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Preface xvii
Chapter JINTRODUCTIONANDBASICCONCEPTS I 1
I-I Thermodynamics and Energy 2ApplicationAreasof Thermodynamics 3
Importance of Dimensions and UnitsSomeSIand EnglishUnits 6DimensionalHomogeneity 8UnityConversionRatios 9
Systems and Control Volumes
Properties of a System 12Continuum12
31-2
1-3
1-4
10
1-5
1-6Density and Specific Gravity 13
State and Equi]ibrium 14TheStatePostulate 14
Processes and Cycles 15TheSteady-FlowProcess 16
Temperature and the Zeroth Lawof Thermodynamics 17TemperatureScales 17The InternationalTemperatureScaleof 1990 (ITS-90) 20
Pressure 21Variationof Pressurewith Depth 23
1-10 The Manometer 26OtherPressureMeasurementDevices 29
]-7
1-8
1-9
I-II The Barometer and Atmospheric Pressure
]-12 Problem-Solving Technique 33Step 1: ProblemStatement 33Step2: Schematic 33Step3: Assumptionsand Approximations 34Step4: PhysicalLaws 34Step5: Properties 34Step6: Calculations 34Step7: Reasoning,Verification,and Discussion 34EngineeringSoftwarePackages 35EngineeringEquationSolver(EES) 36A Remarkon SignificantDigits 38
29
Summary 39Referencesand SuggestedReadingsProblems 40
Chapter 2ENERGY,ENERGYTRANSFER,AND GENERALENERGYANALYSISI 51
2-1
2-2
Introduction 52
Forms of Energy 53Some PhysicalInsight to Internal Energy 55Moreon Nuclear Energy 56MechanicalEnergy 58
Energy Transfer by Heat 60Historical Backgroundon Heat 61
2-3
2-4
2-5
Energy Transfer by WorkElectricalWork 65
Mechanica] Forms of Work 66ShaftWork 66SpringWork 67Work Doneon ElasticSolid Bars 67
WorkAssociatedwith the Stretchingof a Liquid Film 68Work Doneto Raiseor to Acceleratea Body 68NonmechanicalFormsof Work 69
62
2-6 The First Law of Thermodynamics 70EnergyBalance 71
EnergyChangeof a System,D.Esystem72Mechanismsof EnergyTransfer,E;nand Eout 73
Energy Conversion Efficiencies 78Efficienciesof Mechanicaland ElectricalDevices 82
Energy and Environment 86Ozoneand Smog 87Acid Rain 88The GreenhouseEffect:GlobalWarming
and ClimateChange 89
TopicofSpecial Interest:Mechanismsof HeatTransfer 92
2-7
2-8
Summary 96Referencesand SuggestedReadings 97Problems 98
ix
x Contents
Chapter 3.PROPERTIESOFPURESUBSTANCESI 111
3-1
3-2
3-3
Pure Substance 112
Phases of a Pure Substance 112
3-4
Phase-Change Processesof Pure Substances 113CompressedLiquidand SaturatedLiquid 114Saturated Vapor and Superheated Vapor 114Saturation Temperature and Saturation Pressure 115Some Consequences of Tsatand PsatDependence 117
Property Diagrams for Phase-ChangeProcesses 1181 The T-vDiagram 1182 The P-v Diagram 120Extendingthe Diagramsto Includethe SolidPhase 1213 The P-TDiagram 124The P-v-TSurface 125
3-5 Property Tables 126Enthalpy-A Combination Property 1261a Saturated Liquid and Saturated Vapor States 1271b Saturated Liquid-Vapor Mixture 1292 Superheated Vapor 1323 Compressed Liquid 133Reference State and Reference Values 135
3-6 The Ideal-Gas Equation of State 137Is Water Vapor an Ideal Gas7 139
Compressibility Factor-A Measureof Deviation from Ideal-Gas Behavior 139
Other Equations of State 144Van der Waals Equation of State 144Beattie-Bridgeman Equation of State 145Benedict-Webb-Rubin Equation of State 145Virial Equation of State 145
Topicof Special Interest: VaporPressureandPhaseEquilibrium 149
3-7
3-8
Summary 153Referencesand SuggestedReadings 154Problems 154
ENERGYANALYSISOFCLOSEDSYSTEMS I 165
4-1 166Moving Boundary WorkPolytropic Process 171
Energy Balance for Closed Systems
Specific Heats 178
1734-2
4-3
4-4
4-5
Internal Energy, Enthalpy, and Specific Heatsof Ideal Gases 180SpecificHeat Relations of Ideal Gases 182
Internal Energy, Enthalpy, and Specific Heatsof Solids and Liquids 189InternalEnergyChanges 189Enthalpy Changes 189
TopicofSpecial Interest: ThermodynamicAspectsof BiologicalSystems 193
Summary 200References and Suggested Readings 201Problems 201
ChapterMASSANDENERGYANALYSISOF CONTROLVOLUMES I 219
5-1 Conservation of Mass 220Massand VolumeFlow Rates 220Conservation of Mass Principle 222Mass Balance for Steady-Flow Processes 223Special Case: Incompressible Flow 224
Flow Work and the Energyof a Flowing Fluid 226Total Energy of a Flowing Fluid 227Energy Transport by Mass 228
5-2
5-3
5-4
Energy Analysis of Steady-Flow Systems
Some Steady-Flow Engineering Devices1 Nozzles and Diffusers 2332 Turbines and Compressors 2363 Throttling Valves 2394a MixingChambers 2404b Heat Exchangers 2425 Pipeand DuctFlow 244
Energy Analysis of Unsteady-FlowProcesses 246
230
233
5-5
TopicofSpecialInterest:GeneralEnergyEquation252
Summary 255Referencesand SuggestedReadings 256Problems 256
Chapter 6THESECONDLAWOFTHERMODYNAMICSI 279
6-1
6-2
Introduction to the Second Law 280
Thermal Energy Reservoirs 281
6-3 Heat Engines 282ThermalEfficiency 283CanWeSaveQaut? 285TheSecondLawof Thermodynamics;
Kelvin-PlanckStatement 287
Refrigerators and Heat Pumps 287Coefficientof Performance 288HeatPumps 289TheSecondLawof Thermodynamics;
ClausiusStatement 292Equivalenceof the TwoStatements 292
6-4
6-5
6-6
Perpetual-Motion Machines 293
Reversible and Irreversible Processes 296Irreversibilities297InternallyandExternallyReversibleProcesses298
The Carnot Cycle 299The ReversedCarnotCycle 301
6-7
6-8 The Carnot Principles 301
6-9 The Thermodynamic Temperature Scale 303
6-10 The Carnot Heat Engine 305TheQualityof Energy 307QuantityversusQualityin DailyLife 308
6-11 The Carnot Refrigerator and Heat Pump 309
TopicofSpecialInterest:HouseholdRefrigerators311
Summary 315ReferencesandSuggestedReadings316Problems316
ChapterZENTROPYI 331
7-1 Entropy 331ASpecialCase;InternallyReversibleIsothermalHeat
TransferProcesses 334
7-2 335
7-3
7-4
7-5
7-6
The Increase of Entropy PrincipleSomeRemarksabout Entropy 337
Entropy Change of Pure Substances 339
Isentropic Processes 343
Property Diagrams Involving Entropy 344
What Is Entropy? 346Entropyand EntropyGenerationin DailyLife 348
7-7
7-8
7-9
The T ds Relations 350
Entropy Change of Liquids and Solids 351
The Entropy Change of Ideal Gases 354ConstantSpecific Heats(ApproximateAnalysis) 355VariableSpecific Heats(ExactAnalysis) 356
Contents xi
IsentropicProcessesof IdealGases 358ConstantSpecific Heats(ApproximateAnalysis) 358VariableSpecificHeats(ExactAnalysis) 359RelativePressureand RelativeSpecificVolume 359
7-10 Reversible Steady-Flow Work 362Proofthat Steady-FlowDevicesDeliver
the Mostand Consumethe LeastWorkwhen the ProcessIs Reversible 365
7-11 Minimizing the Compressor Work 366MultistageCompressionwith Intercooling 367
7-12 Isentropic Efficiencies of Steady-FlowDevices 370IsentropicEfficiencyofTurbines 371IsentropicEfficienciesofCompressorsandPumps 373IsentropicEfficiencyofNozzles 375
7-13 Entropy Balance 377EntropyChangeof a System,I1Ssystem378Mechanismsof EntropyTransfer,Sinand Sout 3781 HeatTransfer 3782 MassFlow 379
EntropyGeneration,Sgen 380ClosedSystems 381ControlVolumes 381EntropyGenerationAssociatedwith a HeatTransfer
Process 389
Topicof Special Interest: Reducingthe Costof CompressedAir 391
Summary 400Referencesand SuggestedReadings 401Problems 402
Chapter 8EXERGY:A MEASUREOFWORKPOTENTIALI 423
8-1 Exergy: Work Potential of Energy 424Exergy(WorkPotential)AssociatedwithKinetic
andPotentialEnergy 425
Reversible Work and Irreversibility 427
Second-Law Efficiency, 1711432
Exergy Change of a System 434Exergyof a FixedMass;Nonflow(or ClosedSystem)
Exergy 435Exergyof a FlowStream;Flow(or Stream)Exergy 437
Exergy Transfer by Heat, Work, and Mass 440Exergyby HeatTransfer,Q 440ExergyTransferby Work, W 442ExergyTransferby Mass,m 442
The Decrease of Exergy Principleand Exergy Destruction 443ExergyDestruction 444
8-2
8-3
8-4
8-5
8-6
xii
8-7
8-8
Contents
Exergy Balance: Closed Systems 444
Exergy Balance: Control Volumes 457ExergyBalancefor Steady-Flow Systems 458ReversibleWork,Wrev 459Second-LawEfficiencyof Steady-FlowDevices,7)11 459
TopicofSpecialInterest:Second-LawAspectsofDailyLife 465
Summary 469Referencesand SuggestedReadings 470Problems 470
Chapter9GASPOWERCYCLES I 487
9-1 Basic Considerations in the Analysisof Power Cycles 488
The Carnot Cycle and Its Valuein Engineering 490
Air-Standard Assumptions 492
An Overview of Reciprocating Engines 493
Otto Cycle: The Ideal Cyclefor Spark-Ignition Engines 494
Diesel Cycle: The Ideal Cyclefor Compression-Ignition Engines 500
Stirling and Ericsson Cycles 503
Brayton Cycle: The Ideal Cyclefor Gas-Turbine Engines 507Developmentof GasTurbines 510Deviationof Actual Gas-TurbineCycles
from IdealizedOnes 513
9-2
9-3
9-4
9-5
9-6
9-7
9-8
9-9 The Brayton Cycle with Regeneration 515
9-10 The Brayton Cycle with Intercooling, Reheating,and Regeneration 517
9-11 Ideal Jet-Propulsion Cycles 521ModificationstoTurbojetEngines 525
9-12 Second-Law Analysis of GasPower Cycles 527
TopicofSpecialInterest:SavingFuelandMoneybyDrivingSensibly 530
Summary 537ReferencesandSuggestedReadings 538Problems 539
Chapter 10VAPORANDCOMBINEDPOWERCYCLESI 551
10-1 The Carnot Vapor Cycle 552
10-2 Rankine Cycle: The Ideal Cyclefor Vapor Power Cycles 553EnergyAnalysisof the Ideal RankineCycle 554
10-3 Deviation of Actual Vapor Power Cyclesfrom Idealized Ones 557
10-4 How Can We Increase the Efficiencyof the Rankine Cycle? 560Loweringthe CondenserPressure(Lowers ~ow,avg)560Superheatingthe Steamto High Temperatures
(IncreasesThlgh,avg)561Increasingthe Boiler Pressure(IncreasesThigh,avg)561
10-5 The Ideal Reheat Rankine Cycle 564
10-6 The Ideal Regenerative Rankine Cycle 568Open FeedwaterHeaters 568ClosedFeedwaterHeaters 570
10-7 Second-Law Analysisof Vapor Power Cycles 576
10-8 Cogeneration 578
10-9 Combined Gas-Vapor Power Cycles 583
TopicofSpecialInterest:BinaryVaporCycles 586
Summary 589ReferencesandSuggestedReadings 589Problems 590
Chapter11REFRIGERATIONCYCLES J 607
11-1 Refrigerators and Heat Pumps 608
11-2 The Reversed Carnot Cycle 609
11-3 The Ideal Vapor-CompressionRefrigeration Cycle 610
11-4 Actual Vapor-CompressionRefrigeration Cycle 614
11-5 Selecting the Right Refrigerant 616
11-6 Heat Pump Systems 618
11-7 Innovative Vapor-CompressionRefrigeration Systems 620CascadeRefrigerationSystems 620MultistageCompressionRefrigerationSystems 623
MultipurposeRefrigerationSystemswith a SingleCompressor 625
Liquefactionof Gases 626
11-8 Gas Refrigeration Cycles 628
11-9 Absorption Refrigeration Systems 631TopicofSpecialInterest:ThermoelectricPowerGenerationandRefrigerationSystems634Summary 636Referencesand SuggestedReadings 637Problems 637
Chapter12THERMODYNAMICPROPERTYRELATIONSI 651
12-1 A Little Math-Partial Derivativesand Associated Relations 652PartialDifferentials 653PartialDifferentialRelations 655
12-2 The Maxwell Relations 656
12-3 The Clapeyron Equation 658
12-4 General Relations for du, dh, ds, cv'and cp 661InternalEnergyChanges 661EnthalpyChanges 662EntropyChanges 663SpecificHeatscvand cp 664
12-5 The Joule-Thomson Coefficient 668
12-6 The t:..h,t:..u,and t:..sof Real Gases 669EnthalpyChangesof RealGases 670InternalEnergyChangesof RealGases 671EntropyChangesofRealGases 671
Summary 674ReferencesandSuggestedReadings 675Problems675
Chapter13GASMIXTURESI 681
13-1 Composition of a Gas Mixture:Mass and Mole Fractions 682
13-2 P-v-T Behavior of Gas Mixtures:Ideal and Real Gases 684Ideal-GasMixtures 685Real-GasMixtures 685
13-3 Properties of Gas Mixtures:Ideal and Real Gases 689
Contents xiiiIdeal-GasMixtures 690Real-GasMixtures 693
TopicofSpecialInterest:ChemicalPotentialandtheSeparationWorkofMixtures 697
Summary 708Referencesand SuggestedReadings 709Problems 709
Chapter 14GAS-VAPORMIXTURES
ANDAIR-CONDITIONING I 717
14-1 Dry and Atmospheric Air 718
14-2 Specific and Relative Humidity of Air 719
14-3 Dew-Point Temperature 72114-4 Adiabatic Saturation and Wet-Bulb
Temperatures 723
14-5 The Psychrometric Chart 726
14-6 Human Comfort and Air-Conditioning 727
14-7 Air-Conditioning Processes 729Simple Heatingand Cooling(w = constant) 730Heatingwith Humidification 731Coolingwith Dehumidification 732EvaporativeCooling 734Adiabatic Mixingof Airstreams 735Wet CoolingTowers 737
Summary 739Referencesand SuggestedReadings 741Problems 741
Chapter 15CHEMICALREACTIONSI 751
15-1 Fuels and Combustion 752
15-2 Theoretical and Actual CombustionProcesses 756
15-3 Enthalpy of Formation and Enthalpyof Combustion 762
15-4 First-Law Analysis of Reacting Systems 765Steady-FlowSystems 765ClosedSystems 767
15-5 Adiabatic Flame Temperature 770
15-6 Entropy Change of Reacting Systems 773
15-7 Second-Law Analysis of Reacting Systems 77:
xiv Contents
TopicofSpecialInterest:FuelCells 780
Summary 782Referencesand SuggestedReadings 783Problems 783
Chapter J 6 .
CHEMICALANDPHASEEQUILIBRIUM I 793
16-1 Criterion for Chemical Equilibrium 794
16-2 The Equilibrium Constantfor Ideal-Gas Mixtures 796
16-3 Some Remarks about the Kpof Ideal-Gas Mixtures 799
16-4 Chemical Equilibrium for SimultaneousReactions 804
16-5 Variation of Kp with Temperature 806
16-6 Phase Equilibrium 808PhaseEquilibriumfor a Single-ComponentSystem 808The PhaseRule 809PhaseEquilibriumfor a MulticomponentSystem 810
Summary 815Referencesand SuggestedReadings 816Problems 817
Chapter 17COMPRESSIBLEFLOW I 823
17-1 Stagnation Properties 824
17-2 Speed of Sound and Mach Number 827
17- 3 One-DimensionalIsentropicFlow 829Variationof Fluid Velocitywith FlowArea 832PropertyRelationsfor IsentropicFlowof IdealGases 834
17-4 Isentropic Flow through Nozzles 836ConvergingNozzles 836Converging-DivergingNozzles 841
17-5 Shock Waves and Expansion Waves 845NormalShocks 845ObliqueShocks 852Prandtl-MeyerExpansionWaves 856
17-6 Duct Flow with Heat Transfer and NegligibleFriction (Rayleigh Flow) 860PropertyRelationsfor RayleighFlow 866ChokedRayleighFlow 867
17-7 Steam Nozzles 869
Summary 872Referencesand SuggestedReadings 873Problems 874
Appendix 1PROPERTYTABLESANDCHARTS(SI UNITS) I 883
TableA-1
TableA-2
Table A-3
Table A-4
Table A-5
Table A-6
Table A-7
Table A-8
FigureA-9
FigureA-1 0Table A-11
Table A-12
TableA-13
FigureA-14FigureA-15
TableA-16
TableA-17TableA-18
TableA-19TableA-20
TableA-21
TableA-22
TableA-23
Molar mass, gas constant, and critical-point properties 884
Ideal-gas specific heats of variouscommon gases 885
Properties of common liquids, solids,and foods 888
Saturated water-Temperaturetable 890
Saturated water-Pressure table 892
Superheated water 894
Compressed liquid water 898
Saturated ice-water vapor 899
T-s diagram for water 900
Mollier diagram for water 901
Saturated refrigerant -134a-Temperature table 902
Saturated refrigerant -134a-Pressuretable 904
Superheated refrigerant-134a 905
P-h diagram for refrigerant -134a 907
Nelson-Obert generalizedcompressibility chart 908
Properties of the atmosphere at highaltitude 909
Ideal-gas properties of air 910
Ideal-gas properties of nitrogen,N2 912
Ideal-gas properties of oxygen, °2 914
Ideal-gas properties of carbon dioxide,CO2 916
Ideal-gas properties of carbonmonoxide, CO 918
Ideal-gas properties of hydrogen,H2 920
Ideal-gas properties of water vapor,H2O 92]
TableA-24
TableA-25
TableA-26
TableA-27
TableA-28
FigureA-29
Ideal-gas properties of monatomicoxygen, o 923
Ideal-gas properties of hydroxyl,OH 923
Enthalpy of formation, Gibbs functionof formation, and absolute entropy at25°C, 1 atm 924
Properties of some common fuels andhydrocarbons 925
Natural logarithms of the equilibriumconstant Kp 926Generalized enthalpy departurechart 927
FigureA-3D Generalized entropy departurechart 928
FigureA-31
TableA-32
TableA-33
TableA-34
Psychrometric chart at 1 atm totalpressure 929
One-dimensional isentropiccompressible-flow functionsfor an ideal gas with k = 1.4 930
One-dimensional normal-shockfunctions for an ideal gas withk = 1.4 931
Rayleigh flow functions for an ideal gaswith k = 1.4 932
Appendix 2uPROPERTYTABLESANDCHARTS
(ENGLISHUNITS)I 933
TableA-1E
TableA-2E
TableA-3E
TableA-4E
TableA-5E
Molar mass, gas constant, and critical-point properties 934
Ideal-gas specific heats of variouscommon gases 935
Properties of common liquids, solids,and foods 938
Saturated water-Temperaturetable 940
Saturated water-Pressure table 942
Contents
TableA-6E Superheated water 944
TableA-7E Compressed liquid water 948
TableA-8E Saturated ice-water vapor 949
FigureA-9E T-s diagram for water 950
FigureA-1DE Mollier diagram for water 951
Table A-11 E Saturated refrigerant-134a-Temperature table 952
Table A-12E Saturated refrigerant-134a-Pressuretable 953
TableA-13E Superheated refrigerant-134a 954
FigureA-14E P-h diagram for refrigerant-134a 956
TableA-16E Properties of the atmosphere at highaltitude 957
TableA-17E Ideal-gas properties of air 958
TableA-18E Ideal-gas properties of nitrogen,N2 960
TableA-19E Ideal-gas properties of oxygen, O2 962
TableA-2DE Ideal-gas properties of carbon dioxide,CO2 964
Table A-21 E Ideal-gas properties of carbonmonoxide, CO 966
TableA-22E Ideal-gas properties of hydrogen,H2 968
TableA-23E Ideal-gas properties of water vapor,H2O 969
TableA-26E Enthalpy of formation, Gibbs functionof formation, and absolute entropy atnop, I atm 971
xv
TableA-27E Properties of some common fuels andhydrocarbons 972
FigureA-31 E Psycrometric chart at I atm totalpressure 973
Index 975
