PRODUCTION OF AND SENSORY ACCEPTABILITY OF CHEESE FROM FRESH GOAT

MILK USING ALUM SOLUTION, TARMARIND JUICE, MORINGA SEED CAKE

EXTRACT, LIME AND LEMON JUICE AS COAGULANTS.

BY

SUNMOLA ABIDEMI TAJUDEEN

Department of Food Technology School of Technology College of Science and Technology

Kaduna Polytechnic Kaduna Nigeria.

SEPTEMBER, 2015

ABSTRACT

Cheese was produced with 0.002m3 of goat milk using five local coagulants with different

proportions: Alum coagulated cheese (ALC 26.6g), Tamarind coagulated cheese (TAC 500.0g),

Lime coagulated cheese (LIC 630.0g), Moringa Seed cake extract coagulated cheese (MOC

133.0g) and Lemon coagulated cheese (LEC 510.0g). The goat milk was pasteurized,

coagulated, stirred, cooled, drained, pressed, mixed, pressed, curdled, cut, and packaged. The

products were evaluated for sensory qualities of taste, color, flavor, aroma and overall

acceptability by ten (10) panelist using 9 point hedonic scale. The scores of the panelist were

subjected to statistical analysis of variance ANOVA. The result of sensory analysis indicated that

there was no significant difference in the taste, color, aroma, texture and overall acceptability of

the cheese samples at 5% level of significance.

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Cheese is a solid food prepared from pressed curd of milk, often seasoned and aged (Houghton,

2011). It is one of the numerous products from the processing of milk Cheese is a food derived

from milk that is produced in a wide range of flavors, textures, and forms by coagulation of the

milk protein casein. It comprises proteins and fat from milk, usually the milk of cow, buffalo,

goats, or sheep. During production, the milk is usually acidified, and adding the enzyme rennet

causes coagulation. The solids are separated and pressed into final form. Some cheeses have

molds on the rind or throughout. Most cheeses melt at cooking temperature Fankhauser, (2007).

Worldwide, cheese is a major agricultural product. According to the Food and Agricultural

Organization of the United Nations, over 20 million metric tons of cheese were produced

worldwide in 2011. This is about three kilograms for each person on Earth.

Cheese is a preserved form of milk made by the coagulation, pressing and salting of the milk

protein casein. It is popular for its versatility, longevity, portability and nutritional values. It is a

stable food with a longer shelf life than milk and affordable food for budget. There are numerous

styles, shapes, tastes and textures cheese, all developed in different regions, climates and cultures

of the world (Brasch, 2014).

The nutritional value of cheese varies widely. Cottage cheese may consist of 4% fat and 11%

protein; some whey cheeses 15% fat and 11% protein, and some triple-crème cheeses 36% fat

and 7% protein. In general, cheese supplies a great deal of calcium, protein, phosphorus and fat.

( CNN, 2004).

Since the consumption of local cheese is very popular among children and adult of different

ethnic, cultural and religious background, there is need for detailed study on the most suitable

curdling agent that will yield an aesthetic acceptable sensory quality for the promotion of our

indigenous product. This project will examine the use of local coagulants such as alum, lemon,

lime, tamarind and Moringa seed cake extract in the production of cheese.

Aim and Objectives

The aim and objectives of this project are:

To produce cheese from goat milk using different coagulating agent viz. Lime, Lemon, Alum,

Tamarind and Moringa Seeds

To evaluate the sensory qualities of the cheese products

CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. Historical Background of Cheese

Cheese is an ancient food whose origins predate recorded history. There is no conclusive

evidence where cheese making was originated, either in Europe, central Asia or the Middle East,

but the practice had spread within Europe prior to roman times and according to pling the elder,

had become a sophisticated enterprise by the time the Roman Empire came into being

(subbaraman. N, 2012).

The earliest evidence of cheese making in the archeological record dates back to 5,500 BCE, in

what is now kujawy, Poland where strainers with milk fat molecules have been found. (Simons,

FJ 1971) earliest proposed dates for the origin of cheese making range from around 8000 BCE,

when sheep were first domesticated. Since animal skins and inflated internal organs have, since

ancient times, provided storage vessels for a range of food stuffs, it is probable that the process

of cheese making was discovered accidentally by storing milk in a container made from the

stomach of an animal, resulting in the milk being turned to curd and whey by the rennet from the

stomach. There is a legend trader with variations about the discovery of cheese by an Arab who

used this method of storing milk. (Ridge well J 1968) cheese making may have begun

independently for this by the pressing and salting of curdled milk to preserve it. Observation that

the effect of making cheese in an animal stomach gave more solid and better textured curds may

have led to the deliberate addition of rennet.

Early archeological evidence of Egyptian cheese has been found in Egyptian tomb murals, dating

to about 2000 BCE, (Reich V 2002) the earliest cheese were likely to have been quite sour and

salty, similar in texture to rustic cottage cheese or feta, a crumby, flavourful Greek cheese.

Cheese produce in Europe, where climate are cooler than the Middle East, required less salt for

preservation. With less salt and acidity, the cheese became a suitable environment for useful

microbes and molds, giving aged cheese their respective flavours. The earliest ever discovered

preserved cheese was found in the Taklimakan desert in north western china and it dates back as

early as 1615BCE, (Carmona, S 2007) ancient Greek mythology credited Aristarchus with the

discovery of cheese. Homer’s Odyssey (8th century BCE) describes the Cyclops making and

storing sheep’s and goat’s milk cheese. (From Samuel’s butler translation). By roman times,

cheese was an everyday food and cheese making a mature art. Collumela’s De Re Rustica (circa

65 CE) details a cheese making process involving rennet coagulation, pressing of the curd,

salting and aging pliny’s natural history (77CE) describe the diversity of cheese enjoyed by

Romans of the early empire He stated that the best cheese came from the villages near Nimes,

but did not keep long and had to be eaten fresh. Cheese of the Alps and Apennines were as

remarkable for their variety then as now. A liqurian cheese was noted for being made mostly

from sheep’s milk, and some cheeses produced nearby were stated to weigh as much as a

thousand pounds each. Goat’s milk cheese was a recent taste in Rome, improved over the

“medicinal taste” of Gaul’s similar cheese by smoking of cheese from overseas; pling preferred

those of Bithynia in Asia Minor.

As Romanized populations encountered unfamiliar newly settled neighbors, bringing their own

cheese-making traditions, their own flocks and their own unrelated words for cheese, cheeses in

Europe diversified further, with various locals developing their own distinctive traditions and

products. As long distance trade collapsed, only traveler would encounter unfamiliar cheeses.

Charlemagne’s first encounter with a white cheese that had an inedible rind forms one of the

constructed anecdotes of Noker’s life of the Emperor.

The British cheese board claims that Britain has approximately 700 distinct local cheeses.

(Dumuzi, N, 1972).

France and Italy have perhaps 400 each. (A French proverb holds there is a different French

cheese for everyday of the year. Still, the advancement of the cheeses art in Europe was slow

during the centuries after Rome’s fall. Many cheeses today were first recorded in the late middle

ages or after-cheese like cheddar around 1,500 parmesan in 1597, Gouda in 1697, and

camembert in 1791 (history of cheese accessed).

In 1546, the proverbs of John Heywood claimed that “the moon is made of a green cheese “

(Greene may refer not to the colour as many now think, but to being now or unaged (blister

1990) variation on this sentiment were long repeated and NASA exploited this myth for an April

fools day 5,000f announcement in 2006 (Samuel butler’s translation) until its modern spread

along with European culture, cheese was nearly unheard often in east Asia cultures in the pre-

Columbian America and only had limited used in sub- Mediterranean Africa, mainly being

widespread and popular only in Europe, the middle East, the Indian subcontinent and area

influenced by those cultures. But with American culture and food, cheese has gradually become

known and increasingly popular worldwide, through still rarely considered as a part of local

ethnics cuisines outside Europe, the middle east, the Indian subcontinent, and the Americans.

The first factory for the industrial production of cheese opened in Switzerland in 1815, but large-

scale production first found real success in the United States. Credit usually goes to Jesse

Williams, a diary farmer from Rome, New York, who in 1851 started making cheese in an

assembly line fashion using the milk from neighboring farms. Within decades hundreds of such

diary association existed.

The 1860’s saw the beginnings of mass-produced rennet, and by the turn of the century scientists

were producing pure microbial cultures. Before then, bacteria in cheese making had come from

the environment or from recycling an earlier batch’s whey, the pure culture meant a more

standardized cheese could be produced (natural history). Factory made cheese over took

traditional cheese making in the world war II era, and factories have been the source of most

cheese in America and Europe ever since.

2.2 Types of Cheese

There are several types of cheese which are grouped or classified according to criteria such as

length of aging, texture, methods of making fat content, animal milk, country or region of origin

e. t. c. the method most commonly and traditionally used is based on moisture content which is

then further narrowed down by fat content and curing or ripening methods (Patrick< F 2000)

classification of the criteria may either be use singly or in combination (Barbara, cheese types)

but with no single method being universally used. (E 1981) the combination of types produces

around 500 different varieties recognized by the international diary federation (Patrick, F,

S,1999)over 400 identified by Walter and Hargrove, over 500 by Burk Halter, and over 1,000 by

Sandine and Elliker (moose milk, 2004) some attempt have been made to rationalize the

classification of cheese, a scheme was proposed by Peter Walstra that uses the primary and

secondary starter combined with moisture content, and walter and harggrove suggested

classifying by production methods. This last scheme results in 18 types which are then further

grouped moisture content (Patrick, 1999).

2.2.1 Fresh, Whey and Stretched Curd Cheeses

The main factor in categorizing these cheeses is age. Fresh cheeses without additional

preservatives can spoil in a matter of days. For these simplest cheeses milk is curdled and

drained, with little other processing. Examples includes cottage cheese, cream cheese, curd

cheese, farmer cheese, casformageblanc, queso fresco, paneer and fresh goat’s milk chevre. Such

cheeses are soft and spread able, with a mild flavour.

Whey cheeses are fresh cheeses made from whey, which would otherwise be discarded, in the

process of producing other cheeses. Corsican brocciu, Italian ricotta, Romanian urda, Greek

mizithra, Cypriot anari cheese and Norwegian geitost are examples brocciu is mostly eaten fresh,

and is as such a major ingredient in Corsican cuisine, but it can also be found in an aged form.

Traditional pasta filata cheeses such as mozzarella also fall in the fresh cheese category. Fresh

curds are stretched and kneaded in hot water to form a ball of mozzarella, which I southern Italy

is usually eaten within a few hours of being made store in brine, it can easily be shipped, and it is

known worldwide for its use on pizza.

Categorizing cheeses by moisture content or firmness is a common but inexact practice. The

lines between “soft”, “semi-soft”, “semi-hard” and “hard” are arbitrary, and many types of

cheeses are made in softer or firmer variants. The factor that controls cheese hardness is moisture

content, which depends on the pressure with which it is packed into moulds, and upon aging

times.

2.2.2 Soft Cheese

Cream cheeses are not matured-Brie and Neufchatel are soft-type cheeses that mature for more

than a month.

2.2.3 Semi-Soft Cheese

Semi-soft cheeses and the sub-group, Monastery cheeses have ahigh moisture content and tend

to be mild-tasting. Some well-known varieties include havarti, munster and port salut.

2.2.4 Medium-Hard Cheeses

Cheeses that range in texture from semi-soft to firm includesswiss-style cheeses such as

Emmental and Guiyere. The same bacteria that give such cheeses their eyes also contribute to

their aromatic and sharp flavours. Other semi-soft to firm cheeses includes gauda, edam,

jarlsberg, cantal and cascaval. Cheeses of these types are ideal for melting and are often served

on toast for quick snacks or simple meals.

2.2.5 Semi-Hard or Hard Cheese

Harder cheeses have some lower moisture content than softer cheeses. They are generally packed

into moulds under more pressure and aged for a longer time than the soft cheeses. Cheeses that

are classified as semi-hard to hard include the familiar cheddar, originating in the village or

cheddar in England but now used as a generic term for this style of cheese, of which varieties are

imitated worldwide and are marketed by strength or the length of time they have been aged.

Cheddar is one of a family of semi-hard or hard cheeses (including Cheshire and Gloucester),

whose curd is cut, gently heated, piled, and stirred before being pressed into forms. Colby and

MonterryJackare similar but milder cheeses, their curd is rinsed before it is pressed, washing

away some acidity and calcium. A similar curd-washing takes plac when making the Dutch

cheeses Edam and Gauda.

Hard cheeses “grating cheeses” such as parmesan and pecorino Romano are quite firmly packed

into large forms and aged for months or years.

Some cheeses are categorized by the source of the milk used to produce them or by the added fat

content of the milk from which they are produced. While most of the world’s commercially

available cheese is made from cow’s milk, many parts of the world also produce cheese from

goat and sheep. Well known examples include Roquefort (produced in France) and pecorino

Romano (produced in Italy) from ewe’s milk. One farm in Sweden also produces cheese from

moose’s milk (26th June, 2004) sometimes cheeses marketed under the same name are made from

milk of different animal-feta style cheeses, for example are made from sheep’s milk in Greece

and from cow’s milk elsewhere.

Double cream cheeses are soft cheeses of cow’s milk enriched with cream so that they are fat

matter in cheese (FMD) which contains proteins, butter fat, minerals, and lactose (milk sugar)

although in a very small quantity due to lactose fermentation during cheese making is 60-70%or,

in the case of triple creams at least 75%.

There are three main categories of cheeses in which the presence of mold is an important feature:

soft ripened cheeses, washed rind cheeses and blue cheeses.

2.2.6 Soft- Ripened Cheeses

Soft-ripened cheeses begin firm and rather chalky in texture, but are aged from the exterior

inwards by exposing them to mold. The mold may be a velvety bloom of Penicillium candida or

P. carmemberti that forms a flexible white crust and contributes to the smooth, runny, or gooey

texture and more intense flavours of these aged cheeses. Brie and camembert, the most famous

of these cheeses, are made by allowing white mold to grow on the outside of a soft cheese for a

few days or weeks. Goat’s milk cheeses are often treated in a similar manner. Sometime with

white molds (ChevreBoite) and sometime with blue.

2.2.7 Wash-Rind Cheeses

Wash-rind cheeses are soft in character and ripen inwards like those with white molds, however,

they are treated differently. Washed-rind cheese are periodically cured in a solution of saltwater

brine and or mold-bearing agents that may includes beer, wine, brandy and spices, making their

surfaces amendable to a class of bacteria brevi bacterium linens (the reddish-orange “smear

bacteria”) that impact pungent odours and produce a firm, flavourful rind around the cheese.

Wash rind cheeses can be soft (Limburger) semi hard, or hard (Appenzeller). The same bacteria

can also have impact on cheeses that are simply ripened in humid conditions, like camembert.

The process requires regular washings, particularly in the early stages of production, making it

quite labour-intensive compared to other methods of cheese-production.

2.2.8 Smear Ripened Cheeses

Some washed-rind cheeses are also smear ripened with solutions of bacteria or fungi, most

commonly Brevibacterium linens, Debary omyceshansenii, and or Geotrichumcandidum (A.Y.

Tamime 1991) which usually gives them a stronger flavour as the cheese matures (F, Patrick

1999) in some cases, older cheeses are smeared on toung cheeses to transfer the micro

organisms. Many, but not all of these cheeses have a distinctive pinkish or orange coloring of the

exterior. Unlike with other wash-rind cheeses, the washing is done to ensure uniform growth of

desired bacteria or fungi and to prevent the growth of undesired molds (A. Y Tamime, 2006).

Notable examples of smear-ripened cheeses include Munster and port salut.

2.2.9 Blue Cheeses

Blue cheese is created by inoculating a cheese with panicilliumroqueforti or penicilliumdlaucom.

This is done while the cheese is still in the form of loosely pressed curds, and may be further

enhanced by piercing a ripening block of cheese with skewers in an atmosphere which the mold

is prevalent. The mold grows within the cheese as it ages. These cheeses have distinct blue veins,

which gives them their name, and often, assertive flavours. The molds range from pale green to

dark blue, and may be accompanied by white and crusty brown molds. Their texture can be soft

or firm. Some of the most renowned cheeses are of this type, each with its own distinctive

colour, flavour, texture and aroma. They include Roquefort, Gorgonzola and Stillon.

2.2.10 Brined Cheese

Brined or picked cheese is mature in a solution of brine in an airtight or semi-permeable

container. This processes gives the cheeses good stability, inhibiting, bacteria growth even in hot

countries (Wiley B, 2006). Brined cheeses may be soft or hard, varying in moisture content, and

in colour and flavour, according to the type of milk used, though all will be rindless, and

generally taste clean, salt and acidic when fresh, developing some piquancy when aged, and most

will be white (Wiley B, 2006) varieties of brined cheese includes bryndza, feta, halloumi and

sirene (Wiley B, 2006). Brined cheese is the main type of cheese produced and eaten in the

Middle East and Mediterranean areas (A. Y Tamime 1991).

2.2.9 Processed Cheese

Processed cheese is made from traditional cheese and emulsifying salts, often with the addition

of milk, more salt preservatives, and food colouring. Its texture is consistent, and melts

smoothly. It is sold packaged and either pre-sliced or unsliced, in several varieties. Some are sold

as sausage-like logs and chipolatas (mostly in Germany and USA), and some are molded into the

shape of animals and objects. It is also available in aerosol cans in some countries. Some if not

most varieties of processed cheese are made using a combination of real cheese waste (which is

steam cleaned, boiled and further processed) whey powders, and various mixture of vegetable

and or palm oil and fats. Some processed cheese slice contain as little as 2-6%cheese, some have

smoke flavours added.

2.3 Composition of Cheese

Protein, 31.23%, fats, 34.39%, water, 30.17%, mineral matters, 4.31%. Cheese is the solid part of

sweet milk obtained by heating milk and coagulating it by means of rennet or an acid. Rennet is

an infusion made from prepared inner membrane of the fourth stomach of the calf. The curd is

salted and subjected to pressure. Cheese is made from skim milk, milk plus cream, or cream.

Cheese is kept for longer or shorter time, according to the kind, that fermentation or

decomposition may take place. This is called ripening. Some cream cheeses are not allowed to

ripen. Milk from jersey and Guernsey cows yields the largest amount of cheese.

Cheese is very valuable food, being rich in protein it may be used as a substitute for meat. A

pound of cheese is equal in protein to two pounds of beef. Cheese in the raw state is difficult of

digestion. This is somewhat overcome by cooking and adding a small amount of bi-carbonate of

soda. A small piece of rich cheese is often eaten to assist digestion.

The various brands of cheeses take heir names from the places where they are made (Rugg, G

eral 1975). The favorite kinds of milk cheeses are: Gloucester, Cheshire, Cheddar, and

Gorgonzola, milk and cream cheese: stilton and Double Gloucester, cream cheese Brie, Neuf-

chatel, and camembert.

Table2.1. Approximate composition of milk from various species of mammals

Animal Fat Casein Lactose Albumin Ash Water

Cow 3.75 3.0 4.75 0.4 0.75 87.3

Goat 6.0 3.3. 4.6 0.7 0.84 84.5

Ewe 9.0 4.6 4.7 1.1 1.0 79.6

Camel 3.0 3.5 5.5 1.7 1.5 84.8

buffalo 6.0 3.8 4.5 0.7 0.75 85.0

(Food and agricultural organization of the united nations, Rome, Italy

2.5 Nutritional Information of Cheese

Cheese is a concentrated source of many milk’s nutrients considering that it takes about 10

pounds (5quarts) of milk to make 1 pound of while milk cheese, cheese is a nutrient-dense food.

Cheese provides calories, high quality protein, vitamins such as A, Riboflavin (B2) and B2, and

minerals such as calcium, phosphorus and zinc.

The chart below gives the nutritional profile of some popular cheeses in common services. The

nutritional facts label on cheese products also provides nutritional information. For individuals

wishing to lower their calorie or fat intake, variety of low fat cheeses is available. These include:

2.5.1 Low Fat Cheese

3grams (g) or less fat per reference amount (1 or 2 for most cheeses, 4 or for cottage cheese)

2.5.2 Reduced-Fat Cheese

25% less fat per reference amount than its full fat counterpart.

2.5.3 Fat-Free Cheese

Less than 0.5gram (g) of fat per reference amount.

Table 2.2: NUTRITIONAL LOOK AT CHEESE

Serving size Calories kcal Fat g Calcium mg

American, pasteurized process 1 ounce 106 8.4 174

Cheddar 1 ounce 114 8.9 204

Cottage ½cup 81 1.1 68

Cream cheese 1 ounce 98 9.3 22

Mozzarella, part skim (low moisture) 1 ounce 79 4.6 207

Source: USDA Nutritional database for standard reference

Table 2.3 Nutrient in cheese and other foods per 100g of foods.

Food cheese Protein (g) Fat (g) Calcium

(g)

Iron (g) Vitamin

(mg)

Cheddar 26.0 33.5 800 0.5 0.04

Cottage 13.6 4.0 60 0.1 0.07

Yoghurt 5.0 1.0 180 0.09 0.09

Bread

Whole meal 8.8 2.7 23 2.5 0.26

Egg 12.3 10.9 52 2.0 0.09

Potato 2.1 0.1 8 0.5 0.11

Butter 0.4 82.0 15 0.16 0

Lambert J C.1988 FAO.

2.6 Cheese Varieties

There are many varieties of cheese, from cheddar to swiss, each with its own standard of identity

specified by the food and drug administration. Cheeses varieties are categorized as natural

cheese/pasteurized process cheese, food and cheese spread.

Natural cheese is made from a starter bacteria, rennet and milk and allowed to solidify. It may or

may not be aged. Each natural cheese varieties is processed, resulting in distinctive flavour and

qualities.

Pasteurized process cheese is prepared by grinding, blending and heating one or more natural

cheeses keeping quality. American cheese is an example of a pasteurized process of cheese

products, usually have good melting properties.

Cheese food is made by blending one or more cheeses without the use of heat plus the addition

of diary products such as cream, milk, skim milk or whey. Cheese food has a higher percentage

of moisture.

Cheese spread is similar to pasteurized process cheese food except that an edible stabilizer and

moisture are added. This allows for smooth spreading at room temperature.

Cheese lover interested in reducing their fat and can still enjoy a variety of lower-fat cheeses.

Cheese varies in fat content depending on the amount of milk-fat used to make the cheese.

Most natural cheeses freeze successfully for six to eight weeks. Hard cheeses freeze better than

soft cheeses. Freezing does change the texture, making semi-soft and hard cheeses more crumbly

and causing soft cheeses to separate slightly, but the flavour and nutritional value remain stable.

Thawed cheese is best used in cooked dishes. Cottage cheese is recommended for freezing as the

curd separates and becomes mushy. For all cheeses use in airtight, moisture-proof container or

cling wrap.

2.7 Storing Cheese

To maintain the original flavour, appearance and quality, unopened cheese products should be

stored in the refrigerator. To minimized moisture loss and odour exchange with other foods after

the cheese is opened, keep it tightly wrapped. Surface mold should be cut off approximately 1/2

inch from the surface, but use the cheese with one week.

Cheese is labeled with a “best if used by” date. This date is not an indication of safety but tells

you how long the product should retain its flavour and quality.

Types of cheese Moisture

content (%)

Fat content

(%)

Texture Shelf life

Soft cheeses 45-75 <40 Soft, white

spreadable

A few days

Semi-hard

cheeses

35-45 <35 Firm, crunby

can be sliced

A few

Months

Hard cheeses 30-40 <30 Very firm,

dense,

sometimes

grainy

One year or

more.

(Adapted from diary science and technology education)

2.8 Health and Nutrition of Cheese

The nutritional value of cheese varies widely. Cottage may consist of 4% fat and 11% protein,

some whey cheeses 15% fat and 11% protein (Anari cheese 2015) and some triple-cream cheeses

36% fat and 7% protein. In general, cheese supplies a great deal of calcium, protein, phosphorus

and fat. A 30-gram (1.102) serving of cheddar cheese contains about 7grams (0.2502) of protein

and 200 milligrams of calcium.

Nutritionally, cheese is essentially concentrated milk. It takes about 200grams (7.102) of milk to

provide that much protein, and 150grams (5.302) to equal the calcium (CNN initiative, 2004).

2.8.1 Heart Disease

A review of the medical literature published in 2012 noted that “cheese consumption is the

leading contributor of SF (saturated fat) in the U.S. diet, and therefore would be predicted to

increase LOLC (LDL cholesterol) and consequently increase the risk of CVD (cardiovascular

disease). “If found that”. Based on results from numerous prospective observational studies and

meta-analysis, most but not all, have shown no association and in some cases an inverse

relationship between the intake of milk fat containing the diary products and the risk of CVD,

CHD (coronary heart disease), and stroke. A limited number of prospective cohort studies found

no significant association between the intake of total-full fat diary products and the risk of CHD

or stroke. Most clinical studies showed that full natural cheese, a highly fermented product,

significantly lower LDL-C compared with butter intake of equal total fat and saturated fat

content. (Huth PJ, 2012).

2.8.2 Dental Health

Some studies claim that cheddar, mozzarella, swiss and American cheeses can help to prevent

tooth decay (specific health benefit of cheese, 2005). Several mechanisms for this protection

have been proposed.

The calcium, protein and phosphorus in cheese may act to protect tooth enamel.Cheese increases

saliva flow, washing away acids and sugars.

2.8.3 Effect on Sleep

A study by the British cheese board in 2005 to determine the effect of cheese upon sleep and

dreaming discovered that, contrary to the idea that cheese commonly causes nightmares, the

effect of cheese upon sleep was positive. The majority of the two hundred people tested over a

fortnight claimed beneficial results from consuming cheeses were tested and the findings were

that the dreams produced were specific to the types of cheese, although the apparent effects were

in some cases described as colourful and vivid, or cryptic, none of the cheese tested were found

to induce nightmares. However, the six cheeses were all British. The results might be entirely

different if a wider range of cheeses were tested (“A sleep study” 2005) cheese contains

tryptophan, an amino acid that has been found to relieve stress and induce sleep (Frank Hauser,

D.B, 2007).

2.8.4 Casein

Like other diary products, cheese contains casein, a substance that, when digested by humans,

breaks down into several chemicals, including casomorphine, an opioid peptide. In the early

1990s, it was hypothesized that autism can be caused or aggravated by opioid peptides. (Reichelt

K L, 1991). Studies supporting these claims have shown significant flaws, so the data are

inadequate to guide autism treatment recommendations (Christison G W, 2006).

2.8.5 Lactose

Cheese is often avoided by those who are lactose intolerant, but ripened cheese like cheddar

contain only about 5% of the lactose found in whole milk, and aged cheeses contain almost none

(A. D. A, 2005). Nevertheless, people with severe lactose intolerance should avoid eating dairy

cheese. As a natural product, the same kind of cheese may contain different amounts of lactose

on different accessions, causing unexpected painful reactions.

2.8.6 Hypertensive Effect

Patient taking anti-depressant drugs in the class of monoamine oxidase inhibitors are at risk from

suffering a reaction to foods containing large amounts of tryamine. Some aged cheeses contain

significant concentrations of tryamine, which cantrigger symptoms mimicking an allergic

reaction, headache, rashes and blood pressure elevations (W. B Saunders 1998).

2.9 History of milk

Humans first learned to regularly consume the milk of other mammals following the

domestication of animals during the Neolithic Revolution or the development of agriculture. This

development occurred independently in several places around the world from as early as 9000–

7000 BC in Southwest Asia to 3500–3000 BC in the Americas (Bellwood, 2005( The most

important dairy animals—cattle, sheep and goats—were first domesticated in Southwest Asia,

although domestic cattle had been independently derived from wild aurochs populations several

times since. Initially animals were kept for meat, and archaeologist Andrew Sherratt has

suggested that dairying, along with the exploitation of domestic animals for hair and labor, began

much later in a separate secondary products revolution in the fourth millennium BC. Sherratt's

model is not supported by recent findings, based on the analysis of lipid residue in prehistoric

pottery, that shows that dairying was practiced in the early phases of agriculture in Southwest

Asia, by at least the seventh millennium BC (Vigne, 2007).

From Southwest Asia domestic dairy animals spread to Europe (beginning around 7000 BC but

not reaching Britain and Scandinavia until after 4000 BC) (Price, 2000) and South Asia (7000–

5500 BC). The first farmers in central Europe and Britain milked their animals. Pastoral and

pastoral nomadic economies, which rely predominantly or exclusively on domestic animals and

their products rather than crop farming, were developed as European farmers moved into the

Pontic-Caspian steppe in the fourth millennium BC, and subsequently spread across much of the

Eurasian steppe Sheep and goats were introduced to Africa from Southwest Asia, but African

cattle may (Anthony, 2007) have been independently domesticated around 7000–6000 BC.

Camels, domesticated in central Arabia in the fourth millennium BC, have also been used as

dairy animals in North Africa and the Arabian Peninsula. The earliest Egyptian records of burn

treatments describe burn dressings using milk from mothers of male babies. In the rest of the

world (i.e., East and Southeast Asia, the Americas and Australia) milk and dairy products were

historically not a large part of the diet, either because they remained populated by hunter-

gatherers who did not keep animals or the local agricultural economies did not include

domesticated dairy species. Milk consumption became common in these regions comparatively

recently, as a consequence of European colonialism and political domination over much of the

world in the last 500 years (Pecanac, 2013).

In the Middle Ages, milk was called the "virtuous white liquor" because alcoholic beverages

were more safe to consume than water (Valenze, 2011).

The growth in urban population coupled with the expansion of the railway network in the mid-

19th century, brought about a revolution in milk production and supply. Individual railway firms

began transporting milk from rural areas to London from the 1840s and 1850s. Possibly the first

such instance was in 1846, when St Thomas's Hospital in Southwark contracted with milk

suppliers outside London to provide milk by rail. The Great Western Railway was an early and

enthusiastic adopter, and began to transport milk into London from Maidenhead in 1860, despite

much criticism. By 1900, the company was transporting over 25 million gallons annually. The

milk trade grew slowly through the 1860s, but went through a period of extensive, structural

change in the 1870s and 1880s

Urban demand began to grow, as consumer purchasing power increased and milk became

regarded as a required daily commodity. Over the last three decades of the 19th century, demand

for milk in most parts of the country doubled, or in some cases, tripled. Legislation in 1875 made

the adulteration of milk illegal - this combined with a marketing campaign to change the image

of milk. The proportion of rural imports by rail as a percentage of total milk consumption in

London grew from under 5% in the 1860s to over 96% by the early 20th century. By that point,

the supply system for milk was the most highly organized and integrated of any food product.

The first glass bottle packaging for milk was used in the 1870s. The first company to do so may

have been the New York Dairy Company in 1877. The Express Dairy Company in England

began glass bottle production in 1880. In 1884, Hervey Thatcher, an American inventor from

New York, invented a glass milk bottle, called 'Thatcher's Common Sense Milk Jar', which was

sealed with a waxed paper disk. Later, in 1932, plastic-coated paper milk cartons were

introduced commercially (About.com, 2010).

In 1863, French chemist and biologist Louis Pasteur invented pasteurization, a method of killing

harmful bacteria in beverages and food products. He developed this method while on summer

vacation in Arbois, to remedy the frequent acidity of the local wines. He found out

experimentally that it is sufficient to heat a young wine to only about 50–60 °C (122–140 °F) for

a brief time to kill the microbes, and that the wine could be nevertheless properly aged without

sacrificing the final quality. In honor of Pasteur, the process became known as "pasteurization".

Pasteurization was originally used as a way of preventing wine and beer from souring.

Commercial pasteurizing equipment was produced in Germany in the 1880s, and the process had

been adopted in Copenhagen and Stockholm by 1885 (Hwang, 2009).

2.9.1 Sources of milk

The females of all mammal species can by definition produce milk, but cow's milk dominates

commercial production. In 2011, FAO estimates 85% of all milk worldwide was produced from

cows (Gerosa, 2012).

Human milk is not produced or distributed industrially or commercially; however, human milk

banks collect donated human breastmilk and redistribute it to infants who may benefit from

human milk for various reasons (premature neonates, babies with allergies, metabolic diseases)

but who cannot breastfeed. In the Western world, cow's milk is produced on an industrial scale

and is by far the most commonly consumed form of milk. Commercial dairy farming using

automated milking equipment produces the vast majority of milk in developed countries. Dairy

cattle such as the Holstein have been bred selectively for increased milk production. About 90%

of the dairy cows in the United States and 85% in Great Britain are Holsteins. Other dairy cows

in the United States include Ayrshire, Brown Swiss, Guernsey, Jersey and Milking Shorthorn

(Dairy Shorthorn) (McGee, 2004).

Other significant sources of milk

Goats (2% of world's milk)

Buffaloes (11%)

Aside from cattle, many kinds of livestock provide milk used by humans for dairy products.

These animals include buffalo, goat, sheep, camel, donkey, horse, reindeer and yak. The first

four respectively produced about 11%, 2%, 1.4% and 0.2% of all milk worldwide in 2011

(Gerosa, 2012).

2.9.2 Goat Milk

Milk is a white liquid produced by the mammary glands of mammals. It is theprimary source of

nutrition for young mammals before they are able to digest other types of food. Milk contains

many nutrients and the carbohydrate lactose. Throughout the world, there are more than six

billion consumers of milk and milk products. Over 750 million people live within dairy farming

households Pehrssonet. al, 2000, Hemme et. Al, 2010.

Cow milk is what comes to mind for most people when thinking about what to put on their cereal

and for making cheese, yogurt, kefir, ice cream, and the many other types of dairy products.

Some may be surprised to learn that goat milk is very prevalent and commonly found on kitchen

tables in many cultures around the world. Goat milk is as versatile as cow milk in just about

every area. There are several factors that influence people in their personal preference of goat or

cow milk for drinking, cheese-making, culturing, baking, or cooking.

Goat milk is milk derived from goat’s, rather than the more common source of milk in most

countries, cows. While goat milk may be harder to acquire in terms of availability and access in

some parts of the world, the impressive health benefits of goat milk and the recent research into

its positive effects on the human body have made it a very popular choice in recent years.

Although goats only produce about 2% of the global milk supply, it is cheaper to process, due to

it not requiring homogenization (the small fat molecules do not separate and remain suspended in

the cream).Certain studies have recommended that goat milk not be given to very young

children, due to their unique nutritional needs in their developmental stages, but as we age, the

chemical composition and impact of goat milk on our body is actually preferable to the effects of

cow milk. For example, people who suffer from lactose intolerance can digest goat milk far

better than cow milk due to its much higher levels of beneficial fatty acids (twice that of cow

milk). Goat milk is commonly processed into cheeses, butter, ice cream, and yoghurts, many of

which are considered delicacies due to their high buttermilk content and rich consistency.

2.9.3 Health Benefits of Goat Milk

Build Strong Bones: This is one of the most common characteristics of all forms of milk, and the

main reason why we tell our children that milk is so important. Milk of all varieties is rich in

calcium, and goat milk is no exception. In addition, goat milk gives you comparable amounts of

calcium as cow milk without so many of the side effects, ensuring that our calcium deposits stay

rich and stable, and our bones don’t experience bone mineral density loss as we age, thereby

helping to prevent osteoporosis.

Anti-Inflammatory Properties: One reason why people tend to love goat milk is that they are able

to enjoy it without the common inflammation and upset stomachs that cow milk so often causes.

This is due to the unique enzymatic make-up of goat milk that soothes inflammation in the gut.

Research is ongoing to see whether these anti-inflammatory properties extend to other areas of

the body, but one thing is for certain, it’s definitely better for your stomach!

Nutrient Uptake Efficiency: One of the main benefits of goat milk is that the chemical

composition is far closer to human milk than cow milk. Essentially, humans are designed to be

breast-fed, just like goats and cows, but human milk is similar to goat milk, so our bodies are

able to get more nutrients out of the milk as it moves through our system and it causes less stress

on our digestive processes.

Metabolism Booster: Goat milk is far more nutrient-dense than cow milk, meaning that you

don’t need as much of it to receive the same (or better) nutrient intake. A single cup provides

nearly 40% of our daily calcium requirements, 20% of our vitamin B intake, as well as

significant amounts of potassium and phosphorous. Furthermore, studies have shown that goat

milk can help increase the uptake of iron and copper in our digestive tract, which is essential for

people who struggle with anemia and other nutrient deficiencies.

Heart Health: There are nearly twice as many beneficial fatty acids in goat milk as can be found

in cow milk, which means that our cholesterol balance can be helped significantly by goat milk.

By balancing our essential fatty acids in the body, we can prevent atherosclerosis, strokes, heart

attacks, and other coronary complications.

The high potassium levels in goat milk also help to reduce blood pressure, as potassium is a

vasodilator that relaxes blood vessels and relieves tension on the cardiovascular system.

Immunity Booster: Trace amounts of selenium are found in cow milk, but there are also

significant amounts in goat milk. This somewhat rare mineral is a key component in immune

system functionality, making us better able to protect ourselves from illness and fend off

infections.

Growth and Development: Goat milk is a very rich source of protein, which is an essential part

of growth and development, as proteins are the building blocks of cells, tissue, muscle, and bone.

By ensuring a steady stream of protein, we protect our metabolic processes and stimulate growth

and overall good health.

Weight Loss Efforts: Although goat milk has more fatty acids than cow milk, it actually has less

“bad” fats, meaning that it can help people who want to lose weight, without compromising their

nutritional needs.

Environmental Protection: Due to the digestive processes of cows, they tend to suffer from

extreme flatulence, which comes out in the form of methane. This gas is highly corrosive to the

atmosphere and the ozone layer; environmental scholars actually suggest that the millions of

cows raised for beef and milk are a major player in ozone degradation and global warming. By

supporting goat milk production, we can protect future generations and ourselves from the

dangerous effects of climate change!

A Final Word of Warning: Due to the different nutrient composition of goat milk from cow milk,

it is not recommended to immediately give your children goat milk once they stop breast or

bottle-feeding. As they get older, the nutrient composition of goat milk becomes more

appropriate, but for proper development, it is wise to begin with cow milk

2.9.3.1 Taste

The distinctive flavor of goat cheese has earned its niche in the world of delicacy flavors found

in fine delis, restaurants, and gourmet supermarkets. For some, that distinctive taste is the reason

for a preference for goat milk products; for others it is a reason to prefer cow milk! In the world

of raw and cultured milk, fresh goat and cow milk can have basically the same taste due to their

similar compositions, or can be quite different. This can depend on proper processing and

handling of the milk as well as the diet of the animal. Many say the taste of goat milk is slightly

sweeter than that of cow milk. However, mass-produced goat milk sold in most stores can be

have a “goaty” taste due to different methods of processing, packaging, and pasteurization.

2.9.3.2 Appearance

Goats convert the carotene in their diet to vitamin A more efficiently than cows do, producing

whiter milk, cream, and butter. Those who prefer a classic yellow hue to their butter may use

annatto (cheese coloring) to add color back in during processing.

2.9.3.3 Consistency

It takes the milk of approximately five to ten goats to equal the production of one cow. However,

once the milk has been extracted from the animal, the difference in consistency of cow milk

compared to goat milk is minor. The amount of cream in goat milk is not insignificant; however,

the fat globules in goat milk are much smaller than those in cow milk resulting in the cream

remaining suspended throughout the milk instead of rising to the top. In addition, goat milk does

not contain agglutinin, the compound in cow milk that enables the fat globules to cluster and rise

to the top. Due to this natural homogenization, a cream separator is generally used if goat cream

is desired. One may prefer using raw cow milk when making butter, sour cream, and similar

items due to the ease of separating the cream from the milk.

2.9.3.4 Nutrition

Goat milk is an excellent alternative to cow ilk.The composition of any type of milk can vary

depending on the animal’s breed, diet, environment, and point in the lactation period, but on

average, this is how cow milk and goat milk compare:

2.9.3.5 Digestion

The smaller fat globules in goat milk result in a smaller and softer curd, enabling digestive

enzymes to break it down more rapidly.Goat milk also has higher levels of short- and medium-

chain fatty acids, rendering a faster and easier digestion process as well as producing quicker

energy.Many people prefer goat milk for these reasons.

2.9.3.6 Lactose Tolerance

The sugar in milk is called lactose. Some people have low levels of the enzyme lactase, which is

responsible for digesting lactose, and are therefore “lactose intolerant.” The symptoms of lactose

intolerance include mild to extreme discomfort, so lactose-intolerant individuals often choose to

eliminate anything containing lactose from their diet. Goat milk contains less lactose than cow

milk, which may make it a better option for those with mild lactose sensitivities. Individuals

concerned about lactose tolerance are advised to consult with their health care practitioners

regarding the advisability of consuming any dairy products.

2.9.3.7 Allergy

A milk allergy is a physical reaction to one or more of the proteins within milk, the most

common being alpha S1-casein, found in both goat and cow milk. Most milk found in stores has

been pasteurized, killing the live enzymes and nutrients needed to aid in digestion and absorption

of the milk. Allergic individuals may also react to any hormones or antibiotics contained in the

milk.

Since allergies are generally quite protein-specific, there have been cases where those who are

allergic to cow milk have been able to tolerate raw goat milk as a substitute. Those people

affected by milk allergies may also benefit by the introduction of fermented foods into their

diets, including cultured dairy, since the large amounts of probiotics and powerful enzymes

developed through the fermentation process can aid and strengthen gut flora and the health of the

immune system. The proteins in the milk are broken down during the fermentation process

making for greater acceptance into the digestion process of a person with a milk allergy.

Individuals concerned about milk allergies are advised to consult with their health care

practitioners regarding the advisability of consuming any dairy products.

2.9.4 Goat Milk vs. Cow Milk

Whether you choose cow or goat milk is often a matter of preference, because these two milks

are similar in nutrition content and both may provide you with health benefits. Some people

prefer the taste of goat's milk over cow's milk and vice versa. There are a few subtle differences

between these two types of milk.

2.9.4.1 Nutrition Composition

Cow and goat milk provide similar nutritional benefits and essential nutrients. Low-fat cow's

milk and goat's milk are both rich in dietary protein, calcium, potassium, vitamin A, and vitamin

D. They both contain about 8 grams of protein, 2.5 grams of total fat, 10 to 12 grams of

carbohydrates, about 10 milligrams of cholesterol, and about 100 milligrams of sodium.

2.9.4.2 Calorie Content

Low-fat goat milk contains slightly fewer calories (90 calories) than low-fat cow's milk, which

provides 110 calories in each 1-cup serving. However, low-fat goat milk is comparable to fat-

free cow's milk, which also contains about 90 calories per cup.

2.9.4.2 Digestibility Considerations

If you are lactose intolerant and suffer unpleasant side effects after drinking cow milk, such as

abdominal cramps, bloating, gas, nausea and diarrhea, you may have better luck with goat milk.

This is because goat milk may be easier to digest than cow's milk, according to MedlinePlus.

However, keep in mind that lactose-free cow's milk is widely available, and generally well

tolerated by people with lactose intolerance. Overall Health Benefits

Both cow and goat milk may provide you with several health benefits. Because these two milks

are rich in protein, they help fill you up and may aid in healthy weight management. Because

they are both excellent sources of calcium, they support bone health as well.

A review published in 2013 in World Review of Nutrition and Dietetics reports that both milks

may help protect against colorectal cancer, and that goat's milk isn't better or worse than cow's

milk.

2.10 Pasteurization

A number of food safety agencies around the world have warned of the risk of raw milk cheeses.

The U.S food and drug administration state that soft raw milk cheeses can cause “serious

infectious diseases including listeiosis, brucellosis, and tuberculosis (Buzby. J 2005) it is U.S law

since 1944 that all raw milk cheeses (including imports since 1951) must be aged at least 60

days. Australia has a wide ban on raw milk cheeses as well, though in recent years exceptions

have been made for swiss Gruyere, Emmental and Sbrinz, and for rench Roquefort (Chris M,

2005). There is a trend for cheeses to be pasteurized even when not required by law.

Compulsory pasteurization is controversial, pasteurization does change the flavour of cheeses,

and unpasteurized cheeses are often considered to have better flavour, so there are reasons to

pasteurized all cheeses. Some say that health concerns are overstated, or that milk pasteurization

does not ensure cheese safety (Janet F, 2011).

Pregnant women may face an additional risk from cheese, the U.S centre for disease control has

warned pregnant women apaist eating soft-ripened cheeses and blue-veined cheeses, due to the

listeria risk, which can cause miscarriage or harn of foetus during birth.(Listeria 2006).

2.11 Cheese Coagulants

Rennet is a complex of enzymes produced in stomach of ruminant mammals which is used in the

production of most cheeses. Chymosin, its key component, is a protease enzyme that curdles the

casein in milk, helping young mammals digest their mother’s milk. It can also be used to

separate milk ito solid curds used for cheese making and liquid whey. In addition to chymosin,

rennet contains other important enzymes in it such as pepsin and a lipase. These are non-animal

sources of rennet that are suitable for consumption by vegetarians.

2.11.1 Lime

Lime is a citrus fruit. The juice fruit, peel and oil are used to make medicine, oil pressed from the

crushed fruit is known as distilled lime oil (James, 1996).

2.11.1.1 Uses of Lime

The chemical industrial uses of lime in the production of variety of chemicals including sodium

alkalis, calcium, carbide, cyndine, citric acid, petro chemicals, propylene, glycol glycerin,

magnesia, calcium hypochlorite and many others. These chemicals are used in virtually every

product in the United States (Kanerva, 2000). A growing use for lime is the production of

precipitated calcium carbonate, which is used in the production of paper, paint, plastic, rubber

and purification of water (Kanerva, 2000).

2.11.1.2 Lemon

Lemon is a small evergreen tree native to Asia. The tree’s ellipsoidal yellow fruit is used for

culinary and non-culinary purposes throughout the world, primarily for its juice, though the pulp

and rind zest are also used in cooking and baking. The juice of the lemon is about 5% to 6%

citric acid, which gives lemons a sour taste. The distinctive sour taste of lemon juice is a key

ingredient in drinks and foods such as lemonade and lemon meringue pie.

2.11.1.3 Uses and Pharmacology of Lemon

The peel, pulp and seeds are used to make oils, pectin or other products. It has long been used as

an astringent, diaphoretic, diuretic, gargle, lotion and tonic (Ensminger A, etal 1994).

Application of lemon juice in conjunction with exposure to sunlight was once though to fade

tattoos, but this theory was disproven (Carper J,1994). Lemon has also been used externally for

acne, fungus (ringworm and athlete’s foot), sunburn and warts (Chevallier, 1996).

Lemon juice and lemon oil have been evacuated for antimicrobial action. The oil shows some

bacteriostatic and antiviral action though to be due to citral and linalool content (Fisher K,

2006).

Lemon has been shown to inhibit the growth of Aspergillus mold (Ballot D, 1987) and has been

used to disinfect drinking water (Alderman GG, 1976) and to inactivate rabies virus (Aquino,

1994).

Pharmacologically, the lemon is primarily important for its vitamin c and potassium content.

Epidemological studies associate the intake of citrus fruit with a reduction in the risk of various

diseases (Manners GD 2007) (Miyake Y, 1998).

2.11.2 Moringa Oleifera Seeds

Moringa oleifera seeds are produced annually in the tropical and subtropical countries of Asia

and Africa. Like the rest of the plant, they are highly valued, as they give us incredibly nutritious

moringa tree. The moringaoleifera tree also known as the as the tree of life, and has a host of

nutritive uses for both people and livestock alike (Zarkada, 2005).

2.11.2.1 Uses of Moringa Oleifera Seeds

Fresh Moringa seeds are usually quite soft and yield with stronq pressure. If the Moringa seeds

are to be used for oil extraction, the seeds are harvested and immediately processed.

The fresh soft seeds are broken into process and heated with water and they are pressed for oil.

Moringa seeds contain between 30-42% and the pressed cake obtained as a byproduct of oil

extraction process contains a very high level of protein some of these proteins are active cationic

poly electrolyte that neutralized the colloids in muddy water since the majority of these colloids

have negative electric charge. This protein can therefore be used in the purification of drinking

water (Zarkadas, 2005).

2.11.3 Alum and Its Uses

Alums are useful for a range of industrial processes. They are soluble in water; have a sweetish

taste; reactacid to litmus; and crystallize in regular octahedra. When heated they liquefy; and if

the heating is continued, the water of crystallization is driven off, the salt froths and swells, and

at last an amorphous powder remains. They are astringent and acidic. Potassium alum is the

common alum of commerce, although soda alum, ferric alum, and ammonium alum are

manufactured.

Alum has been used at least since Roman times for purification of drinking water[2] and industrial

process water. Between 30 and 40 ppm of alum[2][3] for household wastewater, often more for

industrial wastewater,[4] is added to the water so that the negatively charged colloidal particles

clump together into "flocs", which then float to the top of the liquid, settle to the bottom of the

liquid, or can be more easily filtered from the liquid, prior to further filtration and disinfection of

the water.

Alum solution has the property of dissolving steels while not affecting aluminium or base metals,

and can be used to recover workpieces made in these metals with broken toolbits lodged inside

them.[5] As considerable expense and/or effort may have gone into machining a specialist part,

this can be a worthwhile exercise.

2.11.4 Tsamiya (Tamarind)

Tamarind, tamarindusindica is a multipurpose tropical fruit tree used primarily for its fruits

which are eaten or processed, used as a seasoning or spice, or fruits and seeds are a seasoning or

spice, or fruits and seeds are processed for non-food uses. Tamarind is known as tsamiya in

Nigeria and belongs to the dicotyledonous family lequminosaewhich is the third largest family of

flowering plants.

Whole tamarind seed and kernels are rich in protein (13-20%) and the seed coat is rich in fibre

(20%) and tannins 20%.

It also contains 14-18% albuminoid tannins located in the testa. Tamarind seed in a by product of

the commercial utilization of the fruit, however, it has several uses. In the past the seeds have

been wasted. In 1942, two Indian scientist, T.P Ghose and S.Krishma announced that the

secorticated kernels contained 46-48% of a gel-forming substance. Dr. G.R savur of the pectin

manufacturing company, Bombay, patented a process for the production of a purified product,

called Jellose; polyose; or pectin, which was found to be superior to other methods of fruits

presentation. The substance gelatirizes with sugar concentrates even in cold water or milk (Savur

1998). It has been recommended for use as a stabilizer in ice-cream, mayonnaise and cheese and

as an ingredient or agen in a number of pharmaceutical products. (Savur, 1998).

2.12 Other Ingredients

2.12.1 Salt

Salt is a mineral that is composed of sodium chloride NaCl, a chemical compound belonging to

the larger class of ionic states. It is essential for animal life in small quantities, harmful when in

excess. It is the oldest, most unique food seasoning and important in food preservation. The taste

of the salt (saltiness) is one of the basic human tastes (Carolyn et al 1983)

2.12.2 Vegetable Oil

Vegetable oil can be narrowly defined as referring only to plant oils that can be liquid at room

temperature. Vegetable oil are triglycerides exracted from plant, such oil have been part of human

culture for millennia (Archaeo 2006)

Edible vegetable oil are used in food, both for cooking and as supplements. Many oil, edible and

otherwise, are burned as fuel, such as in oil lamps and as a substitute for petroleum based fuels.

Some of the many other uses include wood finishing, oil painting, and skin care.

CHAPTER THREE

3.0MATERALS AND METHODS

3.1 Materials

Fresh goat milk was gotten from sango market kakuri other ingredent lime, lemon, alum,

tsamiya, moringa seeds and salt were purchased from Sheik Abubakar Mahmud Gumi Central

market, Kaduna, Kaduna state.

3.2 Equipment

The equipment used for the experiment were obtained from the Food Processing workshop store

of Department of Food Technology, Kaduna Polytechnic, Kaduna. They are: Weighing balance,

Milling machine, Hot plate, Water bath, Glassware, Thermometer, Measuring cylinder, utensils,

cooking pots, spoons, wooden stirrer, stoves, knifes, bowls, muslin cloths, juice extractor,

3.3 Methods

3.3.1 Preparation of Coagulants

3.3.1.1 Moringa Oleifera

Moringa oleifera seeds were dehulled after which it was weighed and was transferred into a pot

to be toasted for 3 minutes. The seeds were milled to powdered form; the oil was extracted by

manual method. The defatted seed cake was then used as a coagulant.

Moringa oleifera seeds

Dehulled

Sorting

Toasting (3minutes)

Dry milling

Extraction (manually)

Moringa oleifera seeds cake extract.

Fig.3.1 Flow Chart for the Preparation of Moringa Seed Cake Coagulant

3.3.1.2 Tamarind pulp Tsamiya

The dry tamarind seeds also known as tsamiya was sorted, then the seeds was soaked in water for

2hours. The seeds were separated from the juice and the juice was used as a coagulant.

Tamarind seeds

Sorting

Soaking (2hrs)

Sifting (removal of seeds)

Tamarind pulp

Fig. 3.2 Flow Chart For The Preparation Of Tamarind Pulp (Tsamiya)

3.3.1.3 Lime

The lime fruits were cut into halves and the juice was extracted from the fruits by hand

squeezing. The extract was passed through a sieve and the collected filtrate was used as a

coagulant.

3.3.1.4 Lemon

The lemon fruits were cut into halves and the juice was extracted from the fruits by hand

squeezing. The extract was passed through a sieve and the collected filtrate as used as a

coagulant.

3.3.1.5 Alum

The alum was ground into powder form and was then used as a coagulant

3.4 Formulation

SAMPLE Milk(ml) Alum Tamarind Moringa

Seed

Lemon Lime

ALC 400 26.6g - - - -

TAC 400 - 500.0g - - -

MOC 400 - 133.0g

LEC 400 - - - 510.0g -

LIC 400 - - - - 630.0g

3.5. Method of Production of Cheese From Fresh Goat Milk

3.5.1 Pasteurization

40 millilitre of milk was weighed and transferred into a clean pot and where it was pasteurized

into at 800c for 15 minutes.

3.5.2. Stirring:

The milk was stirred continuously to prevent burning of the milk.

3.5.3. Addition of coagulants:

Prior to pasteurization the milk was divided into four (4) equal portions, and to each portion

coagulants (Lime, Lemon, Alum, Tamarind, Moringa seed cake extract) were added.

3.5.4. Stirring:

After the addition of the coagulants, there was a formation of curd, it was stirred to properly

separate the curd from the whey.

3.5.5. Draining:

The curds formed at the top were transferred into the muslin cloth. The curds were allowed to

drain through the muslin cloth.

3.5.6. Pressing:

The muslin cloth was folded over the curd; it was pressed to expel the whey from it.

3.5.7. Mixing:

The curds and salts were mixed properly in the muslin cloth to allow even distribution of the salt

in the curd.

3.5.8. Pressing:

The muslin cloth was again folded over the curd and it was pressed to remove extra moisture

from it.

3.5.9. Cutting:

The curd formed was cut into regular shapes.

3.5.10. Packaging:

The curds formed was fried and packaged in polyethylene bags

3.5.11. Storage:

The curd was stored in the refrigerator at about 40c until it is needed.

Fresh goat milk

Pasteurization (at 80oc (175of ) for 15 minutes)

Coagulation Addition of coagulants

Stirring (until curd formation)

Cooling

Draining

Pressing cheese whey

Mixing salting

Pressing

Cheese

Cutting

Packaging/frying

Storage.

Fig 3.1 Flow chart for cheese production from fresh goat milk.

3.5 Sensory Evaluation

Sensory analysis (or sensory evaluation) is a scientific discipline that applies principles of

experimental design and statistical analysis to the use of human senses (sight, smell, taste, touch

and hearing) for the purposes of evaluating consumer products. The discipline requires panels of

human assessors, on whom the products are tested, and recording the responses made by them.

By applying statistical techniques to the results it is possible to make inferences and insights

about the products under test.

After the production the sample was labeled Tamarind cheese (TAC), Lemon cheese (LEM),

Moringa cheese (MOC), Alum cheese (ALC), Lime cheese (LIC).10 panelists were presented

with the samples to analyze based on the following quality characteristics: texture, color, flavor,

aroma, taste and overall acceptability. These were done using the 9 points hedonic scale. The

results were analyzed statistically using ANOVA.

CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 Result and Discussion

Result and discussion of sensory evaluation that was carried out on the production of cheese

made from fresh goat milk using Alum, Tamarind, Moringa seed cake extract, Lime, and Lemon

as coagulants

Table 4.1 Summary Result of Sensory Evaluation

Sample Color Aroma/Flavor Texture Taste Overall Acceptability

ALC 7.5a 7.3a 7.3a 7.0a 7.4a

TAC 7.4a 6.9a 7.3a 7.3a 7.5a

MOC 6.7a 7.0a 7.1a 7.0a 7.3a

LIC 7.1a 6.7a 6.9a 6.1a 7.8a

LEC 7.5a 7.3a 7.0a 7.7a 7.5a

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Means represented by the same superscript (a) in the same column are not significantly different

The result of sensory evaluation shows that there is no significant difference (p>0.05) in the

colour , texture, aroma, flavor, taste and overall acceptability

Table 4.2Result of Cheese Yield From Fresh Goat Milk

SAMPLES MASS OF

MILK (kg)

VOLUME (V)

ml

MASS OF

CURD (kg)Yield=

mass of curdmass of milk

×100 %

MOC 0.4116 400 0.185 44.9%

TAC 0.4116 400 0.185 44.9%

ALC 0.4116 400 0.150 36.4%

LIC 0.4116 400 0.150 36.4%

LEC 0.4116 400 0.100 24.3%

4.1 Discussion

The table 4.2 above shows the result the yield of the product. It is produced into samples

ALC(36.4%), TAC(44.9%), MC(44.9%),LEC(24.3%), LIC(36.4%).LIC and ALC gave the

highest yield of 36.4% followed by LEC(24.3%) while Tamarind and Moringa gave the least

yield of 44.9% curd. Table 4.1 above represents the summary of the analysis of variance

(ANOVA) of taste, texture, colour, aroma and overall acceptability of products. The results for

analysis of variance shows that calculated variance ratio f*_value is lesser than the tabulated f_

value in colour, aroma, texture, taste and over all acceptability which shows that there is no

significant difference in colour, texture, taste, aroma and overall acceptability at 5% level of

significance.

CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Conclusion

At the end of the experiment, I concluded that cheese of acceptable sensory qualities can be

produced from goat milk using lime juice, lemon juice, Moringa seed cake extract, or alum as

coagulant. This indicated that each coagulant have almost the same effect on the key quality

attributes of cheese such as its curdling and sensory properties.

5.2 Recommendation

I strongly recommend that Kaduna Polytechnic management upgrade the facilities in the Quality

Control Unit such that it will be connected to a standby power supply in case of power outage

I recommend that further studies be carried out on the suitable packaging material for cheese,

microbiological qualities, proximate composition among others

I recommend also the consumption of cheese from goat milk for everyone as a natural remedy

for stomach inflammation.

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APPENDIX III

Texture

Judges ALC TAC MOC LIC LEC TOTAL

1 7 8 7 6 8 36

2 8 7 6 6 8 35

3 8 8 7 8 8 39

4 7 7 7 7 7 35

5 8 8 8 6 6 36

6 8 8 8 8 6 38

7 8 7 6 8 8 37

8 7 5 6 7 7 32

9 4 7 8 5 5 29

10 8 8 8 8 7 39

Total 73 73 71 69 70 356

Mean 7.3 7.3 7.1 6.9 7.0

I. =35625∗10 =

12673650 =2534.72

❑

II. Ss3 = 732+732+712+692+702

10 _2534.72

=5329+5329+5041+476 14900

102534 .72

=2536_2534.72

=1.28

III.SSJ=362+352+392+352+362+382+372+322+292+392/5__2534.72

=1296+1225+1521+1225+1296+1444+1369+1024+841+154/5__2534.72

=2552.4__2534.72

=17.68

IV. Sum or square total

Sst=(72+82+72----------72)-cf

82*23-64*23=1472

72 *15=49*15=735

62 *8=25*8=288

52*3=25*3=75

42 *1=16*1

50=16

v.=(1472+735+288+73+16)_2534.72

=2586-2534.72

=51.28

V.sum or square error

Sst=sst-sss-ssj

=51.28_17.68

=32.32

Vi. mean square

Ms for sample=sssdfs =

1.284 =o.32

Ms for indges=ssjdfs =

17.689 =1.96

Ms for total=51.38

49 =1.05

Ms for error =32.32

36 =0.9

ANOVA table

Sources or variation df ss ms f.=msms error

Sample 4 1.28 0.32 0.36

Indges 9 17.68 1.96 2.2

Total 49 51.28 1.05 1.2

Error 36 32.32 0.9

F calculated=0.36

F table=df under error ex. 4/36

Since 36 is not found on the chart, the table is calculated using interpolation

F calculated =0.367

F table =2.36

Since f table in greater than the f calculated at 5% lead there for there is no significant difference

between the texture or the sample

TASTE

Judges ALC TAC MOC LIC LEC TOTAL

1 7 9 7 6 9 38

2 6 8 8 9 9 40

3 6 8 8 6 7 35

4 7 7 7 8 8 37

5 8 8 8 3 6 33

6 8 8 7 7 7 37

7 9 8 7 5 8 37

8 6 5 6 7 7 31

9 4 4 5 4 8 25

10 9 8 7 6 8 38

TOTAL 70 73 70 61 77 351

MEAN7.0 7.3 7.0 6.1 7.7

Analysis of variance ANOVA

i. Cf=( total)2

no .of sample × no . of judge¿

¿

= 351 25× 10

= 12320150

=2464.02

ii. SSS = (totalof sample) 2nosof judges

_ CF

=702+732+702+612+772 _ 2464.02

10

=4900+5329+490+3721+5929 _ 2464.02

10

=24779 _ 2464.02

10

=2477.9-2464.02

=13.88

iii. sun of square of judges SSJ

SSJ =(total of judges)2

no of sample _CF

= 382

+402+35

2+37

2+33

2+37

2+37

2+31

2+25

2

+382/5 2464.02

1444+1600+1225+1369+1089+1369+1369+

961+625+144/5 – 2464.02

=124955

-2464. 02

=2499 -2464.02

= 34.98

iv. sum of square of total

ssj = (72+92+72-----82)----cf

92 * 6 = 81 * 6 = 486

82 * 16 =64 * 16 = 1024

72 * 13 = 49 * 13 =637

62 * 8 = 36 * 8 = 288

52 * 3 = 25 * 3 = 75

42 * 3 = 16 * 3 = 48

32*1=9*150=9

; ss1=(486+1024+637+288+75+48+9)-2464-0=2567-2464.02

=102.98

Sum or error (SSE)

SSE=SST-SSS-SSJ

=102.98-13.88-34.98

=54.12

v. Reg.or freedom (df)Df or sample=nos of a sample – 1

5-1 = 4df of judges = no of judges -1

10 – 1= 9df of total = no of total -1

50 – 1= 49df of error = dfT- dfs- dfj

49 – 4 – 9 = 36vi. Mean square

vii. MS for sample=sssdfs =

13.884 = 3.47

MS for judges =ssjdft =

34.9849 =3.89

MS for total =sstdft =

102.9849 =2.10

MS for error =ssedfe =

54.1236 =1.50

ANOVA TASTE

Sources of variation df SS MS f=msms error

Sample 4 13.88 3.47 2.31

Judges 9 34.98 3.38 2.59

Total 46 102.98 2.10 1.4

Error 36 54.12 1.5

F calculated =2.31

F table =df under error xe 4/36

Since 36 is not found on the chart, the f table is calculated using interpolation

F calculated =2.31

F table =2.63

Since f calculated is lesser than f table value at 5% level, there foe there is no significant

difference between the taste or the sample

Aroma/ Flavour

Judges ALC TIC MOC LIC LEC Total

1 8 8 7 6 9 38

2 8 6 7 8 7 36

3 6 8 8 7 6 35

4 8 8 7 8 8 39

5 8 8 6 8 8 38

6 8 8 7 8 8 39

7 9 8 6 7 8 38

8 8 6 7 7 6 34

9 4 7 5 4 6 26

10 8 7 7 8 9 39

T0tal: 75 74 67 71 75 362

Mean: 7.5 7.4 6.7 7.1 7.5

Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)

I. 0f = (Total) 2No .∨sample∧nos of judges

= 3625∗10 =131044

50 = 2620.88

II. Sss i.e. sum of sgnare or sample

Sss =(Total∨samplecolour)2Nos of judges -cf

= (752+742+672+712+752)/10 - 2620.88

= 5625+5476+4489+5041+562510 -2620.80

= 2625610 _2620.88

= 2625.6_2620.88

= 4.72

III. Sss or square or judge ssj

Sssj = ¿¿ _of

= 382 + 362 +352 +392 +382 +392 + 382+ 342+ 262+392/ 5- 26020.88

Over acceptability

Judges ALC TAC MOC LIC LEC TOTAL

1 7 9 7 6 6 35

2 7 7 9 8 8 39

3 7 7 8 7 8 37

4 8 7 7 8 8 38

5 8 8 8 6 8 38

6 8 8 7 7 6 36

7 9 8 6 6 8 37

8 7 6 6 7 7 33

9 5 7 8 6 8 34

10 8 8 7 7 8 38

TOTAL 74 75 73 68 75 365

MEAN 7.4 7.5 7.3 6.8 7.5

i. CF=(TOTAL )2

no∨sample∗no∨ judges

=365250 =

13322550 =2664.5

ii. Sss=( total∨sample oA )2

no∨ judges - cf

=(742+752+732+682+752)/10 -2664.5

=5476+5625+5329+4624+5625

10 ___2664.5

=26679

10 ___2664.5

=2667.9___2664.5

=3.4.

iii. Sum or square or judges(ssj)

Ssj=Total∨Judges¿ ¿no∨sample___cf

=352+392+372+382+382+362+372+332+342 +382/5___2664.5

=1225+1521+1369+1444+1444+1296+1369+1089+1156+1444/5_2664.5

=13357

5 _2664.5

=2671.4_2664.5

=6.9.

iv. Ssj=(72+92+72-----------------82)___cf

92*3=81*3=243

82*20=81*20=1620

72*17=49*17=833

62* 9=36*9=324

52 *1=25*1

50=25

SSJ =(243+1620+833+324+25)__2664.5

=3045_2664.5

=380.5..

v. SSE =SSI-SSS-SSJ

=380.5-3.4-6.9

=370.2.

vi. Deg. Or freedom (df)

vii. Mean square

Ms for sample=sssdfs =

3.44 =0.85

Ms for Judges=ssjdfj =

6.99 =0.77

Ms for total =380.5

49 =7.77

Ms for error=370.2

36 =10.3.

ANOVA TABLE

Sources or variation dfssms f=ms

ms error

Sample 4 3.4 0.85 0.08

Judge 9 6.9 0.77 0.07

Total 49 380.5 7.77 0.75

Error 36 370.2 10.3

F calculated=0.08

F table=df under error i.e. 4

36

Since 36 is not found on the chart-------------

F calculated=0.08

F table=2.63

Since F calculated is lesser than f table value at 5% level, therefore there is no significant

difference between the overall acceptability of the sample.