the Department of Interior. the status of an “Office” within the Department of Interior. In 1939 the office was reassigned to the Federal Security In 1939 the office was reassigned to the Federal Security

Agency, that later (1953) was renamed the Department of Agency, that later (1953) was renamed the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. Health, Education, and Welfare.

The Office of Education remained here until 1979 when it The Office of Education remained here until 1979 when it achieved cabinet level status as the Department of achieved cabinet level status as the Department of Education.Education.

The Role of the U.S. Department of The Role of the U.S. Department of EducationEducation

Funding Funding AdvocacyAdvocacy ResearchResearch

Department of Education: Funding Department of Education: Funding

Provides categorical financial aid for Provides categorical financial aid for bilingual education, vocational education, bilingual education, vocational education, disabilities education and programs such disabilities education and programs such as anti-drug education and head start.as anti-drug education and head start.

It also allocates funds for student financial It also allocates funds for student financial aid for college. aid for college.

Department of Education: Department of Education: AdvocacyAdvocacy

Some programs are promoted through the Some programs are promoted through the authority of the Secretary of the authority of the Secretary of the Department of Education Department of Education PrivatizationPrivatization Voucher plansVoucher plans School choiceSchool choice

The President of the United States has The President of the United States has used his power to influence educational used his power to influence educational policy (NCLB).policy (NCLB).

Department of Education: Department of Education: ResearchResearch

Regional Resource Centers and Regional Resource Centers and Educational Laboratories inform educators Educational Laboratories inform educators of cutting edge research through of cutting edge research through seminars, workshops and conferences. seminars, workshops and conferences.

National Centers, Clearinghouses, and National Centers, Clearinghouses, and Regional Assistance Centers provide Regional Assistance Centers provide training and technical assistance to training and technical assistance to improve teaching and learning. improve teaching and learning.

The State AdministrationThe State Administration

State Governors, Legislatures, and the Courts shape State Governors, Legislatures, and the Courts shape general school policy through statues (laws) and they general school policy through statues (laws) and they proscribe the duties of other educational units such as proscribe the duties of other educational units such as the state board of education. the state board of education.

State Boards of Education provide advisory and State Boards of Education provide advisory and regulatory functions regarding education and define regulatory functions regarding education and define standards for teacher credentialing and licensure. standards for teacher credentialing and licensure.

State Departments of Education typically regulate the State Departments of Education typically regulate the certification requirements of teachers, maintain school certification requirements of teachers, maintain school bus schedules and administer special programs for the bus schedules and administer special programs for the state. state.

Duties of the State Board of Duties of the State Board of EducationEducation

Regulate school curriculumRegulate school curriculum Make school attendance policyMake school attendance policy Establish teacher licensure requirementsEstablish teacher licensure requirements Implement policy mandated by the state Implement policy mandated by the state

legislaturelegislature Make policy recommendations to the state Make policy recommendations to the state

legislaturelegislature Monitor teacher education programsMonitor teacher education programs Evaluate school test dataEvaluate school test data

State Department of Education State Department of Education (or State Department of Public (or State Department of Public

Instruction)Instruction) Implement and monitor state-wide testing programsImplement and monitor state-wide testing programs Review teachers’ credentials and issue teaching Review teachers’ credentials and issue teaching

licenseslicenses Establish curriculum guidelines and standardsEstablish curriculum guidelines and standards Conduct training sessions for teachers and Conduct training sessions for teachers and

administratorsadministrators Approve teacher education programs and teacher Approve teacher education programs and teacher

specialty areasspecialty areas Approve new Charter SchoolsApprove new Charter Schools Implement new initiatives such as the NCLBImplement new initiatives such as the NCLB

The State SuperintendentThe State Superintendent

The chief school executive officer of the The chief school executive officer of the state.state.

Works directly with the State Board of Works directly with the State Board of Education on educational policy. Education on educational policy.

Ultimate arbiter of educational policy. Ultimate arbiter of educational policy.

The School DistrictThe School District

Typically operates at the municipal (city), Typically operates at the municipal (city), township, or county level.township, or county level.

Has its own school board and Has its own school board and administration. administration.

Functions of the District Board Functions of the District Board of Education of Education

FundingFunding MaintenanceMaintenance Property and ConstructionProperty and Construction Materials and SuppliesMaterials and Supplies Curriculum and ProgramsCurriculum and Programs Hiring of teachersHiring of teachers Admission and Regulation of StudentsAdmission and Regulation of Students

The District SuperintendentThe District Superintendent

Provides leadership and is often the Provides leadership and is often the spokesperson for the local board. spokesperson for the local board.

Attends to the day-to-day operations of the Attends to the day-to-day operations of the school district.school district.

Oversees the school budget and deals Oversees the school budget and deals with controversial issues. with controversial issues.

Local School AdministrationLocal School Administration

Local schools attend to the day-to-day Local schools attend to the day-to-day business of education.business of education.

Provides the basic administrational Provides the basic administrational structure that governs the teachers and structure that governs the teachers and students. students.

The Principal’s ResponsibilitiesThe Principal’s Responsibilities Selects teachers for his or her school. Selects teachers for his or her school. Evaluates teachers.Evaluates teachers. Allocates funds from the school budget.Allocates funds from the school budget. Coordinates special support staff services (i.e., Coordinates special support staff services (i.e.,

school counselors, school psychologists, social school counselors, school psychologists, social workers, nurses, etc.) for teachers and students.workers, nurses, etc.) for teachers and students.

Maintains the school facilities and grounds and Maintains the school facilities and grounds and coordinates the maintenance staff.coordinates the maintenance staff.

Coordinates curriculum and instruction in the Coordinates curriculum and instruction in the school.school.

The Principal’s Responsibilities The Principal’s Responsibilities (Continued)(Continued)

Schedules classes, teachers and room assignments.Schedules classes, teachers and room assignments. Supervises office staff.Supervises office staff. Acts as the chief disciplinarian.Acts as the chief disciplinarian. Schedules special events such as athletic games, Schedules special events such as athletic games,

open houses, parent conferences, and holiday open houses, parent conferences, and holiday concerts.concerts.

Serves as a mediator between teachers and parents in Serves as a mediator between teachers and parents in case of conflict.case of conflict.

Serves as a liaison between the school and the PTA.Serves as a liaison between the school and the PTA. Coordinates and schedules testing.Coordinates and schedules testing.

Duties of the Assistant PrincipalDuties of the Assistant Principal

Schedules classes and classroomsSchedules classes and classrooms Orders supplies and textbooksOrders supplies and textbooks Arranges the cafeteria scheduleArranges the cafeteria schedule Handles disciplineHandles discipline Schedules the use of special school facilities Schedules the use of special school facilities

such as the gym, athletic fields computer labs, or such as the gym, athletic fields computer labs, or librarylibrary

Coordinates school testing and assessmentCoordinates school testing and assessment Monitors student attendanceMonitors student attendance Budgets school fundsBudgets school funds

School Support StaffSchool Support Staff

School SecretarySchool Secretary CustodiansCustodians Cafeteria WorkersCafeteria Workers

The Funding of SchoolsThe Funding of Schools

Schools are funded with tax revenues from Schools are funded with tax revenues from federal, state, and local governments. federal, state, and local governments.

Revenues are distributed by governmental Revenues are distributed by governmental agencies to local school districts. agencies to local school districts.

While this financial scheme may appear to While this financial scheme may appear to be simple and fair, it is neither. be simple and fair, it is neither.

Federal AidFederal Aid

The federal government has traditionally played The federal government has traditionally played a minor role in the funding of schools. a minor role in the funding of schools.

However, prior to the adoption of the However, prior to the adoption of the Constitution it actively supported public Constitution it actively supported public education through the provisions of the education through the provisions of the Northwest Ordinance.Northwest Ordinance.

Under the ordinance a portion of land was to be Under the ordinance a portion of land was to be used for public education. used for public education.

As a result local communities were able to As a result local communities were able to establish and support public schools. establish and support public schools.

Federal aid to Education is Federal aid to Education is ControversialControversial

Opponents of federal involvement in education argue Opponents of federal involvement in education argue that it is unconstitutional, noting the provisions set forth that it is unconstitutional, noting the provisions set forth in the Tenth Amendment. in the Tenth Amendment.

Those who favor a greater role for the federal Those who favor a greater role for the federal government, note that the most important function of government, note that the most important function of government as outlined in the Preamble to the government as outlined in the Preamble to the Constitution is to “promote the general welfare” of the Constitution is to “promote the general welfare” of the people and that there is no better way to achieve that people and that there is no better way to achieve that goal than by supporting public education. goal than by supporting public education.

States and local school districts are held accountable for States and local school districts are held accountable for their use of this federal money. It is this accountability their use of this federal money. It is this accountability that is sometimes resented by school administrators. that is sometimes resented by school administrators.

State Funding of SchoolsState Funding of Schools

States typically rely on sales taxes and income States typically rely on sales taxes and income taxes and lotteries to help fund their schools.taxes and lotteries to help fund their schools.

Income taxes are “progressive” because they Income taxes are “progressive” because they are graduated according to ones ability to pay. are graduated according to ones ability to pay.

Sales taxes are “regressive” because the poor Sales taxes are “regressive” because the poor must pay a larger proportion of their income on must pay a larger proportion of their income on the sales tax of food or clothing than do the rich. the sales tax of food or clothing than do the rich.

Recently, states have used lotteries as a new Recently, states have used lotteries as a new source of revenue – though these funds must be source of revenue – though these funds must be carefully monitored. carefully monitored.

Local Tax Revenues- Property Local Tax Revenues- Property TaxesTaxes

Property taxes have been the primary Property taxes have been the primary source of funding for schools for many source of funding for schools for many years. years.

These taxes are a stable source of income These taxes are a stable source of income but are often assessed unevenly.but are often assessed unevenly.

Artificially low tax bases can dramatically Artificially low tax bases can dramatically effect the funding of public schools in the effect the funding of public schools in the community. community.

Rich and Poor CommunitiesRich and Poor Communities

Even if tax rates in poor communities were Even if tax rates in poor communities were assessed at their maximum level, revenues assessed at their maximum level, revenues would still be dramatically lower than more would still be dramatically lower than more developed, richer communities. developed, richer communities.

Although this may seem unfair, the Supreme Although this may seem unfair, the Supreme Court argued in Court argued in San Antonio v RodriguezSan Antonio v Rodriguez (1973) (1973) that it was the state’s responsibility to remedy that it was the state’s responsibility to remedy these problems of inequity. these problems of inequity.

This remains one of the central complications of This remains one of the central complications of the current system of financing education. the current system of financing education.

The Future of Educational The Future of Educational FinanceFinance

The current system of financing public The current system of financing public schools is troubling.schools is troubling.

Since 1973, the courts have grappled with Since 1973, the courts have grappled with public school finance and often have found public school finance and often have found it unfair. it unfair.

As a result, school systems have As a result, school systems have embraced equity and adequacy reforms. embraced equity and adequacy reforms.

School Finance Equity ReformsSchool Finance Equity Reforms

In In Serrano v PriestSerrano v Priest (1971) the California (1971) the California Supreme Court declared that the state’s system Supreme Court declared that the state’s system of school finance was unconstitutional.of school finance was unconstitutional.

As a result of this decision, a number of states As a result of this decision, a number of states embraced school equity programs that embraced school equity programs that redirected some money from richer to poorer redirected some money from richer to poorer school districts. school districts.

One of the most successful of these school One of the most successful of these school equity programs was implemented in Kentucky equity programs was implemented in Kentucky (KERA). (KERA).

School Finance Adequacy School Finance Adequacy ReformReform

As a result of the Serrano decision, other states As a result of the Serrano decision, other states have moved cautiously toward so-called adequacy have moved cautiously toward so-called adequacy reform. reform.

These “reforms” provides a minimum or “foundation These “reforms” provides a minimum or “foundation level” of funding for each student in the state. level” of funding for each student in the state.

However, funding levels are often well below the However, funding levels are often well below the minimum expenses for education today. minimum expenses for education today.

A good example of this funding “reform” can be A good example of this funding “reform” can be seen in the New Jersey Supreme Court case of seen in the New Jersey Supreme Court case of Abbott v BurkeAbbott v Burke.. The court mandated that the state spend significantly The court mandated that the state spend significantly

more money on these 28 failing school districts, more money on these 28 failing school districts, known as “Abbott districts.”known as “Abbott districts.”

New Directions in School New Directions in School Financing: Sales TaxFinancing: Sales Tax

Michigan has recently presented us with a third Michigan has recently presented us with a third alternative beyond equity or adequacy reform.alternative beyond equity or adequacy reform. This funding compromise involved a shift away from This funding compromise involved a shift away from

the traditional reliance on property taxes to fund the traditional reliance on property taxes to fund schools toward the broader use of state sales taxes schools toward the broader use of state sales taxes for schools. for schools.

By using state sales tax revenues as the primary By using state sales tax revenues as the primary source of school funding, property taxes were source of school funding, property taxes were reduced and inequities caused by rich and poor reduced and inequities caused by rich and poor school districts were minimized. school districts were minimized.

New Directions in School New Directions in School Financing: Other ApproachesFinancing: Other Approaches

Some school districts have turned to Some school districts have turned to advertising as a source of revenue.advertising as a source of revenue.

Still other schools have used student fees Still other schools have used student fees for busing, parking, etc.for busing, parking, etc.

Many communities borrow money for Many communities borrow money for education by issuing bonds. education by issuing bonds.

Homeschooling and VouchersHomeschooling and Vouchers In the last thirty years, since the famous In the last thirty years, since the famous Gideon v Gideon v

WainwrightWainwright Supreme Court decision declared that Supreme Court decision declared that mandatory prayer in public schools was unconstitutional, mandatory prayer in public schools was unconstitutional, many conservative groups have advocated many conservative groups have advocated homeschooling where their values can freely be taught. homeschooling where their values can freely be taught.

Others have embraced vouchers where state or federal Others have embraced vouchers where state or federal money would be allocated to each family to use for the money would be allocated to each family to use for the education of their children. education of their children.

In 1998, the Supreme Court argued that Milwaukee’s In 1998, the Supreme Court argued that Milwaukee’s voucher plan was unconstitutional and as a result, could voucher plan was unconstitutional and as a result, could not be used for religious schools. not be used for religious schools.

Today, the majority of the American people support the Today, the majority of the American people support the traditional public school system and parents oppose traditional public school system and parents oppose private school choice plans by a margin of 2 to 1. private school choice plans by a margin of 2 to 1.

Privatization of Public SchoolsPrivatization of Public Schools

Privatization plans essentially turn over the Privatization plans essentially turn over the public schools to a private company. public schools to a private company.

These “for profit” school businesses These “for profit” school businesses receive funding from the state and district receive funding from the state and district and keep the profits they make. and keep the profits they make.

This transfers money – designated for This transfers money – designated for public schools – to private institutions and public schools – to private institutions and reduces revenues for public education.reduces revenues for public education.