Chapter 10home.iitk.ac.in/~jrkumar/download/Chapter 10 - On... · 2019-02-01 · Chapter 10 On-Machine Metrology for Hybrid Machining Processes Dr. J. Ramkumar1 and Vijay Mandal2

Chapter 10

On-Machine Metrology for Hybrid Machining Processes

Dr. J. Ramkumar1 and Vijay Mandal2

1Professor and 2Research Student

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Micromanufacturing Lab, I.I.T. Kanpur


1. Introduction.

(Concept of surface metrology.)

2. Optical methods for On-Machine surface Metrology .

(Criteria for the development of OMM system, advantages of optical techniques.)

3. Challenges from offline to On-machine Metrology.

(Overview of various optical methods and their suitability for application to OMM system.)

4. Case study: On-Machine Measurement using Dispersed Reference Interferometry.

(The working principle and hardware design of the DRI system)

5. DRI on-machine calibration.

(On-machine vibration test, machine kinematic error compensation and linearity error

calibration.)

6. Application of DRI to an ultra precision diamond turning machine.

7. Conclusions

8. References

Organization of the presentation


1. Introduction

Surface metrology refers to the measurement that describes the deviation of a

structured surface from its ideal shape. It is the science that deals with the

measurement of topography, i.e. the characterization of a surface by the

amplitude, spacing and shape of its features [2].

Surface measurement is fundamental to further enhance machining accuracy

and efficiency in manufacturing.

On-machine metrology (OMM) has become very popular as it can avoid

time-consuming realignment operations and possible damage during the

transportation between machine and measurement platform.

3 terms commonly used in surface characterization:-

i) Form

ii) Waviness

iii) Roughness 1 Micromanufacturing Lab, I.I.T. Kanpur

Form refers to the deviations caused bysuch factors as errors of a machine tool,distortions such as gravity and thermaleffects, spindles, or incorrect alignmentof the workpiece. It has low frequencycomponents on a surface.

Waviness has medium frequencycomponents and is more strictly definedas the irregularities whose spacing isgreater than the roughness samplinglength. It results from the machinedeflections and vibration.

Roughness has high frequency or shortwavelength components and representsthe fine irregularities normally causedby the manufacturing process includingthe impression left by grinding orpolishing.

1. Introduction

Fig. Roughness, waviness, and form of a

measured surface [3-6].2 Micromanufacturing Lab, I.I.T. Kanpur

Criteria For The Development Of On-machine Optical Surface Metrology System

Implementing On-machine metrology(OMM) requires a measurement

instrument capable of integrating into a platform executing a manufacturing

process.

Instrumentation for this task is ideally highly automated and requires minimal

operator interaction, while at the same time coping with the challenges posed

by the localized environment.

“On-machine” metrology is distinct from “in-process” metrology as the

former considers only measurement with the manufacturing process at a halt.

The latter involves active measurement during a machining process which

brings substantial extra challenge in terms of dealing with environmental and

dynamic effects.

2. Optical methods for On-Machine surface Metrology [1]

3 Micromanufacturing Lab, I.I.T. Kanpur

Advantages of Optical Techniques for Measurement:-

• Optical methods of metrology are the most realistic solution to the vastmajority of OMM applications.

• They allow fast, noncontact measurement of surface topography anddimensions.

• Optical techniques can operate effectively over scales ranging fromnanometers to meters meaning there is a high level of applicability acrossmany types of manufacturing.

• For instance, structured light (fringe projection) and deflectometrytechniques can measure large parts such as car body panels to micronlevels of form accuracy while phase shifting interferometry can measureform error in optics in nanometers.



Measurement instrumentation must meet some or all of the following

criteria in order to be suitable for implementing OMM, depending on the

specific application:

• Small physical size

• Low cost

• High speed

• High dynamic range

• Highly automated

• High vibration tolerance

• Environmental tolerance

• Robust to contaminants

• Robust to electromagnetic interference

• Measurement flexibility



No single optical measurement technology is currently suitable for all

measurand types or machine environments.

Commonly used commercial technologies are:-

• Coherence Scanning Interferometry (CSI)

• Focus Variation (FV)

• Laser Scanning Confocal Microscopy (LSCM)

All these provide areal surface topography measurement.

3. Challenges from offline to on-machine metrology [1]


FV LSCM CSI

Working

Principle

Focus-Variation integrates

the small depth of focus of

an optical system with

vertical scanning to give

color and topographical

data from the variation of

focus. It relies upon

analyzing contrast changes

between adjacent pixels as

the focus position changes

during axial scanning.

In LSCM a finely

focused beam of laser

light is scanned across

a sample. Additionally,

by varying the stage

height, a series of

sequential images

through the thickness

of a single sample can

be collected and used

to project a 3D image.

Coherence scanning

interferometry (CSI) is a 3D

imaging technique used to

measure areal surface

topography. It combines the

vertical resolution of an

interferometer with the lateral

resolution of a high-power

microscope and provides a fast,

non-contacting alternative to

contact stylus profilometers.

Characte

ristics

It is only effective on

textured surfaces but is

able to measure very high

slopes due to its ability to

incorporate external

illumination.

LSCM can measure

both rough and smooth

surfaces and provides

the highest possible

lateral resolutions for a

given lateral

magnification.

CSI provides a consistent axial

measurement resolution across

all lateral magnifications, a

distinct advantage over FV and

LSCM.CSI is suited for the

measurement of both low and

moderate roughness surfaces.


FV, CSI, and LSCM require the physical scanning of the objective lens to

obtain surface topography.

The cost and size of this mechanical scanning apparatus which involves

microscope or dedicated interference objectives as well as a camera are

significant drawbacks.

In addition the measurement process, while providing areal datasets and

thus data rich, is slow because of the requirement to capture many frames at

varying positions.

Wavelength Scanning Interferometry (WSI) dispenses with mechanical

scanning in favor of scanning the illumination wavelength. It provides a

higher measurement but the depth of field is fixed and limited, especially at

high magnifications.



For any measurement technique requiring data acquisition over a fixed period,vibration can cause movement of the measurand in between camera framesleading to measurement errors.

One solution for interferometric methods is the stabilization of the measurementsystem through translation of the reference mirror position using a closed-loopfeedback system to match the vibration of the measurand.

Commercially a similar technique has been shown by Zygo with use of model-based phase shifting interferometry (MPSI) at a high frequency to stabilize theDynafiz and Verifire range of interferometers.

A beneficial side-effect of this is the video-rate areal measurement feedback thatthe MPSI provides to operators which increases ease of use and decreasessetup/sample alignment time.

A limitation of approaches such as these is that the stabilization interferometercan only correct on-axis vibration errors.



Therefore the major challenges are:-

i) overcoming the low measurement rate

ii) susceptibility to vibration of metrology instruments

These have been the drivers for the development of single-shot methods whichcan broadly be defined as either spatial phase shifting interferometry, orinstantaneous interferometry.

Division of the wave front into multiple reference and measurement pathswhich experience unique phase shifts, usually by polarization, allowsencoding of the phase information spatially instead of temporally.

Deflectometry and fringe projection provide measurement through theprojection of a pattern of known shape on specular and diffuse surfacesrespectively.



While of lower resolution than interferometric methods, microdeflectometry hasbeen demonstrated for OMM of specular diamond turned samples.

While these methods may be unsuitable for measurement of roughness and smallfeatures they have potential to offer excellent value for money for formmeasurement of tens of microns and upwards due to the simplicity of the apparatusused.

The requirement for compact measurement instrumentation in many on-machineapplications often forces compromise of instrument function to facilitate OMM.

Limited work volumes associated with hybrid machining centers may in somecases exclude the use of areal surface topography measuring instruments altogetherdue to their large physical size.



More limited measurement sensors may still provide useful metrology forcontrolling processes.

Moving toward single-point measurement, the availability of miniature fiber-linked probes, interrogated by remotely located optical instrumentationbecomes attractive when the limited machining volumes excludes use ofbulkier areal methods of metrology.

The availability of precision motion stages for machining encourages use ofmethods such as

i) MWLI (Multi Wavelength Interferometry)

ii) CCS (Confocal Chromatic Sensors)

iii) LCI (Low-coherence interferometry)

iv) DRI (Dispersed Reference Interferometry)

for surface topography and dimensional assessment of manufactured products.



The last decade in techniques surrounding Spectral Interferometry (SI) for

displacement and surface topography.

The primary advantage of SI techniques is that they do not require the

mechanical scanning of an objective lens unlike for instance, Scanning

White Light Interferometry, Focus Variation (FV), And Laser Scanning

Confocal Microscopy (LSCM) techniques.

All SI techniques work by analyzing sets of spectral interferograms, each of

which is generated at a distinct wavelength of light. The method of generating

spectral interferograms is apparatus dependent but generally involves either:

i) Changing the source wavelength over time, while capturing a number of

interferograms sequentially; or

ii) Using a spectrometer/monochromator to separate broadband interfered

light into discrete components at discrete wavelengths.

4. Case study: on-machine measurement using Dispersed Reference Interferometry [1]


Advantages of SI:-

• The dynamics of methods of sweeping source wavelengths and/orreading out from detector arrays are such that it is possible to acquire therequired data relatively quickly compared to those techniques employingmechanical scanning.

• This can be a useful attribute because it enables scope for higher speedmeasurement; not only attractive for many general measurementapplications, but also a key factor for implementing effective OMMbecause of the requirement to minimize the interruption of themanufacturing process.

• Furthermore, it can allow for the reduction in the overall footprint whichis of importance in applications having constrained working volumes.

4. Case study: on-machine measurement using Dispersed Reference Interferometry [1]


Fig. Idealized spectral interferograms generated by a DRI having a chromatic

constant dispersion with respect to wavenumber [7-10].

DRI is a form of SI.

In DRI, spectral interferograms are generated that feature a stationaryphase point which occurs at an equalization wavelength located wherethe interferometer optical path difference (OPD) is zero.

Analysis of the spectral interferograms from DRI allows thedetermination of the OPD in absolute terms, with previously reportedworks across a variety of implementations demonstrating submicronresolutions [7, 9].

4. Case study: on-machine measurement Using Dispersed Reference Interferometry


Figure shows a simplified Michelson interferometer having dispersion applied

in the reference arm. The DRI system which implements the necessary

chromatic dispersion by using a pair of matched diffraction gratings. The above

Michelson interferometer has dispersion applied by two matched transmission

gratings (G1, G2) in the reference arm formed between the beam splitter (BS)

and mirror, M2.

The gratings are identical, separated by a

distance, l and aligned to ensure parallelism. As

the beam exits G1 it is angularly dispersed,

resulting in a wavenumber dependent path length

r(k) resulting from the diffracted angle,

θ = arcsin(2π/kD)

Here D is the grating period Fig. Schematic of the DRI structure [1]

Principle of DRI

4. Case study: on-machine measurement using Dispersed Reference Interferometry


The wavenumber dependent path length in air produced by the grating pair isthen

After passage though grating G2, the beam is re-collimated and

retroreflected by the reference mirror, M2. The total dispersion produced is

doubled by the round trip of the reference beam through the grating pair. The

overall OPD in the interferometer is then simply the difference between the

OPDs in the reference and measurement arms.

The wavenumber dependent interference intensity, neglecting any spatialdependence in the axial plane for simplicity, is then,

where the interferometer phase is φ(k)=k*OPD and V is the fringevisibility[1].

4. Case study: on-machine measurement using Dispersed Reference Interferometry


In the case where the dispersion produced by the gratings G1 and G2 is

approximately linear the resulting phase function is parabolic with a vertex

appearing at the wavenumber, at which the OPD is zero.

The occurrence of this vertex, or stationary phase point, manifests as a point of

symmetry in the resulting interferograms as shown in Fig.

It is possible to measure the modulation of OPD by surface topography if a

suitable objective lens is used to focus the measurement beam onto the

measurand.

Fig. Idealized spectral interferogram (blue) and normalized

auto convolution result (red) [1].



Fig. Idealized spectral interferograms showing fringe evolution for consecutive OPD

increases of several nm [1].

Fig. Signal processing steps for spectral interferograms detection using template

matching [1].



DRI system working

Figure in next slide shows the arrangement of a DRI instrument using thediscussed "remote probe” topology.

The instrument comprises an interrogation interferometer, which consists of themajority of the optical components, and a simple probe that is situated in theworking volume close to the measurand.

The instrument operates as a “single-point” measurement system, i.e., thedatasets built up sequentially with kinematics being provided by the motionstages in the machine tool.

Fig. Structure of the fiber-linked probe [1].



DRI System Design

Fig. Schematic representation of the DRI with fiber-linked probe [1].



Light from a fiber-coupled super-luminescent diode (center wavelength 853 nm,

linewidth 57.5 nm, optical power 5 5 mW) is incident on an evanescent coupler

and propagates through to the remote fiber-linked probe.

At the point the light exits the fiber Fresnel reflection, due to the index mismatch

at the fiber/air interface, results in approximately 4% of the light power being

retro-reflected back into the fiber.

The rest of the light enters free space where it is first collimated and then incident

on an aspheric objective lens (effective focal length 56.24, effective NA 0.32).

On reflection from the measurand the returning light is collected by the objective

and then propagates back to the interrogation interferometer; this forms the

effective DRI measurement arm.



Once the reference and measurement light returns to the interrogationinterferometer it enters a Michelson interferometer with two armsformed between the BS and the mirrors M1 and M2 respectively.

One of these arms contains the disperser formed from two gratingswhich is essential to the operation of DRI.

The resulting spectral interferogram is then captured by a spectrometerformed from the grating (G3), spherical mirror, and an 8192 pixelCMOS line array detector.

Fig. Spectral interferogram captured from the DRI instrument with fiber-linked probe

[1].



DRI System Specification


24

• The maximum axial measurement resolution is based upon noise

floor of the instrument which was determined experimentally to be

1.6 nm.

• The measurement rate possible is defined by the maximum readout

rate for the Charge-coupled device (CCD) line array (12 kHz).

• This assumes sufficient computational power is available to execute

real-time signal processing and that in the described apparatus the

optical power is sufficient to maintain this measurement rate.


Machine Tool Calibration For On-machine metrology(OMM), the measurement probe is carried by the

machine tool axes to cover the inspection area. Due to mechanical imperfections,

wear of machine tool elements, and stage misalignments, the deviation from the

programmed scanning path will induce additional measurement errors [11]. The

influence of machine tool kinematic errors on measurement results needs to be

modelled, measured, and compensated.

Fig. Error kinematic chain for on-machine

measurement system [1].


25

Kinematic error modelling in machine

tools is based on rigid body kinematic

[12] and multibody system theory. For

the three-axis turning configuration in

the current work, there are two

kinematic error chains shown in Figure.


Based on rigid body kinematics, transformation matrix describes the coordinate transformation from coordinate k to coordinate j, which comprises four component matrices and can be formulated as:

The overall configuration of the machine tool coordinate systems is shown in next slide.

location

transformation

matrixlocation error

transformation matrix

motion (translation or

rotation) transformation

matrix

motion (translation or

rotation) error

transformation matrix



Fig. Configuration of the machine tool coordinate systems [1]



Fig. Machine kinematic error map [1]

Based on the error

measurement and kinematic

model established, the

machine tool kinematic error

as shown in Fig

Four selected error components

are considered as primary factors

affecting the OMM results in the

sensitive Z direction. The X axis

straightness in the Z direction EZX,

squareness error between X axis

and C axis EBOC, C axis axial error

EZC, and C axis tilt error EBC.



Measuring conditions vary with machine configuration, probing system

setup, and measurement task.

Calibration of the OMM system is thus considered to be a task-specific

process [13].

Three aspects of this calibration process are taken into consideration and

discussed in the following sections: on-machine vibration test, machine

kinematic error compensation, and linearity error calibration.

5. DRI On-Machine Calibration


30

[1]


On-Machine Vibration Test It is necessary to conduct on-machine vibration testing and analysis to assess its

relationship with the sampling frequency, scanning parameters, and filtration

operations in post processing.

The induced vibration components onto the OMM result should be filtered out for

accurate characterization of the surface form and topography.

The relationship between λtopo and Ftopo is described as follows:

λTopo=𝐹𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒

𝐹𝑇𝑜𝑝𝑜

where λtopo is the wavelength of the surface topography of interest and Ftopo is the

corresponding frequency



According to the topography band of interest and vibration test results, afrequency decision graph is plotted , providing guidance in selection of theproper scanning parameters and sampling frequency.

Fig. Sampling frequency decision graph [1].


32

For a given scanning

feedrate, the topography

frequency of interest

should be lower than the

vibration frequency shown

in the hatched region.

To meet the requirement

for avoiding signal

aliasing, lower scanning

speed and higher sampling

frequency.Micromanufacturing Lab, I.I.T. Kanpur

Fig. Vibration Test Results

The vibration measurement results under different test modes are summarized in

Table.

The static vibration test was performed when the machine is in static condition,

while the scanning vibration test was performed when the machine axes moves

simultaneously to measure the sample surface.

In the table above, static vibration on the machine is nearly four times the DRI

internal noise in the laboratory environment, indicating the machine tool

environmental effect on the measurement.



[14]

The multiple radial scanning

vibration results and frequency

analysis are shown respectively in

Fig. A and B.

Selection of the DRI sampling

frequency should meet the

requirement for inspection of the

bandwidth of interest on the scale

limited surface and avoid signal

aliasing.

The spectrum analysis in figure B

indicates the primary vibration

components are less than 100 Hz

and the sampling frequency of DRI

probe is consequently set to be 200

Hz.


Fig.A & B. Scanning vibration test [1].


Machine Tool Kinematic Error Compensation

Fig. DRI measurement (A), scanning error map (B), and Fisba measurement (C), of optical flat [1].

To validate the proposed kinematics error compensation method, a commercial

optical flat was adopted and measured on-machine.

The probe was scanned over the sample in a spiral path with C axis rotational

speed of 1 rpm and X axis feed rate of 2 mm/min.

The flat was measured offline on a calibrated Twyman-Green interferometer

and this offline result was regarded as the accurate representation of the flat

surface form. The measurement results and scanning error map are shown in

Fig.



Fig. DRI measurement (A), versus combination of scanning error

and Fisba measurement (B)[1].

The similarity of two results in Figure below indicates that DRI OMM is the

superposition of machine kinematic error and flat form error.

Using this approach the characterized flatness error from OMM reduced from

17.3 to 11.4 nm, compared with results of the calibrated offline measurement of

8.7 nm.

The optical flat measurement by DRI on-machine and offline Twyman-Green

interferometer indicates that the kinematics error compensation can effectively

increase the accuracy of the OMM system.



Amplification Coefficient and Linearity Error Correction

To further analyze and improve the OMM performance it is necessary to

calibrate the response curve of the instrument in the machine tool environment.

The linearity error is defined as the maximum deviation of the instrument

response curve from the linear fitted curve where the slope is the

amplification coefficient [15].

The artefact is designed with four nominal step heights (1, 2, 4, and 8 μm) to

cover the necessary working range in the Z direction.

By fitting a first order polynomial curve to the characterization results of the

different step heights, the linearity errors and amplification coefficient are

consequently derived.



Mean step height and repeatability is reported over all radial profiles with threerepeated measurements. Measurement error δerror is defined as the differencebetween multiple step height value of OMM and that of offline calibrated whitelight interferometer (Talysurf CCI 3000, Taylor Hobson).

The CCI result was also employed as the calibrated values to correct the DRIlinearity error.

Fig. Flow chart of step height characterization [1].



Fig.(A) and (B) show the uncorrected and corrected error plot for the step height

measurement.

The error bars represent the measurement repeatability calculated as the standard

deviation of the mean values.

After calibration, slope correction coefficient was 1.0123 and the linearity error

was reduced from 93 to 14 nm.


Fig. Uncorrected (A) and corrected (B) error plot of the step height measurement [1]


6. Application of DRI to Diamond Turning Machine

Fig. OMM system setup [1].

• The DRI probe is integrated onto an ultra precision diamond turning

machine, equipped with two linear hydrostatic axes and a high precision air

bearing spindle.

• The DRI fiber-linked probe is mounted on to a manual adjustment stage for

the purpose of the alignment process and the DRI measurement setup is

installed beside the diamond tool holder on the Z axis.


Before OMM operation, the DRI probe is aligned coaxially to the spindle

rotational axis by means of multiple scanning of a convex sphere sample.

The fitted apex point can be considered as the coaxial position and is saved

in the machine tool coordinate system.

Three measurement paths (multiple radial, multiple circular, and spiral)

with corresponding applicable surfaces are illustrated in Fig.

Fig. Multiple radial, multiple circular, spiral measurement paths [1].



To evaluate the performance of DRI OMM and effectiveness of the machining-

measurement closed loop process, experimental work is carried out.

A 2D cosine curve (Z =Acos 2π/λX ) with A=5 μm and λ=2.5 mm was fabricated

on an aluminum sample, followed by the DRI OMM.

Six measurement profiles were spaced across the surface at equal angles (30

degrees) as shown in figure.

Fig. Multiple radial scanning measurement [1].



In order to find out the correlation between the online and offline measurements,

offline measurements of the machined sample were carried out using a calibrated

stylus PGI profilometer (Talysurf PGI, Taylor Hobson). For comparison, the 0o

profile of DRI OMM was extracted.

Fig A and B in next slide shows the DRI on-machine and PGI offline

measurements, respectively.

It is observed that the DRI OMM agrees well with the PGI offline measurement

in terms of form evaluation.

The derived form error also has similar shape and the characterization

parameters difference is less than 10%, described in Table.



Fig. Measurement results and error analysis of DRI OMM (A) and PGI

offline measurement (B) [1].

Fig. Comparison of Form Error Characterization [1]



For the purpose of similarity quantification, Pearson’s correlationcoefficient was employed as a measure of correlation between the twoprofiles measurements, which is described as [16]

Where Sx and Sy are the sample standard deviation. The calculatedcoefficient between DRI OMM and PGI offline measurement is P50.991(close to 1), which indicates the DRI OMM result agrees well with theresult of PGI offline measurement.



Procedure of corrective machining

The proposed procedure of corrective machining is illustrated in figure in next

slide.

After the initial cutting process, the sample surface was measured on-machine

by DRI probe scanning.

Subsequently, multiple radial measurement results were compared with CAD

design model and 2D compensation tool path was subsequently generated based

on the measured error profiles.

The corrective machining was then executed until the error was less than the

tolerance value.



Fig. Flow chart of profile error correction process [1].



Profile error before and after

correction process was derived

and compared, as shown Fig.

The experiment results in

Table, show that the profile

accuracy was improved from

104.7 nm (RMS) and 495.2

nm (PV), to 58.6 nm (RMS)

and 257.6 nm (PV).

Table: Profile Error Correction Results [1]Fig. Profile error correction results[1]



7. Conclusions

➢ The concept of surface metrology and optical methods for OMM was

reviewed.

➢ The applications of optical methods for OMM and the calibration of machine

tools was discussed. From the case study of the application of DRI for OMM

on a diamond turning machine the differences between OMM and measurement

in an optical lab were presented.

➢ OMM allows us to avoid time-consuming realignment operations and possible

damage during the transportation between machine and measurement platform.

➢ For OMM, the machine static and motion vibration tend to induce additional

error of measurement results.

➢ Proper selection of the sampling frequency and scanning parameters is

important to achieve a better on-machine measurement result.

➢ Other techniques besides DRI such as MWLI, CCS, LCI can also be studied

for application to OMM.


1

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Development of a Basis for 3D Surface Texture Standards “Surfstand”., Elsevier,

Amsterdam, 2003.

[4] ISO, Geometrical Product Specifications (GPS)--Surface Texture: Profile

Method--Terms, Definitions and Surface Texture Parameters. 1997: International

Organization for Standardization.

[5] J. Raja, B. Muralikrishnan, S. Fu, Recent advances in separation of roughness,

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[6] S. Texture, Surface roughness, waviness and lay, Am. Soc. Mech. Eng. Standard

B 46 (1995) 1.

[7] P. Hlubina, Dispersive white-light spectral interferometry to measure distances

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8. References


1

8. References

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wavelengths processed by autoconvolution method, SPIE Proc. 5064 (2002)

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8. References


55

Thank You


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Chapter 10home.iitk.ac.in/~jrkumar/download/Chapter 10 - On... · 2019-02-01 · Chapter 10 On-Machine Metrology for Hybrid Machining Processes Dr. J. Ramkumar1 and Vijay Mandal2