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CHAPTER NO. 1
INTRODUCTION AND REVIEW OF LITURATURE
SECTION-I: -River water pollution
1.1Introduction:Water, the unique component of nature has played the crucial role in the
evolution of life from molecules to man.All Ancient civilizations emerged on the banks of
Rivers andhave been central to the growth of human society1. The River is an indicator of
Society’s standards. “A dirty river means a dirt society”. Importance of river in assessing
healthy, as well as prosperous nation in a healthyenvironment is amply understood, from the
very existence of civilization. The aquatic resources of country are its national wealth and their
sustained utilization for various purposes should be given top priority. It is believed that life
originated in water and is sustained by it. Nearly 90% of the mass of all living organisms is
composed of water. The river water is used to satisfy the daily needs of living world in and
around. The water resources are used to fulfill the demand for agricultural, industrial and
human settlement.2, 3
Human health and health of ecosystem is directly related with quality of water. The freshwater
is finite and limited resource of the total amount of global water; due to rapid growth of
population, demand for water has increased. The availability of water for domestic use per
capita has reduced drastically. Main reasons are harvesting more water for irrigation,
unplanned and uneco-friendly growth of Industries. Most of the people in developingcountries,
one fifth of the population in developing countries do not get potable drinking water and have
no proper sanitation facilities. It is estimated that less developed countries are affected by
disease which spread through contaminated water and food before1980 all the rivers in
Western Europe were comparatively free from pollution.In India the problem of aquatic
environment has becomes an important issue only very recently.It is readily said that all major
Indian Rivers are actually polluted due to anthropogenic activitiesundertaken by man.4,5
India has a good industrial infrastructure in core industries like metal, chemical,
fertilizer, drugs, petroleum, industries like plastics, pesticides, detergents, fuel, solvent, paints,
dyes and food additives, release effluents and emissions, polluting water, soil, and plants
ecosystem.
In India 50% to 70% domestic sewageis released into rivers, lakes, streams.According
to reports approximately 1,108000tons of heavy metals are released in to the water every
4
yearworld-wide6.There are many chemicals present in the environment which are toxic or non
toxic. The toxic solid, liquid and gaseous chemicals are discharged by industries, sewage
water from cities, excessremaining fertilizers and pesticides from agriculture into air, water and
soil.7 They get into the human food chain from environment, once they enter our body system,
they disturb the bio chemical process, leading in some cases to fatal results. Animals and plants
require some trace elements for normal growth and development. But toxic elements As, Pb,
Cd, Hg are required in trace quantities. According to the “International register of potentially
toxic chemicals” of UnitedNationsEnvironment Program, there are four million known
chemicals in the world today and another 30,000 new compounds are added to the list every
year. Among these 60,000 to 70,000 chemicals are commonly used.8, 9Apart from their benefits
to increasing production, living standards and health; many of them are potentially toxic.
In India there are about 4000 large and medium water polluting industries according to recent
report published by the Central Pollution Control BoardNew Delhi. About 50% of these
industrieshave effluent treatment systems, but their technology is quite unsatisfactory.4,10&11
According to NEERI (National Environmental Engineering Research Institute, Nagpur)
more than 70% inland water in India is not fit for drinking purposes. All rivers in the world
contain compounds of metals such as Fe, Zn, Mn, Cr, Pb, Cd, Ni,and Hg which exceed the
limits prescribed by different agencies. About five million people die of diseases caused by
drinking impure water and incidence of water pollution from heavy metals.12,13.
TABLE 1.1Toxic Metals used in Industries and Hazards
Element Uses Hazards Arsenic Fertilizer, insecticides, herbicides,
paint, leaded petrol, rayon mills, dyes and pigment, chemical industry.
Cancer of skin, lung, liver, lower I.Q., damage to liver and kidney, loss of hair, muscular paralysis, Gangrene, kidney damage.
Mercury Dental amalgams and lighting, chloro alkali industries, pesticides, medicine, electrical equipment, paint.
Irritability, depression, Alzheimer’s, suicidal tendencies, bleeding gums, tremors, Nerve damage, kidney damage, hemolysis, chest pain, headache, Abdominal pain.
Iron Iron, alloy, Manufacturing and Equipment industries.
Skin becomes sensitive to light.
Manganese Dry cell batteries, Glass industries Effect on central nervous system, Causes gait and speech disturbance, tremors, uncontrollable laughter, lung troubles.
Zinc Galvanizing and alloy industry, batteries, ghee manufacturing, spraying, painting.
Vomiting, dehydration, stomach pains, nausea, lethargy, dizziness and muscle in- co-ordination, Skin diseases, lung
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problems, pancreas damage, nausea and anemia, toxic to plants at higher levels.
Copper Alloy industry, metal plating Essential trace element, not very toxic, to animals at higher level, anemia, neutropenia, diarrobea, demineralization of bones, amyelination of the central nervous system, malnutrition and malabsorption, toxic to plants at higher levels.
Chromium Tanning, paints, pigments, corrosion inhibitors, fungicides.
A Cr (VI) compound causes lung cancer, skin ulcers, kidney inflammation, Gastrointestinal ulceration, nephritis. Bronchial asthma, allergies.
Cobalt Used in alloys, nuclear power plants, manufacture of blue pigments for glass and china, tungsten carbide, tool industry, ghee manufacturing, pigment industry.
Lung problem, pulmonary oedema, action on blood vessels, rapid change in catecholamine metabolism, decreased heart ratenrepinephrine, increased blood and urine monochrome level, enzyme activities increased, glycogen level and lactate dehydragenase activity decreased.
Nickel Paint industry, steel and iron industry, hydrogenation of oil industry.
Dermatitis, Pneumonia, lung and nose cancer, giddiness, headache, nausea, vomiting.
Beryllium Beryllium alloys used in atomic reactor, air craft, rocket, missile fuel, ceramic part, Household appliances.
Beryllinsis, dermatitis, conjunctivitis or acute pneumonitis, fatal lung disease, heart and lung toxicity.
Cadmium Battery cell industry, electroplating, PVC plastic processing industry pigments, super phosphate fertilizers.
Kidney damage, lungs, respiratory disorders, ailments of lungs, disturb human DNA repair system, abdominal pain associated with nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, headache.
Lead Paint industry, pipe, storage batteries, printing ,plastics, Gasoline additives
Coma, death, decline in I.Q., damage to heart, kidneys, livers circulatory system and central nervous system Anemia, vomiting, loss of appetite, convulsions, brain damage.
Selenium Glass and photo industry Damage of liver, Kidney and spleen, fever nervousness, vomiting, low blood pressure blindness and even death. Bronchitis, dyspnea, , loss of appetites, cancer deformation of hair and nails depression, giddiness.
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SECTION II: Sediment Pollution
1.2 INTRODUCTION:-
The process of sedimentation is a comprehensive natural geomorphological process,
which operates through the chain of erosion of soils; and deposition of these eroded material in
different paths of water bodies. The rivers are the most dynamic on the earth’s ecosystem, their
major function being transportation of water. They also carry to sea, dissolved and particulate
matter from rock weathering, erosion, from land.14,15 River Amazon, transports half the
suspended solids than Ganga. Ganga carries 5times more, total suspended solids compared to
Mississippi, even though the total discharge of Ganga and Mississippi is same.
Sediment consists of soil and mineral particles washed from land by natural and
manmade activities. River sediments as basic component of our environment provide food
stuffs to living organism.16, 17&18Theyalso serve as a sink and reservoir for a variety of
environmental contaminants. Urbanization and growth of newer industries is causing hung
amount of waste water production. Rivers are used as a major sink of industrial waste as well
as municipal solid waste, consist of organic matter and Inorganic mineral,some harmful
compounds of heavy metals like carbonates, hydroxides, and sulphides get precipitated and get
settled in the river bed. At higher concentrations it becomes harmful to the plant and animal
organisms of the river.19,20&21
Sediment acts as a carrier and possible source of pollution because they do not
permanently fix heavy metals. These sediment release metal into water by the changes in the
environmental condition such as pH, redox potential and organic chelators.22 Sediments are
contaminated by heavy metals from industrialized costal area; therefore evaluation of metal
distribution in surface sediments is used to assess pollution in aquatic environment.23
Metals also participate in various biochemical processes, have significant mobility, can
affect the ecosystem through the bioaccumulation and biomagnifications process and are
potentially toxic for environment and human life.24,25Hence base line studies are required to
determine the status of sediments structure and quality to give complimentary data on the
physico chemical characteristic of these toxic pollutants.
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Section—III:Soil Pollution
1.3 INTRODUCTION:-
“Good soil and congenial climate for productivity are valuable assets for any nation.”
Life on earth depends directly on living soil and aquatic ecosystem of river.Human
health is also affected by the quality of environment in the place of work.26
Soil is a mixture of various inorganic and organic chemical compounds. Inorganic
constituents are Ca, Mg, Fe, Si, K and Na.27,28&29 Small amounts of compounds of Mn, Cu, Zn,
Co, B, I and F, etc are present in the soil. The soil solution contains complex mixture of
minerals as carbonates, sulphates chlorides, and nitrates, also organic salts of Ca, Mg, K, and
Na etc. The chief organic component of soils is humus.
Today ecological changes have a direct impact on living organism. The environment
has deteriorated owing to industrial stress, urbanization, population density, and numerous
other villains which make the earth as a paradise for infectious agents.Such chronically
accumulated environment contaminates our air, water, food and soil etc, thereby severally
affecting the health of human life.30,31&32
About 12 crore population in India living in cities and six time more population living
in villages produces nearly 15 million tons of solid wastes which dump their waste toxic
products in open land and nearby river or Nallas. In rainy season these toxic wastes enter into
water bodies or spread in to soil causing chronic pollution of land and water.33
Indian farmers and agricultural technologies have made tremendous efforts in
increasing food production during last 35-40 years. There has been more than a two fold
increase in food-grain-production, the consumption of fertilizer and pesticides has
tremendously increased and has increased the yield of cereals (carbohydrates) of various states
of India, but it has been found that there is 25-30% decline in protein content,when corn,
maize, gram and wheat crop are grown on soil.Fertilizers are used in excess and these give rise
to harmful toxins, these excess Toxins generally enter the human body through food chain.34
It is reported that more than 70 million of organic chemicals are synthesized every year
in the world and have multiplied ten times since 1950. Industrial wastes mainly consist of
organic compounds along with Inorganic complexes and non-biodegradable material. These
harmful compounds adversely affects the bio-chemicals properties of soil.35 About 5 Lack
people die annually because of these toxic chemicals.
It is reported that about 20,000 hectares of land has been degraded due to mining and
another 55,000 hc of fertile land was degradedby manufacturing of bricks. Coal mining affects
20,000 hc of land area.
8
More than fifty countries of the world with an area of twenty million hc are treated with
80% polluted or partially treated polluted water, has been used for irrigation; has an advantages
of crop production so benefit to farmer and whole community, but causes deleterious effect
and chronic diseases in man and animals.34
The protozoa, bacteria and viruses may begin to grow on sewage water under anaerobic
condition. They may cause spread of water borne-diseases like viral hepatitis, Polio, Cholera,
Dysentery, Typhoid, Amoebiasis etc. These harmful effects can last several years so it cannot
only leach down the soil but has negative effect on ground water quality and also degraded soil
property.35
All this natural and anthropogenic activitiesunder taken by man, about 6,209000 tons of
heavy metals enter into the soil every year in the world. Metallic contaminants in soil are
considered to be the indestructible poison and their accumulation in plant and water may be
highly dangerous.36Nearly 80% of the world’s diseases, particularly in developing world can
be linked with polluted soil and water.
Also waste effluents contain soluble salts. According to Food and Agricultural
Organization, 30 to 80% of the irrigated lands in the world are damaged.37
According to World Bank study, environmental damages in India were to be to the
tuneof Rs. 33,950 crore and the cost of inaction is 45% of GDP in 1992. Of this over 70% is in
terms of the health impact of water and food.
SECTION –IV Pesticides pollution.
1.4 INTRODUCTION:-
Pesticides are the worst enemy of man on the planet earth. They not only contaminate
the lithosphere but also pollute the atmosphere, and act as sink.In 1939, a safe organic
insecticide, DDT was found. It was found to be effective against a wide verity of disease
bearing and agricultural insects. It was also used to prevent epidemic of typhus and malaria
carried by lice and mosquitoes during world war-II. If pesticides are not used nearly one fifth
of the crop yield is damaged The ever increasing pressure to increase food production, to meet
current demand requires protection of crops form pests.38,39In increase in food production, one
of important factor is, reduction of crop-losses caused by pests and diseases and this goal can
be achieved by making use of pesticides. Chlorine is the basis for many of the most toxic and
persistent synthetic chemicals combined with hydrocarbons to from organo-chlorines.
9
Although many organo-chlorine pesticides have been banned in the 60s, the current use of
DDT in developing countries exceeds the past levels of its use in the developed nations. India
was one of the world’s few producers of DDT, (which the US had banned in 1972 for
environmental and health reason), 40, 41&42DDT and such organo-chlorides were produced in
India at Ankaleshwar for controlling pests chemicals are used but these affects human beings
and animals in vicinity, their effects on humans includes cancer, reproductive and development
impairment, effect on liver and kidney functions, neurological impairment and a number of
other health problems.43,44&45
Organo chlorine compound are persistent chemical poisons and can be also called
asEcopoisons because of their bio- amplification property.46They are non-biodegradable and
are soluble in fats and oil only. When consumed by human body, they try to reduce the quality
of fat, as a result, give rise to various diseases of stomach, kidney, and heart.47
Indian Authorities allow nearly 150 pesticides, which amount to 85,000tones used
yearly organo-chlorine insecticides form the bulk of pesticides used in India of which HCH,
DDT, malathin, methyl parathion, monocrotophos, and endosulphan are widely used. Currently
25% pesticides are used in the total cultivated area. In India about 97420 tons of pesticides are
used for agricultural development every year, Out of 20,000 tones DDT used, about 25%
getsaccess into oceans. Most of the Indian farmers prefer DDT, BHC,as these are simple touse
and easily available and are effective in controlling pests. In 30 years, the pesticide use has
increased about 12 fold but crop losses have doubled because of pests. Pesticides used
worldwide without adequate checks and safeguards, infiltrate soil, air and water, average food
chain and play havoc with human as well as ecological health.47
About 30% of total pesticide poisoning occurs in India.In India, chlorinated
hydrocarbon plants are not banned. The Government of india had banned nearly 12 poisonous
pesticides in 1993. In April 1997, BHC was banned for use as a pesticides and deadly DDT
was banned for agricultural use in India in 1992 when it was found that the daily diet of
Indians contained 0.27 mg of DDT.
These pesticides fall on the ground, contaminate the soil, and get detoxified by
degradation and adsorption. These, residual chemicals remain in the soil for a long time and
reduce the fertility of the soil and harm water bodies nearby.45Pesticides percolate up to the
ground water with rain water and irrigation water. If this ground water is used in Agriculture
the harmful chemicals reach the crops.
DDT has got a half
still persist.According to a recent report,
remain in the soil.Third of which can cause cancer and another third are feared to affect the
human nervous system46
A WHO study conducted 1990 has shown in
spontaneous absorptions and pre mature deliveries among female
wives of male workers as a result of exposure to pesticides.
pesticides are harmful. For example Aldrin (1500ng/L) BHC (272ng/L)DDT (21.9ng/L)
Endosulphan (2890ng/L) are found in major Indian Rivers. I
between 0.0124 to 0.02 ppm, through soil the harmful chemicals reach the crop.
studies found residues of the BHC/HCN in food grains, oil, seeds, pluses, vegetable
breast milk and in the blood in the um
highest in human beings in India up to
Table 1.2 Pesticides Structure, nomenclature, uses and permissible limit.
Trade name
(1)
Chlorinated hydrocarbons:
Aldrin-Dieldrin Chlordane
Lindane
10
half-life of 15 years. In further period 25% of the original amount would
still persist.According to a recent report, more than 300 pesticides are legally allowed to
ain in the soil.Third of which can cause cancer and another third are feared to affect the 46.
A WHO study conducted 1990 has shown in an increased rate of birth defects,
spontaneous absorptions and pre mature deliveries among female
wives of male workers as a result of exposure to pesticides. Even in small concentrations the
pesticides are harmful. For example Aldrin (1500ng/L) BHC (272ng/L)DDT (21.9ng/L)
Endosulphan (2890ng/L) are found in major Indian Rivers. In Indian field soils BHC is found
between 0.0124 to 0.02 ppm, through soil the harmful chemicals reach the crop.
studies found residues of the BHC/HCN in food grains, oil, seeds, pluses, vegetable
breast milk and in the blood in the umbilical cord. According to studies,
highest in human beings in India up to 28ppm which is very dengerous
Pesticides Structure, nomenclature, uses and permissible limit.
Formula
(2)
Soil insecticide for control of nuts, beetle and cotton pests use now banned in USA
Effective against termites. Potential carcinogen,banned in USA in 1975
Control of cotton insects and rice stem bore
life of 15 years. In further period 25% of the original amount would
more than 300 pesticides are legally allowed to
ain in the soil.Third of which can cause cancer and another third are feared to affect the
increased rate of birth defects,
spontaneous absorptions and pre mature deliveries among female worker and unemployed
Even in small concentrations the
pesticides are harmful. For example Aldrin (1500ng/L) BHC (272ng/L)DDT (21.9ng/L)
n Indian field soils BHC is found
between 0.0124 to 0.02 ppm, through soil the harmful chemicals reach the crop. Different
studies found residues of the BHC/HCN in food grains, oil, seeds, pluses, vegetables meat, and
bilical cord. According to studies, DDT is found to be
which is very dengerous.48,49&50
Pesticides Structure, nomenclature, uses and permissible limit.
Uses Freshwater
permissible limit
(3) (4)
Soil insecticide for control of nuts, beetle and cotton pests use now banned in USA
0.003µg/l
Effective against termites. Potential carcinogen, use banned in USA in 1975
0.01µ�g/l
Control of cotton insects and rice stem bore
0.01�µg/l
DDT
Toxaphene
Hepachlor
Endrin
Methoxychlor
Organophosphates
Parathion
11
Broad spectrumcottonand peanut pemosquito control. Persistent in the environmentaccumulates in food chain; use banned in USA
Insect control on crops and livestock; widely used in USA; ban has been proposed for carcinogenic properties
Pest control in soil; use suspended due to potential carcinogenicity
Effective against black current mud mite-Zoocide; precautions to be taken to avoid skin contact during application
Popular DDT substably biodegradable, low-toxicity to mammals
Control some peof fruits and vegetablehazard to mammals
Larvicide for mosquito control;
Broad spectrum-cotton,soya bean and peanut pests; mosquito control. Persistent in the environment-accumulates in food chain; use banned in USA
0.01µg/l
Insect control on crops and livestock; widely used in USA; ban has been proposed for carcinogenic properties
5�µg/l
Pest control in soil; use suspended due to potential carcinogenicity
0.001�µg/l
Effective against black current mud
-also used as Zoocide; precautions to be taken to avoid skin contact during application
0.004�µg/l
Popular DDT substitute, reason-ably biodegradable,
toxicity to mammals
0.03�µg/l
Control some pests of fruits and vegetable-little hazard to mammals
0.1µg/l
Larvicide for mosquito control;
-
Methyl parathion
Diazion
Carbamates: Carbaryl (Sevin)
Baygon
Dimetilan
Chloropheno-xyacids
12
Control of plant pest; ranks second in pesticide consumption in USA
Control fruit and vegetable pests
Used on cropscotton, forage fruits and vegetables; lawn and garden insecticide; low toxicity to mammals
Control of flies, mosquitoes, ants and cockroaches
Control of house and fruit flies
Herbicideof broadweeds, aquatic vegetation, military defoliant (may contain highly toxic TCCD as impurity)
Control of plant pest; ranks second in pesticide consumption in USA
-
Control of many fruit and vegetable pests
-
Used on crops-cotton, forage fruits and vegetables; lawn and garden insecticide; low toxicity to mammals
-
Control of flies, mosquitoes, ants and cockroaches
-
Control of house and fruit flies
-
Herbicide-control of broad-leaf weeds, aquatic vegetation, military defoliant (may contain highly toxic TCCD as impurity)
100 µg/l
2,4,5-T
13
Weed control; military defoliant
Weed control; military defoliant
-
14
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18
SECTION V
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
1.5 Background:
Rivers are vital and vulnerable fresh water systems that are critical for the subsistence
of all life. However the decline quality of water, food due to sewage water, agricultural run-off,
human activities, industrial effluents are directly discharged in to nearby water bodies and soil,
without any pretreatment which renders to reduce the aesthetic value of waterand aquatic
Ecosystemis hampered. The review of literature is the fundamental part of the research work
which provides valuable information about the previous and present research work regarding
our selectedsubject.
PHYSICO CHEMICAL PARAMETERS OF WATER, AQUATIC SEDIM ENTS AND
NEARBY SOIL:-
The physico-chemical characteristic of any reverine system and soil play important role of
Ecological significance, especially in river Ecosystem. Also itreflects the history of the
pollution. Sediments and soil act as both carriers and sink of contaminants in the
environment;both are providers of food staffs for living organisms.
Many workers reported on physico-chemical characteristics of river water. pH in range of 6.0
to 8.3 indicate the of carbonates of calcium and magnesium dissolved in water1.Chetana and
Somashekar2 recorded maximum pH in summer season due to increased decomposition rate
leading to acidification and lower pH. Also low pH was recorded in winter season due to
decreased decomposition rate owing to rate of photosynthesis and microbial activity and
increased algal productivity3,4. pH of water depends upon the presence of carbonates and
bicarbonates in water, which depends upon the presence of CO2 and ionic concentration of the
solution. The quality of water changes due to changes in the pH value of water5.
Emongor et al 6 compare pH of sewage water and river water. They have found that the
pH of water at the sewage discharge point is generally lower than the pH of river water
Aquatic organism are affected by pH of water because most of the metabolic activity is
dependent on optimum pH range 6.5 to 8.2 was sustainable for aquatic life7. Low pH in water
due to less soluble of Pb, contain minerals in natural water8. And high pH in river water may
be result in the reduction of heavy metal toxacity9. Many researcher reported concentration of
metal is influenced by pH since high concentration of metals was observed at low pH 10.
In our country several workers have already studied polluted water used in agriculture,
soil and heavy metal toxicity neither a high pH of soil above neither 8.4 nor low below 5.0 is
19
favorable for maximum yield of crop11. pH of the soil is interpreted as optimum quality for
plant growth and favorable for nitrogen fixation12.
Electrical conductivity is a measure of the ability of an aqueous solution to carry an
electric current, this ability depend up on the presence of ion, on their total concentration,
mobility and valancy and on the temperature of water13. It is good, proper and rapid method to
measure the total dissolved ions and directly related to total solid14. Increasing levels of
conductivity and cations are the products of decomposition and mineralization of organic
materials15. Electrical conductivity 260 µmohs/cm suggests more conductivity due to presence
of dissolved minerals and gases16. Poreta et al 17 reported high EC 201 ms/cm from Agbore
vicinities due to increase in the concentration of some soluble salts in soil. Masound18.
Compare physico-chemical parameter of waste water irrigated soil and well water irrigated
soil, pH 7.97 to and EC 1.28 and 0.763 dsm-1. The increase in pH and EC of soil irrigated in
waste water may be due to alkaline nature of municipal waste water.
Hardness of water bodies is regulated largely by the level of calcium and magnesium
salts, other metals if present such as Fe, Mn and Al may also contribute to hardness19. If the
hardness of water is more than 200mgL-1, scale formation takes place in the pipes or the
distribution system and to soften it, more and more soap is required. Hard water also gives
scum formation which farther reduces the quality of water20 and hardness below 300 mg/L is
considered potable but beyond this limit it produces gastrointestinal irrigation 21. The abnormal
values of total hardness may be due to the discharge of domestic sewage, paper, textile and
chemical waste 22.
In River water chloride contents normally increases as the mineral contains increases23.
It occurs in all natural water in widely varying concentration 24. High concentration of chloride
is considered to be the indicator of pollution due to organic waste of animal or industrial
origins, chloride are troublesome in irrigation water and also harmful to aquatic life25.
Alkalinity is a total measure of substance in water that has acid neutralizing ability, the
main source of natural alkalinity are rocks which contain carbonate, bicarbonate and hydroxide
compounds, Borate, silicate and phosphates may also contribute to alkalinity 26. High alkalinity
may be lead to in crustation in the distribution pipes, also rise in pH level kills fish and other
river organism27. When alkalinity was greater hardness could be due to the presence of basic
salts of sodium and potassium in addition to calcium and magnesium 28.
20
Magnesium is relatively non toxic to man. However a higher concentration causes un
pleasant taste of water.At high concentration magnesium salts has a laxative effect particularly
when present as MgSo429. Sin30 Reported magnesium is an important factor along with Calcium
Sodium Potassium in the bio-chemical phosphiylation reactions tacking in the cells of algae,
fungi and bacteria. In irrigation water Ca: Mg ratio should be more than one preferably. If the
ratio is near or less than one, the uptake and translocation of Ca is diminished due to
antagonistic effect of high magnesium. The water with lower Ca/Mg ratio will be more
harmful. In Mg dominated water the potential effect of sodium may be slightly increased31.
A perusal of more recent literature established the importance of metal for man and
aquatic plant and animals. Shanty32 has observed that Calcium is a major micronutrient in
water and the biotic media. Due to presence of Calcium, hardness of water increases and it
affects the bio-organisms in it. Whenever and wherever sewage and industrial pollutants and
added to river or water bodies, concentration of ions and hardness of water significantly
increases33. Fufeyin34 recorded highest calcium (400 mg/L) was found in most of the sampling
station due to micro organism, which play important role in calcium exchange at the interface
between sediment and overlaying water.
Crops, aquatic plants, animals, plankton require phosphorus for their growth water is
highly loaded with phosphorus when domestic sewage mixes with it at any point due to
domestic sewage, the proportion of phosphorus in water bodies highly increases35. Excessive
potassium fertilizer used in farming decreases other micronutrients in food like vitamin C and
carotene36.
The transport of metals in the industrial and sewage effluents to ground water, lake
water, soil and plants and complexation of metal with organic molecules present in soil have
recently been the subject of much research. If excess zinc is present in soil it reduced the root
growth for low tolerant plant 37. When zinc is applied in soil it can accumulated in root system
due to low mobility in plants 38. Kodam39 analyzed soil near subion River. When polluted river
water was used for irrigation the concentration of Pb, Cu and Hg were above the threshold
limit of 80.84 mg/Ks, 4.05 mg/kg and 2.52 mg/kg. Respectivelythis heavy metal causes
toxicity and poisoning of living organism.
Contamination of soil with copper has health hazard implications as the excessive
concentration of copper could bring about anemia, infection. Thinning of bones thyroid gland
dysfunction, heart diseases and nervous system problem40. When lead exceeding the threshold
21
levels has been reported to be toxic and can induce hypertension in adults and inhibit
development of intelligence in fetus, cause problems in the synthesis hemoglobin and affect
kidney, gastro in terrestrial tract, malfunctioning and acute or chronic damage to the nervous
system41.
In view of above fact that heavy metals in industrial and municipal solid wastes
percolate through soil strata and contaminate soil area. Adegoke42 reported soil near lead
battery dump site, the soil is contaminated with Pb, Cu in range of 104 to 166 mg/L and 38.5 to
52.0 mg/L and soil is not contaminated with Zn, Ni and As when their values are compared
with maximum allowable concentration. Highest concentration of Pb 1521.0 mg/L Copper
1197.6 mg/L was found in soil due to chemical and metallurgical activities43. Author12 reported
low level of phosphate, sodium, potassium due to the removal of upper layer of soil.
In Ganges water at Narora (UP) concentration of DDT and BHC was 1.36, 1.38 PPb44.
And Hindon River water the concentration of BHC in monsoon season was 0.10 mg/L 45.
Mekkavi46compares average concentration of DDT in cannel water and agricultural waste
water contains 5.3 mg/L and 3.4 mg/L.
22
SECTION VI
National and International standards/guideline/Tolerance limits of water, soil and
pesticides.
1.6 Standard and tolerance limits of pollutant
The government has issued standards (tolerance limit) for discharge of industrial waste
in to surface water, waste water from treatment plant into in to inland surface water and
industrial effluents in to the public sewers .Central pollution control board (CPCB)describes
the tolerance limits for industrial effluents, discharge in to public sewer .Table 1.3 show
CPCB standards for the discharge of effluents, while Table1.4 shows, drinking water standards
prescribed by WHO/US,Table1.5 shows, USPH European ,Canadian ,US,WHO,ISI ,BIS
,ICMR, standards. Table1.6[A],[B], 1.7shows, organic compound and pesticides permissible
limit on health based guideline by the WHO Table1.8, 1.9 shows Irrigation water quality and
Table1.10 show phytotoxic level metal in soil.
Table 1.3General Standards for discharge of effluents
(CPCB, 1995)47
S. No. Parameter
Standards
Inland surface water
Public Sewer
Land for irrigation
Marine coastal areas
1. 2.
3.
(a) (b) (c) (d)
1 Color and odor See Note-1 --- See Note-
1 See Note-1
2 Suspended Solids, mg/I, Max
100 600 200
(a) For process waste water-100 (b) For cooling water effluent-10 percent above total suspended matter of influent cooling water.
3 Particle size of suspended solids
Shall pass 850 micron IS
Sieve --- ---
(a)Floatable solids, Max 3 mm (b) Settle able solids Max 850 microns.
4 Dissolved solids (inorganic), mg/L, max
2100 2100 2100 ---
5 pH value 5.5 to 9.0 5.5 to 9.0 5.5 to 9.0 5.5 to 9.0
6 Temperature 0C, Max
Shall not exceed 40oc in any
section of the stream within 15
meters downstreamfrom
45 at the point of
discharge --- 45oc at the point of discharge
23
the effluent outlet
7 Oil and grease, mg/L, max
10 20 10 20
8 Total residual chlorine, mg/L, Max
1.0 --- --- 1.0
9. Ammonical nitrogen (as N), mg/L, Max.
50 50 --- 50
10 Total kjeldahl nitrogen (as N, mg/L, Max 100 --- --- 100
11 Free Ammonia (as NH3), mg/L Max.
5.0 --- --- 5.0
12 Biochemical Oxygen Demand (5 days at 200C) Max.
30 350 100 100
13 Chemical Oxygen Demand, mg/L, Max.
250 --- --- 250
14 Arsenic (as As), mg/L, Max.
0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
15 Mercury (as Hg), mg/L, Max.
0.01 0.01 --- 0.01
16 Lead (as Pb), mg/L, Max.
0.1 1.0 --- 1.0
17 Cadmium (as Cd), mg/L, Max.
2.0 1.0 --- 2.0
18 Hexavalent chromium (as Cr+6) mg/L, Max.
0.1 2.0 --- 1.0
19 Total chromium as (Cr), mg/L, Max.
2.0 2.0 --- 2.0
20 Copper (as Cu), mg/L Max.
3.0 3.0 --- 3.0
21 Zinc (as Zn), mg/L, Max.
5.0 15 --- 15
22 Selenium (as Se), mg/L, Max.
0.05 0.05 -- 0.05
23 Nickel (as Ni), mg/L, Max.
3.0 3.0 --- 5.0
24 Boron (as B), mg/L, Max.
2.0 2.0 2.0 ---
24
25 Percent Sodium, Max.
--- 60 60 ---
26 Residual sodium carbonate, mg/L, Max.
--- --- 5.0 ---
27 Cyanide (as CN), mg/L , Max.
0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
28 Chloride (as Cl), mg/L, Max.
1000 1000 600 (a)
29 Fluoride (as F), mg/L, Max.
2.0 15 --- 15
30 Dissolved Phosphates (as P), mg/L, Max.
5.0 --- --- ---
31 Sulphate (as SO4), mg/L, Max.
1000 1000 1000 ---
32 Sulphide (as S), mg/L, Max.
2.0 --- --- 5.0
33 Pesticides Absent Absent Absent Absent
34 Phenolic compounds (as C6H5OH), mg/L, Max.
1.0 5.0 --- 5.0
35
Radioactive materials (a) Alpha emitters MC/ ml, Max. (b) Beta emitter’s/ml, Max.
10-7 10 -6
10-7 10-6
10-8 10-7
10-7 10-6
International standards /Guidelines
The World Health Organization (WHO) and European Union (EU) are international agencies
They have provided guidelines for drinking water .WHO’S guidelines for drinking water
quality, set up in Geneva, 1993 are the international reference point for standard setting and
water safety .The EU standard are more recent (1998), stricter than WHOstandards
(1993).Different countries have set up different drinking water standards.
Table 1.4WHO/EU Drinking Water Standards49,50
Sr. No.
Element / Substance Symbol/ Formula
Normally found in fresh water surface water ground water
Health base guideline by the
WHO EU Standards
1 Color -- -- Not mentioned Not Mentioned
25
2 TDS - - No guideline Not Mentioned
3 Turbidity - - Not Mentioned Not Mentioned
4 Dissolved oxygen O2 - No guideline Not Mentioned
5 Hardness mg/LCaCO3 - No guideline Not Mentioned
6 Suspended Solid - - No guideline Not Mentioned
7 BOD - - No guideline Not Mentioned
8 COD - - No guideline Not Mentioned
9 Oxdisability - - - 5.0 mg/L O2
10 Grease / Oil - - No guideline Not Mentioned
11 pH - - No guideline Not Mentioned
12 Conductivity - - 250 micros/cm 250 micros/cm
13 Aluminum Al - 0.2 mg/L 0.2 mg/L
14 Ammonia NH4
<O,2 mg/L cup (up to 0,3 mg/L
in anaerobic water
No guideline 0.50 mg/L
15 Antimony Sb <4 µg/L 0.005 mg/L 0.005 mg/L
16 Arsenic As - 0.01 mg/L 0.01 mg/L
17 Asbestos - - No guideline Not Mentioned
18 Barium Ba - 0.3 mg/L Not Mentioned
19 Beryllium Be <1 µg/L No guideline Not Mentioned
26
20 Boron B <1 µg/L 0.3 mg/L 1.00 mg/L
21 Bromate Br - No guideline 0.01 mg/L
22 Cadmium Cd <1 µg/L 0.003 mg/L 0.005 mg/L
23 Chromium Cr+3, Cr+6 - 0.05 mg/L 0.05 mg/L
24 Copper Cu <2 µg/L 2 mg/L 2.0 mg/L
25 Iron Fe 0.5, 50 mg/L No guideline 0.2 mg/L
26 Lead Pb - 0.01 mg/L 0.01 mg/L
27 Manganese Mn - 0.01 mg/L 0.01 mg/L
28 Mercury Hg <0.5 µg/L 0.001 mg/L 0.001 mg/L
29 Molybdenum Mb <0.01 mg/L 0.07 mg/L Not mentioned
30 Nickel Ni <0.02 mg/L 0.02 mg/L 0.02 mg/L
31 Selenium Se <<0.01 mg/L 0.01 mg/L 0.01 mg/L
32 Silver Ag 5-50 mg/L No guideline Not Mentioned
33 Sodium Na <20 mg/L 200 mg/L 200 mg/L
34 Inorganic Tin Sn - No guideline Not Mentioned
35 Uranium U - 1.4 mg/L Not Mentioned
36 Zinc Zn - 3 mg/L Not Mentioned
37 Chloride Cl - 250 mg/L 250 mg/L
38 Cyanide Cn - 0.07 mg/L 0.05 mg/L
27
39 Fluoride F <1.5 mg/L (up
to 10) 1.5 mg/L 1.5 mg/L
40 Sulphate SO2-4 - 500 mg/L 250 mg/L
41 Nitrate and Nitrite NO3, NO2 - 50 mg/L total
nitrogen 50 mg/L
Table1.5Parameter for water quality characterization and standards48,49,50,51,52,53,54&55
Sr. No.
Parameter USPH
Standards European Standards
Canadian Limit
U.S. limit
WHO limit
ISI standard
BIS limit
ICMR
limit
1 Color Color less - < 16 TCU
�� - - - - -
2 Test Test less - - - - - - -
3 Odor Odorless - In offensive - - - -
4 Turbidity - - 0.9/1.0/0.1
NTU 5NTU - - - -
5 SP.
Conductance µmohs/cm
300 400 - - 6oo - - -
6 pH 6.5-8.5 6.5-8.5 6.5-8.5 6.5-8.5
6.5-9.2 - 6.5-8.5
7.0-8.5
7 BOD 5.0 - - - - - - -
8 COD 4.0 5.0 - - 10 - - -
9 Total hardness
as (CaCO3) - - 75-150 -
100-500
- <300 <300
10 TDS - - Less than500 - <500 - <500 <500
11 Dissolved oxygen
4.0-6.0 ppm
- - - - 3.0 - -
12 Suspended Solid 5.0 - - - - - - -
13 Chloride 250 250 Less than251 - 500 600 250 200
14 Total Alkalinity - - - - 200 200 - -
15 Sulphate 250 - - - - 1000 200 200
16 Cyanide 0.05 - 0.2 0.2 0.07 0.01 0.05 -
17 Nitrate + Nitrite <10 - 45 10 45 - 45 20
28
18 Fluoride 1.5 - 1.5 4.0 1.5 3.0 1 1
19 Phosphate 0.1 - 0.010 - - - 0.1 -
20 Sulphide 0.1 mg/L - - - - - - -
21 Ammonia 0.5 - - - 0.5 - - -
22 Calcium 100 100 200 - 100 - 75 75
23 Magnesium 30 - 50.0 - 150 - 30 50
24 Sodium - - 200 - 200 - - -
25 Potassium - - - No
limit listed
- - 1.0 -
26 Boron 1.0 - 5.0 - 0.5 - - -
27 Arsenic 0.05 - 0.010 0.010 0.01 0.2 0.05 -
28 Barium 1.0 - 1.0 2.0 0.7 - - -
29 Cadmium 0.01 - 0.005 0.005 0.01 - 0.01 -
30 Chromium(VI) 0.05 - 0.050 0.01 0.05 0.05 0.05 -
31 Copper 1.0 - 1.0 1.3 1.5 - 0.05 0.05
32 Iron <0.3 - 0.300 0.3 1.0 - 0.3 0.1
33 Nickel - - - - 0.020 - - -
34 Lead <0.05 - 0.010 - 0.05 0.01 0.05 -
35 Manganese <0.05 - 0.050 0.03 0.5 - 0.1 0.1
36 Mercury 0.001 - 0.001 0.002 0.001 - 0.001 -
37 Selenium 0.01 - 0.01 0.05 0.01 0.05 - -
38 Silver 0.05 - 0.050 0.10 - - - -
39 Uranium 5.0 - 0.02 - 0.009 - 0.01 -
40 Zinc 5.5 - 5.0 5.0 5.0 - 5.0 0.1
29
41 Aluminum - - 0.1 0.05-0.2
- - 0.03 -
42 Antimony - - 0.006 0.006 0.018 - - -
43 Asbestos - - - 7
million fibers/L
No limit listed
- - -
44 Beryllium - - - 0.004 - - - -
45 Bromate - - 0.01 0.010 0.010 - - -
46 Chloramines - - 3.0 - 3.0 - - -
47 Molybdenum - - 0.25 - 0.07 - - -
48 Thallium - - - 0.002 - - - -
49 Phenol 0.001 0.5 - - 0.002 - 0.001 -
50
Polynuciear aromatic
hydrocarbon (PAH)
0.02 0.002 - - 0.2 - - -
51 E Coli </100 ml - - - 10/100
ml - - -
52 Pesticides
(Total) 0.005 0.005 - - - - - -
Table: 1.6[A] Guideline of Organic Compounds in drinking water48.
Group
Substance Formula Health based guideline by
the WHO
Aromatic hydrocarbons
Benzene C6H6 10 µg/l
Toluene C7H8 700 µg/L
Xylenes C8H10 500 µg/L
Ethyl benzene C8H10 300 µg/L
Styrene C8H8 20µg/L
Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons(PAHs) C2H3N1O5P1 3 0.7µg/L
Chlorinated alkanes
Carbon tetrachloride CCl4 2 µg/L
Dichloromethane CH2Cl2 20 µg/L
30
1,1-Dichloroethane C2HCl2 No guideline
1,2-Dichloroethane ClCH2CH2CH2Cl 30 µg/L
1,1,1-Trichloroethane CH3CCl3 2000 µg/L
Chlorinate Ethenes
1,1-Dichloroethene C2H2Cl2 30 µg/L
1,2-Dichloroethene C2H2Cl2 50 µg/L
Tri chloroethene C2HCl3 70 µg/L
Tetra chloroethene C2Cl4 40 µg/L
Chlorinated benzenes
Mono chlorobenezene(MCB) C6H5Cl 300 µg/L
Dichlorobenzenes (DCBs)
1,2-Dichlorobenzene(1,2-DCB) C6H4Cl2 1000 µg/L
1,3- Dichlorobenzene(1,3-DCB) C6H4Cl2 No guideline
1,4- Dichlorobenzene(1,4-DCB) C6 H4 Cl2 300 µg/L
Trichlorobenzenes(TCBs) C6H3Cl3 20 µg/L
Miscellaneous organic
constituents
Di(2-ethylhexyl) adipate(DEHA) C22H42O4 80 µg/L
Di(2- ethylhexyl)phthalate(DEHP) C24H38O4 80 µg/L
Acrylamide C3H5NO 0.5 µg/L
Epichlorohydrin(ECH) C3H5ClO 0.4 µg/L
Hexachlorobutadiene(HCBD) C4Cl6 0.6 µg/L
Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid(EDTA) C10H12N2O8 200 µg/L
Nitrilotracetic acid (NTA) N(CH2COOH)3 200 µg/L
Organotins
Dialkyltins R2SnX2 No guideline
Tributyl oxide(TBTO) C24H54OSn2 2 µg/L
31
Table: 1.6[B] Guideline of Organic Compounds in Drinking Water48
Substance Formula Health based guideline by the WHO
Alachlor C14H20 Cl NO2 20 µg/l
Aldicarb C7H14N2O4S 10 µg/L
Aldrin and dieldrin C7H8 Cl6/ C12H8Cl6 O
0.03 µg/L
Atrazine C8H14ClN5 2 µg/L
Bentazone C10 H12 N2O3S 30 µg/L
Carbofuran C12H15 NO3 5 µg/L
Chlordane C10H6Cl8 0.2 µg/L
Chlorotoluron C10H13ClN2O 30 µg/L
DDT C14H9Cl5 2 µg/l
1,2-Dibromo-3-chloropropane C3H5Br2Cl 1 µg/L
2,-4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid(2,4-D) C8H6Cl2O3 30 µg/L
1,2-Dichloropropane C3H6Cl2 No guideline
1,3- Dichloropropane C3H6Cl2 20 µg/L
1,3- Dichloropropene CH3CHClCH2Cl No guideline
Ethylene dibromide(EDB) BrCH2CH2Br No guideline
Heptachlor and heptachlor epoxide C10H5Cl7 0.03 µg/L
32
Hexachlorobenzene(HCB) C10H5Cl7 O 1 µg/L
Isoproturon C12H18N2O 9 µg/L
Lindane C6H6Cl6 2 µg/L
MCPA C9H9Cl O3 2 µg/L
Methoxychlor (C6H4OCH3)2CHCCl3 20 µg/L
Metolachlor C15H22Cl NO2 10 µg/L
Molinate C9H17NOS 6 µg/L
Pendimethalin C13H19O4N3 20 µg/L
Pentachlorophenol(PCP) C6HCl5O 9 µg/L
Permethrin C21H20Cl2O3 20 µg/L
Propanil C9H9Cl2NO 20 µg/L
Pyridate C19H23ClN2O2S 100 µg/L
Simazine C7H12Cl N5 2 µg/L
Trifluralin C13H16F3N3O4 20 µg/L
Chlorophenoxy herbicides (excluding 2,4-D & MCPA)
2,4-DB C10H10Cl2O3 90 µg/L
Dichlorprop C9H8Cl2O3 100 µg/L
Fenoprop C9H7Cl3O3 9 µg/L
MCPB C11H13Cl O3 No guideline
MECoprop C10H11ClO3 10 µg/L
2,4,5-T C8H5Cl3O3 9 µg/L
33
Table 1.7Disinfectants and disinfectant by- products Standards48
Group Substance Formula Health based guideline by the WHO
Disinfectants
Chloramines NHnCl(3-n), where n=0, 1 or 2 3 µg/L
Chlorine Cl2 5 µg/L
Chlorine dioxide ClO2 No guideline
Iodine I2 No guideline
Disinfectant by- products
Bromate Br O-3 25 µg/L
Chlorate Cl O-3 No guideline
Chlorite Cl O2 200 µg/L
Chlorophenols 2-chlorophenol (2-CP) C6 H5Cl O No guideline
2,4-Dichlorophenol (2,4-DCP) C6 H4 Cl2O No guideline
2,4,6-Trichlorophenol (2,4,6-TCP) C6 H3 Cl3O 200 µg/L
Formaldehyde HCHO 900 µg/L
MX(3-Chloro-4-dichloromethyl-5-hydroxy-2(5H)-furanone)
C5 H3 Cl3 O3 No guideline
Trihalomethanes
Bromoform C H Br3 100 µg/L
Dibromochloromethane CH Br2Cl 100 µg/L
Bromodichloromethane CH BrCl2 60 µg/L
Chloroform CH Cl3 200 µg/L
Chlorinated acetic acids
Monochloroacetic acid C2 H3 ClO2 No guideline
34
Dichloroacetic acid C2 H2Cl2O2 50 µg/L
Trichloroacetic acid C2 H Cl3 O2 100 µg/L
Chloral hydrate(trichloroacet aldehyde) C Cl3CH(OH)2 10 µg/L
Chloroacetones C3 H5OCl No guideline
Halogenated acetonitriles
Dichloroacetonitrile C2 HCl2 N 90 µg/L
Dibromoacetonitrile C2 H Br2N 100 µg/L
Bromochloroacetonitrile CHCl2 CN No guideline
Trichloroacetonitrile C2 Cl3 N 1 µg/L
Cyanogen chloride ClCN 70 µg/L
Chloropicrin CCl3 NO2 No guideline
Table: 1.8Guidelines for Irrigation water quality56
Sr.
No. Parameter Desirable limit Remark
1
pH- 5.5-6.0 Ideal
>7.0 Causes problems
2 EC
<1.5 Desired range
>1.5 Potential problem
>3.0 Will burn under certain condition
35
3 Sodium adsorption
ratio(SAR)
<6.0 Desired range (will add Ca to the soil)
>6.0 (will trip Ca from the soil)
4 Calcium 40-120 ppm Desired range
5 Magnesium 6-24 ppm Desired range
6 Potassium 5-10 ppm Desired range
7 Sodium 0-50 ppm Desired range
8 Iron 2-5 ppm Desired range
9 Total alkalinity 1-100 ppm Desired range
10 Carbonate <50 ppm Desired range
11 Bicarbonate <120 ppm Desired range
12 Chloride <140 ppm Desired range
13 Sulphate <400 ppm Desired range
14 Salt Concentration
<960 ppm Desired range
>1900 ppm Increased burn potential and poor tank mix operation
15 Boron 2-8 ppm -
16 Cat ion/Anion Ratio 1:1 Ideal ratio
36
Table 1.9 Suitability of water with different constituents for irrigation 56.
Parameter Class-I Class-II Class-III
TD Sin. mg/L 0-700 700-2000 72000
pH 6.4-8.4 5.16-6.4 and 8.5-9.5 0-5 and g+
Chlorides in mg/L 0-142 142-355 >355
% Na 0-60 60-75 >75
EC in mmohs/cm 0-0.750 0.0750-2.250 >2.250
SAR 0-10.0 10-26 >26
Mg in mg/L <50 - >50
Guidelines for soil:-
The heavy metal contents in soil where compare with phytotoxic levelsreported by
Kabata-pendias and pendias67 and GLC guideline68. Table2.1 shows the phytotoxic levels and
GLC guideline for the various elements.
Table 1.10phytotoxic level and GLC guidelines
Element Phytotoxic
Level
GLC Guidelines (All Units mg/L)
I II III IV V
Cu 60-125 100 200 500 2500 >2500
Pb 100-400 200 500 1000 5000 >5000
Zn 70-400 250 500 1000 5000 >5000
Ni 1500-3000 200 500 2000 1000 >1000
Fe - 30 50 100 500 >500
As 15-50 200 200 500 2500 >2500
Mg* - - - - - -
37
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