CHAPTER SIXAttention and Memory

The Information Processing Model• Uses a computer metaphor to explain how people

process stimuli• The information-processing approach is based on

the assumption that information is processed through a series of hypothetical stages or stores.

Attentional and Perceptual Processing

• Sensory memory– Incoming information from the senses is retained in the body’s nervous system

• Memory details depend on how much attention is given to the stimulus.• If attention is given, then the info is passed to the next

stage of memory.• Age differences are not typically found at this stage;

however, they do begin to appear when attentional processes are applied to sensory memory.

Speed of Processing• How quickly and efficiently

these early steps in information processing are completed– Slowing of processing with age is task-specific.

Processing Resources• The amount of attention one

has to apply to a particular situation– May account for ability to

remember. – Two theories:

• Inhibitory loss • Attentional loss

Attentional Control

Inhibitory loss• The idea that older persons have task-irrelevant

thoughts that interfere with processing.• Research shows inhibition is not universal across

all aspects of stimulation.• Certain strategies can compensate for irrelevant

information interference.

Attentional Control

• Divided attention: multitasking• Older persons are more penalized when they

must divide their attention and find it more difficult to multitask.– Writing while listening– Conversing while driving

• Extensive practice can minimize poor performance on multitasking.• Older adults use strategies to compensate for inability to multitask.

Attentional Loss

Let’s compare notes!

Memory Test

• Automatic processing: occurs without person being consciously aware

• Effortful processing: requires one’s full attention

Information Processing

• Encoding: process of getting information into memory• Storage: happens when info is kept in memory• Retrieval: getting info back out of memory

Information Processing

Working Memory• The active processes and structures involved

in holding information in mind• Simultaneously using that information,

sometimes in conjunction with incoming information to:– Solve a problem– Make a decision – Learn new information

Memory Processes

• Explicit memory (declarative)– Intentional and conscious remembering of

information that is learned at a specific point in time

– An example is remembering who wrote the Gettysburg address.

• Implicit memory (procedural memory)– Retrieval of information without conscious

or intentional recollection– Familiar tasks, such as brushing teeth or

driving a car.– Smaller age differences than explicit

memory

Implicit versus Explicit Memory

• The ability to remember extensive amounts of information from a few seconds, hours, or decades.

• Semantic Memory– Learning and remembering the meaning of words and

concepts that are not tied to specific occurrences of events in time

• Episodic Memory– Conscious recollection of information from a specific

event or point in time

Long Term Memory

• Recall Memory– Occurs when one remembers

information without any help or cues– Do you remember what was on the

first slide?

Long Term Memory

• Recognition Memory– Occurs when one selects from a list of several options– Were any of the following images on the first slide?

Long Term Memory

Autobiographical Memory• Involves remembering

information and events from our own life– It is a form of episodic

memory.• Flashbulb memories

– Vivid memories of very personal or emotional events

Memory Processes

Factors Affecting Age Differences in Memory

• Encoding – Elaborative rehearsal involves making connections

between incoming information and information already known.

• Use of strategies during encoding– Organize– Establish links

• Older persons are not as effective in strategies as younger.• Pet scans show age differences in encoding.

Retrieval• False-fame effect

– Mistaking familiarity for fame• Results indicate older persons have a deficit in retrieval.

• Misinformation and memory– Source memory

• The ability to remember the source of a familiar event as well as if the event is real or imagined

– False Memory• When one remembers items or events that did not occur

– Remembering childhood abuse that never happened– Picking a person out of a lineup that is innocent

Eyewitness Testimony, Part II

• Uploaded by CBSNewsOnline on Mar 8, 2009

• Lesley Stahl explores the task of an eyewitness to choose a criminal out of line up through memory.

Memory in Context

Prospective Memory• Involves remembering to perform a planned

action in the future (remembering to remember)– Older patients remember to take medication better than

busy middle-aged patients.

Cognitive Reserve:Factors That Preserve Memory

• Exercising memory– Thinking of memory as a mental muscle

• Multilingualism and Cognitive Functioning– Research suggests that older adults who speak four or more

languages had the best cognitive state independent of education.

• Semantic Memory in Service of Episodic Memory– Older adults are better at remembering related as opposed

to unrelated word pairs, indicating that episodic memory might be a useful encoding strategy

Negative Stereotypes and Memory Performance

• Older adults do worse on a memory task if they believe that age hampers memory ability

Memory Training

Training Memory Skills• Strategies

– External aids: rely on environmental resources• Notebooks or calendars

– Internal aids: rely on mental processes• Imagery, rote rehearsal,

mnemonics

Memory Drugs

• Only modest, short term improvement

• No medical breakthroughs

• Combining Strategies– What works with

one may not work for all

Normal versus Abnormal Memory Aging

• Distinguish by asking if changes disrupt a person’s ability to function in everyday life– Repeatedly forgetting to turn off the stove– Forgets the way home

• Alzheimer’s– Progressive destruction of memory

• Wernicke-Korsakoff – Loss of recent memory and sometimes inability to form new

memory

Memory and Mental Health

• Depression – Feelings of helplessness and

hopelessness• Dementias

– Declines in cognitive performance • Irreversible and untreatable

• Studies found that negative effects of depression on memory are greater in young and middle-aged than in older adults.

Nutrition and Drugs that Can Impair Memory

• Alcohol and caffeine, if abused, will affect memory.• Sedatives and tranquilizers have been found to impair

memory.