CHAPTER IV

ROAD AND TEMPLE ENTRY MOVEMENT

South Travancore, having Hinduism as the major religion,

there are people belong to Christianity, Islam and so on. It is a paradox

that some Hindus segregate the rest of the majority Hindus. For

perpetuating this distinction as touchables and untouchables the caste

Hindus had the sanction from sacerdotal texts.' Despite their devoted

service to their caste Hindu masters, the low castes were ruthlessly kept out

of public services, roads, wells and places of worship.

They had to work between midnight and daybreak and they

were not allowed to come out during the day time because the very sight of

them was polluting.^ Hinduism segmented the people and assigned several

disabilities to the low casters. It is calculated that 33 per cent of the Hindu

1 P. Chidambaram Pillai, Right of Temple Entry, Nagercoil, 1933, p.47.

2 Confidential G.O. dated 30 November 1918 from the Dewan of Cochin to the Resident.

3 J. H. Hutton, Caste in India, Bombay, 1963, p.82.

131

population alone were caste Hindus (Savamas) who were entitled to enjoy

all these amenities whereas 41 per cent of the total population comprised

the untouchable classes who were denied the civil rights such as street and

temple entry/

The abolition of slavery and subsequent efforts of

ameliorative measures did not improve the life condition of the

untouchable. Continuous efforts were taken by the hectic social reformers

and missionaries to change their misfortune of social immobility. It is on

record that some streets in towns and villages were not open to them. They

were excluded from public schools and employments.^

So, people belong to the suppressed classes complained that a

bulk of the total Hindu population who constituted the untouchable group

was not permitted to enter or even approach the public temples,^ courts and

cutcherries and were frequently obstructed in the use of public highways,

markets and so on. The oppressive administration and the caste Hindus

defended untouchables with all the organized force.

4 Proceedings of the Travancore Legislative Council, Vol. VI., p.319.

5 E.Rs., Trivandrum, C.F.N. 286, Slavery - Its abolition and the amelioration, 1813-1880, p.173.

6 E.Rs., Chief Secretary File (Hereafter referred to as C.S.F.) No. 767, Report on the Ezhava Memorial, Dewan Travancore to the Agent to Governor General, Madras State, Trivandrum, 30 August 1931.

7 Proceedings of the Travancore Legislative Council, Vol. VI, p.320.

8 E.Rs., Trivandrum, C.S.F No. 714, Memorandum on T.A.R. of M.E. Watts, Dewan of Travancore, p. 14.

132

However the most distressing of the many disabilities was the

prohibition of low castes from passing along the roads beside temples and

palaces.^ These disabilities very much debarred the depressed from access

to schools, tanks, wells, satroms, temples, roads and other public

institutions and conveniences/"

But originally these were constructed by the government to

give facilities to the fravelling public, devotees of temples and pilgrims of

religious centers as a whole irrespective of caste and creed. ̂ ' As these

public conveniences were built either inside the temple premises or in

proximity of temples, unnecessary frictions between the high castes and the

low castes leading to unpleasant situations were the results which

ultimately led to further disability of inaccessibility and inapproachability

to the low castes.

In spite of the liberal adoption of the policy of throwing open

schools to all classes of people, at the end of 1929-30, out of 3,641

recognised institutions some twelve schools were not accessible to the

pupils of all classes. In the year 1936, there were ten schools, twenty one

satroms and forty temple roads which were not accessible to all depressed

9 Proceedings of the Travancore Legislative Council, Vol. VI, 1928, p.321.

10 Desabimani, 1 October, 1931.

11 Ibid., Vol. X, April 1927, p.246.

12 Ibid, Vol. XIX, 1931, p.l96.

133

classes of people.'^ Among the twenty one satroms maintained by the

Maramat Department the following eight in South Travancore were

unapproachable to all the low castes.

Thovala Satrom (At Thovala near Krishnaswamy temple),

Bhuthapondy Satrom (In west car street, Bhuthapondy), Eraneel Satrom

(At Eraneel near Martandeswaram Temple), Padmanabhapuram Satrom

(near West Car Street, Parmanabhapuram), Thirupathiesaram Satrom

(South Car Street in Thirupathisaram), Suchindrum Satrom, Cape Satrom

(at cape road) and Thiruvattar Satrom (at Thiruvattar).''* However

regarding tanks, wells and satroms there were none used by the low castes.

Even though the tanks, wells and satrom were maintained by the State

funds, the unapproachability was imposed due to the closeness of them

with temples and palaces.^^

Further the satroms that were inaccessible to the depressed

communities were used as office chambers and classrooms. In 1924, thirty

two satroms in Travancore State were thrown open to all classes of people

13 E.Rs., Trivandrum, C.S.F. No. 1365 of 1936, Throwing open of Roads to all classes of Hindus, Chief Secretary to private secretary to his highness cecil hotel, Simla, 20 May 1936.

14 E.Rs., Maramat Engineer, Trivandrum, to Chief Secretary to Government, 14 April 1936.

15 E.Rs., Copy of the resolution passed at a meeting of the Brahmins of Kottarathru Matom. In the annual budget of 1926, the amount allotted from the maintenance of these satroms was Rs. 27385, Proceedings of the Travancore Legislative Coimcil, Vol. X, April 1927, p.246.

134

with separate kitchens for low castes. The existence of these reserved

satroms perpetuated a kind of invidious distinction and caused bitterness

and unpleasantness to the low castes.'^ In fact satroms, tanks and wells,

attached with temples were for the exclusive use of pilgrims and

devotees. On the ground of untouchability and unapproachability some

roads in South Travancore were not permitted to be used by all classes of

1 H

people.

Brahminical orthodoxy and contempt of the lower classes

imposed rules of exclusion in the society.'^ Hence the prohibition was

based on social conveniences and gradation of superior or inferior

factions. The control over the roads of the Travancore Government fell

into the divisions such as roads for the exclusive use of all castes and roads

exclusively for the use of selective castes only.

The court classified the roads of the State into rajaveethees

and gramaveethees. Public highways or king's highways that the Madras

Government Order of 1865 denoted as 'public high streets' were accessible

16 E.Rs., p.256.

17 E.Rs., Trivandrum, C.S.F No.714, Report of M.E. Watts, Memorandum on Travancore Administration, Trivandrum, 25 January 1929, p. 17.

18 Proceedings of the Travancore Legislative Council, Vol. VI, p.309.

19 P. Chidambaram Pillai, op.cit., p. 182.

20 B. Shobanan, Temple Entry Movement and the Sivakasi Riots, Madurai, 1985, p.5.

21 Ibid, p.233.

135

to all classes of people alike. However in enjoying this right one could not

obstruct or molest the other.̂ ^

Gramaveethees were the roads located in and around the

temples or streets inhabited by the Brahmins and they were not easy access

to the low castes. In fact gramaveethees were common ways or ways

regulated through fare and local customs and usage alone determined its

use. Hence no one who had no business, as a matter of fact, passed along

them. Through these streets periodical procession of the presiding deities

were usually carried on.

For instance, there was a practice in Suchindram that the

deities of temples of caste Hindus were taken out on procession through

public roads, the low castes were kept at a distance so as not to pollute the

deity. It was also regulated by local usage and established customs.̂ "*

Time honoured customs observed by the caste Hindus

prohibited the low-castes including Nadars and Parayars for walking along

the road for fear of causing pollution to the deity and the Brahmin

households in the vicinity of the temple and the low castes offered their

22 E.Rs., Trivandrum, Cover File No. 3679, Letter to Dewan of Travancore from Native Christians of South Travancore, 9 November, 1887.

23 E.Rs., C.S.F. No. 714, Memorandum on Travancore Administration, p. 15.

24 E.Rs., C.S.F. No. 507 of 1918, 21 December 1918, Bunddle No. 6, Confidential Department.

136

offerings from a distant place. P. Chidambaram Pillai claims that "these

sfreets came into existence for the entry of the out castes for the worship of

the image".

Therefore the very beginning of the road was religiously for

giving entry and it is the prohibition which is irreligious. There was no

foundation on any religious ground for this exclusion or prohibition from

road entry. The roads which skirted the temples at Vaikkam, Parassala,

Neyyattinkara, Haripad, Thiruvarpu and car street at Samburvadakara were

forbidden to the people of low castes.^'

In South Travancore, the Brahmin sfreet at Cape, approach

roads to Pazhavady Gramom, car street at Suchindram, from the Balamore

road to the Azhakianami Devaswom at Azhakiapandipuram, from the east

of the sfreet round the Thiruvenkitathapper Devaswom and Ramaswamy

coil road at Padmanabhapuram were forbidden to the depressed classes but

were used by the non-Hindus.

These roads did not exist by themselves unconnected with

other roads or parts of roads through which all sections of the public had

25 J.W. Gladstone, Protestant Christianity and Peoples Movements in Kerala, Trivandrum, 1984, p.22.

26 P. Chidambaram Pillai, op.cit., p.238.

27 T.K. Ravindran, Eight Furlongs of Freedom, Trivandrum, 1980, p.39.

28 E.Rs., Trivandrum, C.S.F. No. 1365 1936, Letter from the Maramat Engineer, Trivandrum to the Chief Secretary to the Government, 30 November 1935.

137

the right of passage. It made the road entry prohibition a complex question

of unnatural bewilderment. Such "narrow and short sighted laws, exclusive

legislation and oppressive monopolies effectively hindered the extension of

trade, the growth of commerce and the speed of agriculture, while

barbarous caste restrictions produced disunion and national weakness."^^

In South Travancore, the outcaste Christians never took a

serious view of this inaccessibility and developed disrespect for the local

customs that regulated the entry into common ways. This bold assertion

was possible thanks to the Christian missionaries of L.M.S. and the

Salvation Army who had completed their camps in the heartland of South

Travancore before the second quarter of the twentieth century. Hence the

missionaries can be said to be the pioneers in South Travancore of road

entry struggle. This in turn gave them a rich harvest in their Evangelical

Mission.

The disability of inaccessibility and the denial of road entry

not only separated the low castes from the mainstream of social life but

also made them much more vulnerable to grim social discrimination. While

discrimination was practiced in subtle ways, inaccessibility did not enjoy

immunity against it.

29 Samuel Mateer, op. cit., p.292.

138

Emerging as the tireless campaigner, the missionaries

launched in South Travancore a disastrous campaign over the right of road-

entry in the later decades of nineteenth century. Successive communal riots

which broke out in the outskirts of South Travancore heightened the sense

of discrimination and insecurity of an already confused and demoralized

untouchable community.

Their disability of road-entry made the agrarian communities

as unapproachables for marketing centres that eventually demoralized their

socio-economic life. On the other hand in the twentieth century the new

economic opportunities generated by the socio-economic reforms and

extension of protected irrigation, improved the material prosperity of the

depressed castes. Growing economic power entertained their aspirations for

elevated social status.

However their aspirations for spectacular socio-religious

reforms enabling road entry received momentous support from the elites of

both high castes and low castes.

The high caste elites associated themselves with the agitating

low castes whereas the low caste elites sought reform legislation through

the process of agitations and satyagrahas. '̂ The disabilities of the Avanas

30 B. Sobhanan, "Genesis of the social emancipation among the Ezhavas", Historia, Vol. 11, Madurai, 1985, p.3.

31 Krishnalal Shridharani, War Without Violence ~ A Study of Gandhiji Method and its Accomplishment, New York, 1939, pp.95-97.

139

were first felt by the Ezhavars and the demand to have temples opened to

all Hindus particularly low castes for worship naturally were started by

them.̂ ^

The untouchable communities suffered discomfiture owing to

"tindal" or distance pollution. As per the edict issued in February 1851 by

the Government of Travancore^^ not only the lower castes but also the

Christians and Mohamedan were prevented form entering the streets near

the Hindu temples.̂ "* The government issued an order that low castes

should be kept at a distance of sixty four feet from the outer walls of the

temple.^^

Hence it appears that to interdict lower castes from entering

roads leading to temples the government of Travancore were more anxious

than the Brahmins. According to Travancore Land Conservancy

Regulation "all public roads, streets, lanes and paths by whomsoever, made

wheresoever's situated fall, under the category of purampoke lands and are

the property of government".^'

32 Report of the Temple Entry Committee, Trivandrum, 1934, p.47.

33 R.N. Yesudas, A People's Revolt in Travancore, Trivandrum, 1975, p.lOO.

34 Report of the Temple Entry Enquiry Committee Published on 21 April 1934, Trivandrum, p.49.

35 T.K. Ravindran, Vaikam Satyagraha and Gandhi, Trivandrum, 1975, p.3.

36 Idem.

37 ERs., Trivandrum, C.S.F. No. 608 of 1924, Vaikkam Satyagraha Files.

140

In spite of this regulation, in the public roads near temples,

palaces, or the residences of members of the high castes, sign-boards were

put up by the government prohibiting lower castes from entering the roads

near the temples. In South Travancore, a stone pillar measuring height

found east of Vally Kolly Ammancoil, originally erected in the east car

street of Parakkai leading to the Mathusoothanaperumal temple bearing a

note on such prohibition can be seen even today.

Many such prohibition boards compelled the socially

disabled classes of people to seek the passage through broken and narrow

paths along the meadow side or channel side. The peculiar rural structure

in South Travancore was that the agrarian untouchables had their habitats

close to paddy fields'*" and their villages were adjacent to the caste Hindu

streets.

The caste Hindu gramaveethees lying around the village

temple had access with the adjacent public highways. Hence entry in the

gramaveethees became inevitable for the untouchables in the transit of

produce, catties and impediments.'*'

38 Proceedings of the Sri Mulam Popular Assembly, 3 March 1916, pp. 120-127, also see R. Singarayan, Kumari Mavattathil Nadar Samugam Antrum Intrum (Tamil), Neyyoor 1984, p. 18.

39 The Oomaikural, (Tamil Monthly), Nagercoil, April 1984, p.3.

40 Mateer writes "The Pulayas, the lowest of the slave caste, resided in miserable huts on mounds in the centre of the rice swamps or on the raised embankments in their vicinity", Samuel Mateer, The Land of Charity, op.cit,pA2.

41 The Oomaikural, April 1984, p.4.

141

The restrictions placed on the low castes for the use of roads

and the practice of untouchability as part of social and religious life

impeded their progress. In consequence of the introduction of exchange

economy, the market became the nerve centre of the day-to-day life of the

people. The cultivators had to sell their produce and purchase the

necessaries from the market. People had to travel to attend courts and

public offices.

Patients had to reach hospitals, students to attend schools and

colleges and workers to go to their distant places of work. Only roads

constituted the main approaches to these public institutions. But it was on

record that 1.7 million low caste Hindus were denied the right to walk

along the temple roads in the Travancore State."*̂ Moreover, the

missionaries of various Christian congregations in South Travancore who

visited the villages of the untouchables were in need of access with the

common ways for their evangelical works.

Hence the socio-religious life of the depressed class people of

South Travancore rendered the struggle for road entry an inevitable

phenomenon. Such a frame work perceived in the society of South

Travancore led to social disharmony and communal conflicts. The denial of

the right to road-entry to the lower castes led to riots in different parts of

42 E.Rs., Trivandrum, C.S.F. No. 615 of 1924, Vol. VI, Vaikkam Satyagraha Files, Joint memorial of the Ezhavas and Nairs to the Dewan of Travancore.

142

South Travancore during the latter half of the nineteenth century and the

early decades of the present century.

The earliest act of social injustice owing to road entry

movement was recorded at Panchahngapuram, a Brahmin village near

Kanyakumari.'*^ In 1869 when Rev. W.Lee, a L.M.S. missionary along

with his Pulaya horseman passed through the Brahmin village of

Panchahngapuram, they were severely beaten by the inhabitants of the

village.'*'*

A case was registered later and the verdict was in favour of

the Brahmins. Similarly at Vadiveeswaram, a Brahmin street in Nagercoil

there broke out a serious riot in the year 1872 following the arrangement

made by James Duthie, a missionary of the L.M.S. for the remarriage of a

Brahmin widow."*̂ Considering the Christians as low castes the entry of the

missionary, and zenana workers in the street was prohibited by the

Brahmins.

Two zenana workers who entered the street at

Vadiveeswaram were beaten severely. Their clothes were torn and mud

43 KRs., Judicial Section File No. 40/133 of 1907

44 Tamil Nadu Archives, Madras, Proceedings of the Madras Government, Political Department, 11 September 1896.

45 Annual Report of the L.M.S. for the year 1872, Travancore District Committee, p.5.

143

was thrown at their faces and strong hard looking men threatened to push

them into tanks or shoot them/^

The Endeavour of the Salvationists to ascertain the right of

the road-entry resulted in riots at Cheramadam, Kurichi and Kakkad. The

commanders of the Salvation Army who were going on horseback through

Cheramadam village with a number of Parayars on foot at 10 o'clock on

the night of 27* August 1892 were mercilessly assaulted by the Vellala

caste Hindus of the village.

It led to rioting and litigation in the village/^ Kurichi is a

small village of South Travancore thickly populated by the Vellalars. They

were highly jealous of the activities of the Salvationists in and around

Suchidram. The Salvationists were not permitted to walk along the Vellala

streets with chapels on carrying umbrellas and wearing turbans. When col.

Jesuretnam rode on the horse back along this street, he was chased and

severely assaulted.'**

The Salvationists sought legal suit and three ring leaders of

the caste Hindus were sentenced to a month long rigorous imprisonment

and a fine for rupees fifty. The Parayar Village of Kakkad, situated at a

46 Report of the L.M.S. on Zenana and school work for 1893, Nagercoil, pp.8-17.

47 Travancore Law Report, Vol. X, p.34

48 E.Rs., Trivandrum, C.F.N. 1627 of 1892, Letter dated 13 January 1893.

144

distance of a mile east of Suchindram had a link road covering a distance

of about a furlong and a half from Suchindram to Kakkad.

It was maintained out of public funds for public benefit. Yet

the Parayars were not permitted to enter this road on account of its

proximity to the temple.'*^ It caused apprehension and resulted in Kakkad

riot. In the melee an English man and his wife who were going along the

Kakkad road were beaten to death by the caste Hindus of Suchindram.

The Vellalars of South Travancore committed ruthless act of

repression when the untouchables moved through the common streets of

Usaravilai and Mylaudy on festive occasions.

Similar difficulties had to be confronted by the Nadars in a

sfreet at Mylaudy. Though the Nadars and Vellalars walked along this

street and also drove their carts through it, the Vellalars did not permit the

Nadars to take out either marriage or religious procession through this

street.̂ *' It ignited sporadic scenes of violence and continuous riots at

Mylaudy.

The obstruction of the outcaste procession of 1918 at

Boothapandy Brahmin lane restricted the freedom of movement of the low

castes. The Christians of Nagercoil and Boothapandy took out processions

49 Proceedings of the Travancore Legislative Council, Vol. VIII, p.679. 50 i:.i?5., Vol.VI, 1924,p.585.

145

to celebrate the victory of the English in the First World War.^' But the

police officials obstructed the passage of the procession through a lane

mainly inhabited by Brahmins and other caste Hindus. Christians

considered the action of the police officials a great insult to them.

They requested the Government of Travancore to classify

whether such streets maintained by the public money were open to all or

not. The government held that the low castes had no right to go through

Brahmin streets either alone or in procession. But the Government of

Madras condemned the action of the police officials and described it "as a

very serious instance of the passive acceptance or Brahmin arrogance and

intolerance".^^

In 1919, at the fifteenth session of the Sri Mulam Popular

Assembly (hereafter referred to as S.M.P.A.), the late T.K. Madhavan, then

the editor of "Desabhiman" a Malayalam weekly, and a prominent

members of the Ezhava community brought before the government a

representation for the removal of "theendal" and for admission in to

Savama temples. '̂* In 1921 also T.K. Madhavan brought the issue of

temple entry to the notice of Travancore Legislative Assembly.

51 E.Rs., Trivandrum, C.S.F. No. 1017 of 1919, Christians of Nagercoil to Dewan, 28 January 1919.

52 A. Sreedhara Menon, A Survey of Kerala History, Madras, 1994, pp.326-327.

53 E.Rs., No.2879, Resident to Dewan, 7 December 1918.

54 Report of the Temple Entry Enquiry Committee Trivandrum, 1934, p.47.

146

On 2"'' June 1921, T.K. Madhavan again pressed in the

Assembly to remove all the prohibitory boards from public roads leading to

the temples.^^ In 1923, the congress session at Kakinada passed a

resolution for taking effective steps in this regard.^^ Kunju Panickar and

T.K. Madhavan raised the question again in the Assembly.^^ Hectic

campaign assumed headway in South Travancore in the course of the road

entry movement at Vaikkam.

Vaikkam is a small town in the kottayam District of Kerala.

Early in the morning on 1̂^ November 1924 a procession of nearly one

hundred caste Hindus was organized at Asramam under Padmanabha Pillai

and another at Suchindram under M. Emperumal Naidu for reaching

Vaikkam. A band of emerging caste Hindu leaders of Satyagraha like

M. Sivathanu Pillai, A.P Nayar and M. Emperumal Naidu had been touring

throughout southern Taluks enlisting members even from high caste

CO

Hindus for the procession and securmg signatories for a memorandum.

About eighty caste Hindus including Brahmins, Vellalars and Nairs

enlisted themselves as volunteers in the procession and under the inspiring

55 Alasiar, (ed.), Aspects of South Travancore History, A felicitation volume of professor K. Rajayyan, Madurai, 2000, p.208.

56 D. Daniel, Travancore Tamils Struggle for Identity 1938-1956, Part-I, Madurai, 1992, p.23.

57 S.M.P.A. Proceedings, 1921, Vol.11, p.l48.

58 S. Nanchil, Anbezhil, "Kumari Mavattathil Dravida lyakkam", G. Christober Golder Jubilee Malar, (Tamil), p.35.

147

ledership of M. Emperumal Naidu it marched in military order from Kottar

to Trvivandrum and submitted a memorandum for the right of road entry to

the avamas on 12* November 1924 to the Regent Queen.^^

The other prominent members who participated in the Jatha

were M. Sivathanu Pillai of Theraykalputhoor, Manakavalaperumal pillai,

Gandhi Raman and Muthrukaruppa Pillai.^" The Kerala Provincial

Committee of the Congress met at Emakulam on 20* January 1924, and

formed an Anti-Untouchabiltiy Committee with T.K. Madhavan, T.R,

Krishnaswami Aiyar and K. Kelappan Nair as conveners.^' The committee

held a meeting on 6* February 1924 at Quilon. In that meeting Vaikkam

was selected as the appropriate centre for inaugurating the programme.^^

A large number of Ezhavas and Pulayars besides caste

Hindus were participated in the meeting held on 29* February 1924 at

Vaikkam.^^ It led to the announcement of the Regent Queen to open the

approach roads adjacent to Vaikkam temple to all Hindus.

59 Report of the temple entry enquiry committee published in 21 April 1934, p.48.

60 E.Rs., Trivandrum, C.S.F. No. 1017 of 1919, Christians of Nagercoil to Dewan, 28 January 1919.

61 P.K.K. Menon, The History of Freedom Movement in Kerala (1885-1938), Trivandrum, Vol. II, 1972, p.ll6.

62 K.M. Panikkar, Hindu Society at Cross Roads, Bombay, 1961, pp.95-99.

63 Judith M. Brown, Gandhi Prisoner of Hope, Delhi, 1990, pp.205-207.

148

However with two processions the caste Hindus

demonstrated their sincere support to the reform movement. Realizing the

spirit of socio-religious movements generated in South Travancore,

Gandhiji visited Nagercoil on 14* March 1924 and spoke on the evils of

untouchability and the demerits of Hinduism^"* and thereby made the

savamas remain in good trim of spirit throughout the movement. ̂ ^

The agitators took meticulous care to avoid violence; still the

Government was driven to the desperate exigency of employing brute

force.̂ ^ To the disappointment of the avama, the resolution moved in the

Legislative council in February 1925 recommending the throwing opening

of all roads in Travancore to all classes of people was rejected by a

majority of twenty two to twenty one votes. A band of volunteers led by

K.P. Kesava Menon walked to the temple precints, but were served with

ban orders by the District Magistrate.^* In defiance, batches of volunteers

staged satyagraha and courted arrest.^^

64 M.K. Sanoo, Narayana Guru - A Bibliography, Bombay, 1978, p. 175.

65 A. Ramaswamy, Tamil Nattil Gandhi, (Tamil), Madras, 1969, pp.409-411.

66 The Hindu, 31 March 1924.

67 Proceedings of the Travancore Legislative Council, 5 February 1925, p.576.

68 The Hindu, 11th April 1924.

69 Damodaran, K., and Narayana Pillai, C, Keralathil Swatantriya Samaram (Malayalam), Trivandrum, 1957, p.20.

149

Caste Hindu organizations like Kerala Hindu Sabha, Nair

Service Society, Yogakshemg Sabha, Kshatriya Maha Sabha, and other

leading social organizations extended their support to the movement.^''

A band of volunteers of Madurai led by E.V. Ramaswamy

Naicker reached Vaikkam, but were arrested. Advised by Gandhi, the

Satyagrahis decided to meet the Regent in person and to submit a

memorial. In order to boost the spirit of the satyagrahis Gandhiji visited

Vaikkam and addressed a public meeting at 6.15 p.m. on 10*̂ March 1925^'

and his subsequent conciliatory talks with both the parties led to an

agreement that came into force on 7* April 1925.

As per the agreement the government issued a notification on

14'*' April 1925 withdrawing the prohibitory orders passed in 1924. But

satyagraha continued to be offered nominally. ̂ ^ Finally the government

relented and as a compromise settlement declared open the roads on three

sides of the temple.^^ Hence on 23'̂ '* November 1925 the satyagraha was

called off on the basis of the settlement arrived at by the government.'''*

70 Pol.C.F. No. 53, 1919 also see K.V. Eapen, A study of Kerala History, Kotayam, 1993, pp.234-235.

71 T.K. Ravindran, op.cit., Vaikkam Satyagraha and Gandhi, p.238.

72 Journal of Gandhi Smriti and Darhah Samiti, January 1996, pp.94-103.

73 P. Ramachandran, "Suchindram Satyagraha", Journal of Kerala Studies, Vol.III, Part.l 1, Nagercoil, June 1976, p.232.

74 S.N. Busi, Mahatma Gandhi and Babasahe Ambedkar Crusaders against caste and untouchability Hyderabad, 1998, pp. 141 -142.

150

Accordingly all the roads around Vaikkam temple with the

exception of two lanes leading to the eastern approach road, one form the

south and the other from the north were opened for all castes without

distinction. But the avamas were not permitted to have a glance of the deity

in the Garbhagraha.

Sree Narayana Guru's Ashram at Vaikkam was placed at the

disposal of the Satyagrahis. The Vaikkam satyagrahis rendered an

eminent service to the cause of the depressed classes and of humanity at

large by exposing to the public view the evils of untouchability and other

social inequalities in all their nakedness and crudity.'^ As a movement it

reveals the story of how the fierceness on the side of the orthodox forces

that tried to resist the attempt to break the wall of prejudice and to open the

road to reform finally emasculated. The satyagraha movement in Vaikkam

sought the right of road entry as the near objective and the right of temple

entry as the remote object.

The movement met with partial success in view of the

fulfillment of the near objective though the ban remained in other famous

temples of Ampalapuzha, Thiruvarpu, Guruvayoor and Suchindram. Yet

as a matter of fact the protracted struggle at Vaikkam was a triumph of the

75 A. Padmanabhan, Story of Eight Saint Reformers, New Delhi, 1993, pp.11-14.

76 A. Sreedhara Menon, Kerala District Gaze tiers, Trivandrum, 1962, p. 3 22.

77 K. Saradamoni, op.cit., p. 167.

151

low castes since it produced a chain reaction and a new awakening and

78

fresh application of mind on the vital social problem of the temple entry.

Satyagraha agitation started in many places to ascertain the right of temple

entry.^'

In South Travancore under the inspiring leadership of M.

Emperumal Naidu the emerging avama self respect volunteers launched

Satyagraha movement at Suchindram. Following the family regulation that

commanded rich social interaction, the caste Hindus of South Travancore

cherished a historical responsibility for protecting their religion from

untouchability and Christianity. The struggle for the right of road entry was

the first victorious popular struggle against untouchability waged united by

all sections of the people.

Subsequently, the temple entry movement emerged to be the

central issue in the fight against untouchability. Ahready the missionaries

had shown a marvelous record of 130 per cent increase of the Christian

population in the State between 1901 and 1931 as against 54 per cent in the

Hindu population.

78 R. Ramakrishnan Nair, "Socio-Political Landscape of Kerala", Journal of Kerala Studies, Vol.IV., Parts.II & III, June-September, Trivandrum, 1977, p.447.

79 V.I. Subramaniam (ed.), Dravidian Encyclopaedia, Trivandrum, Vol.1, 1990,p.315.

80 K. Saradamoni, op.cit., pp. 167-168

152

This rapid conversion process as well as the reluctance of the

missionaries to shoulder the Hindu reform movement changed the attitude

of the caste Hindus towards low castes. In a bid to protect the religion and

to remove the blot on Hinduism, the caste Hindu associations like Kerala

Hindu Sabha, Nair Service Society, the Yogakshama Sabha of the

Nambudiris, the Kshatriya Mahasabha and South Travancore Vellala

Sangam passed resolutions for the right of temple entry.

The dissemination of revolutionary ideas diluted the

traditional thoughts and brought social cleavage. The members of the

popular assembly reflected the stream of thoughts that took over the

associations like Civil Right League, Anti-Untouchability Committee,

Pulaya Mahajana Sabha and Nachilnad Sambhavar Sangam demanded the

socio-religious rights to the unprivileged.

The non-Brahmin movement started in the Madras

Presidency especially the self respect movement found its echo in the

struggle of the low castes of South Travancore. The Self Respect League,

established at Nagercoil with fifty members by the close of 1928 played a

memorable role in the rise and evolution of the temple entry right.

81 Mahadev Desai, The Epic of Travancore, Ahmedabad, 1937, p.26, also see C.J. Fuller, The Nayars Today, London, 1971, pp.20-30.

82 V. Sathianesan, "Social Changes in Kanyakumari District, 1900-1975 A.D. - A Critical Study in the Perspective of Economic History ", Tiruchirapalli, 1988, p.lO.

153

Though Ezhavars of Kottar constituted bulk of the

membership in the League, there were prominent members from Chettiars

of Kottar and Saliyars of Vadassery. The Ezhavars who supported the self-

respect league took away their caste names and concentrated on the socio

political activities in the South Travancore region.̂ ^

Cherishing the objective of winning the right of temple entry

for worship in temples, the league took keen interest in motivating the

untouchables and attended all conferences held inside and outside South

Travancore.̂ '*

The President of the league, P. Chidambaram Pillai offered

an intellectual ideology to the temple entry movement through his famous

work 'Right of Temple Entry' published in 1933. The League exerted its

influence over the self-respect leaders like E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker, R.K.

Shunmukam Chetty and W.P.A. Soundara Pandia Nadar and won a

resolution to the effect of advising the Travancore Government to approve

the Suchindram Satyagraha.*^ Unlike in other parts, in South Travancore

they pressed for the right of temple entry.

83 E.Rs., Trivandrum C.S.F. No. 895. 84 E.Rs., File No. 746. List of political and quasi-political societies, Sahbhas

and Anjumans in the state for the year ending 30 June 1930.

85 T.C. Muthaiah Pillai, Thiru P. Chidambaram Pillai, (Tamil), Nagercoil, 1993,pp.9-ll.

154

The self-respecters of South Travancore held positions in

other organizations like South Travancore Congress Youth League and

inaugurated a seditious movement in Nagercoil. Thus Congress workers

like M. Emperumal Naidu and Sheik Thampi Pavalar of Kottar became

strong associates of the self-respecters and they deplored the lack of

enthusiasm among the people of South Travancore in the matters of temple

entry.

Thus in the satyagraha era of the socio-religious movement

that centered around the right of temple entry. South Travancore played a

conspicuous role through the Self-Respect League. The temple entry

movement emerged as the immediate sequence of the right of the road

entry. The combined leadership of high castes and low castes belonging to

various socio political factions like Self-Respect League or Nanchilnad

Congress Youth League enabled South Travancore to play the role of a

pioneer in the rise of the temple entry right and the evolution of temple

entry movement.

Suchindram, a pilgrim centre, is situated in the southern bank

of Palayar in the north-west of Kanyakumari at a distance of hardly eight

86 E.Rs., Trivandrum, C.S.F. No. 895, Reply from District Magistrate to Chief Secretary to Government about seditious movement, 27 May 1931.

87 Report of the temple Entry enquiry committee, Trivandrum, 1934, p.48.

155

QQ

miles. Lexically speaking "Suchindram" means the place where 'Indira',

Lord of the Devas attained 'suchi' or purification following the curse he

suffered from sage Gowthma.̂ ^ The charm of Suchindram is the

symmetrical formation of the principal streets and the location of houses

around the Suchindram Sthanumalaya Perumal Temple devoted to Lord

Siva with a majestic gopuram of one hundred and thirty four feet and six

inches.

By long standing customs car streets and sarmadhi street

inhabited by Brahmins and Vellalars were included in the Devaswoms

where the polluting castes could not enter.̂ ^ According to agamic

prescriptions, the Vellalars, Nairs and Chettiars were permitted to go into

the arthamandabha and tiru curramandabha and not into garbhagraha (the

sanctum sanctorum), which is opened only for Brahmins.

The low castes like the Ezhavars, Nadars (both Hindus and

Christians), Parayars and Pulayars could offer worship from a distance of a

fiirlong away from the outer wall limits.^' Bamboo screens were placed at

the enfrance of all the main streets, denoting the prohibition of entry to the

forbidden classes.

88 K.K. Filial, The Suchindram Temple, Madras, 1953, p.l. 89 A. Padmanabhan, ""Suchindram Temple, Astapandana Mahakumbhabisheha

Vizha Malar", Nagercoil, 1984, p.56.

90 E.Rs., Trivandrum, C.S.F. No.726, Report of Dewaswon Group, Nagercoil, p.5.

91 Report of the Temple Entry Enquiry Committee, 1934, p.8.

156

Also a gramaveethi, from the eastern side of Suchindram

village covering a distance of about a ftirlong and a half was not accessible

to Prayars.̂ "^ Earlier several attempts of the outcastes to cross the street or

to witness the festival led to severe persecution. When the satyagrahis

fought a crusade against the oppressive social tyranny, the radical Hindus

of South Travancore, in a bid to determine the right of temple entry rallied

under the banner of M. Emperumal Naidu, a congress worker from

Kottar.^^

The Vaikkam satyagraha had immediate and direct

influence on the Suchindram satyagraha. Some enlightened Hindus of

South Travancore held a special meeting to organize a satyagraha

committee at Kottar on 19* January 1926.̂ *̂ A Working Committee with

M. Subramaniya Pillai of Therur as president and M. Emperumal Naidu,

K. Perumal Panickar, P.C. Thanumalaya Perumal and C. Muthuswamy

alias Gandhidhas as the secretary, treasurer, publicity officer and captain

respectively was formed.̂ ^

92 E.Rs., Trivandrum, C.S.F. No.726, Report of Dewaswon Commissioner to Acting Dewan of Travancore, 5 November 1930.

93 E.Rs., Trivandnmi, C.S.F. No.895, Letter from Dewan Peishkar to Chief Secretary to Government, 16 May 1931.

94 E.Rs., J.F.N. 1475, Letter from M.E. Naidu to the Dewan of Travancore, Nagercoil, 21 January 1926.

95 E.Rs., C.S.F. No.662 of 1926, Satyagraha at Suchindram, Report from Pitt, Commissioner of police to Dewan of Travacnore M.E. Watts, Trivandrum 20 January 1926.

157

They recruited young volunteers, trained satyagrahis and

enrolled influential supporters.'^ Yet their preparation for the removal of

these basic anomalies and inequalities did not move the government and

they fixed 29* January 1926^^ for the formal inauguration of the satyagraha

agitation at Suchindram.'^

The satyagrahis stirred up the public aspiration with huge

posters, by distribution of leaflets and pamphlets and by holding public

meetings.^' They had made up their minds to push forward as far as they

could, through the prohibited streets. But the High castes put up a shed

across the road at the prohibited limits for their shelter for resisting the

satyagrahis.'°°

The procession of five volunteers, two Parayars, one

Brahmin, one Ezhavar and one Vellalar started at 8 a.m. on 29* January

1926 with flags and songs from their Asramam at Kottar under the

captainship of Muthuswamy.'^^ M.E. Watts, The Dewan of Travancore had

informed the Dewasnom commissioner R. BCrishna Pillai to fall in with the

96 The Hindu, 26th June 1924.

97 E.Rs., C.S.F. No.821 of 1926, Letter from M.E. Naidu to the Dewan, 26 January 1926.

98 E.Rs., F. No.D.Dis.l475/1926/Judicial, P.D.E.R. Kerala Secretariate, Trivandram.

99 E.Rs. C.S.F. No.726 of 1930, Criminal Revision Petition Nos. 433 to 437 of llo5, p.l5.

100 E.Rs., C.S.F. No.662 of 1926, Satyagraha at Suchindram.

101 E.Rs., C.S.F. No.726 of 1930, Report of Devaswom group, Nagercoil.

158

policy in Consultation with the local Dewasnom officers.*"^ The procession

of the satyagrahis was determined to enter the prohibited sanketham limits.

But at this point the processionists were stopped by a large crowd of

conservative youth of caste Hindus under the leadership of S.K.

Velayudhan Pillai of Suchindram who argued that the low castes should

not enter the street surrounding the temple.

The satyagrhis sat on the road where they were prevented

from going ahead. Prohibitory orders had been issued by the District

Magistrate to the leaders. The anti-satyagrahis obstructed the satyagraha'""*

by resorting to precautions to foil further attempts of the agitators. They

put up barricades on the roads leading to the temple with the help of the

villagers and temple authorities.

At the invitation of the satyagraha committee, E.V.

Ramaswamy Naicker started the procession under his leadership on 30

January 1926, which was stopped by the anti-satyagrahis near the

barricade. ̂ ^̂ Following that, in a well arranged public meeting on the bank

of the river Palayar, E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker delivered a spirited speech

102 E.Rs., File No.821/1926, Letter from Watts Dewan of Travancore to Mr. Krishna Pillai Dewaswom Commissioner, p.5.

103 E.Rs., J.F.No. D.Dis, 1475 of 1926, Letter from Inspector of Police to the Commissioner of Police, Edalakudi, 26 January 1926.

104 E.Rs., Letter dated 19 February 1926.

105 E.Rs., Letter from T. Kumaran Thambi, Inspector of Police to the Commissioner of Police, Edalakudi, 30 January 1926.

159

about the temple entry work and the Vaikkam satyagraha campaign that

gave the needed fillip to the movement.'''^ The agitators won gradually the

1 ft7

sympathy of some enlightened caste Hindus. The movement received

momentum when Gandhiraja, the brother of M. Emperumal Naidu arrived

at Suchindram on 11* February with a band of fifteen volunteers. *̂ ^

The procession challenged the caste Hindus and forced to

enter the car street. Alarmed at this, the anti-satyagrahis roused to protect

the sancity of the streets from pollution. In the tussle that ensured the anti-

satyagrahis sought to exercise force on the satyagrahis. During open

confrontation Chinna Thampi Samban was pushed aside and the shirt of

Muthuswamy was torn. The satyagrahis again announced their decision to

enter into the streets in the afternoon.'^'

This news spread so much panic over the caste Hindus that

they collected theu- supporters in and around Suchindram by ringing the

temple bell and were prepared for a final resistance. As the agitation of the

satyagrahis was intensified, the twelve pidakaikars numbering nearly

10,000 assembled in the sannadhi street under the leadership of Madhevan

106 E.Rs., Official Report.

107 Eugene F. Irschick, Tamil Revivalism in the 1930's, Madras, 1986, pp. 168-169.

108 E.Rs., Inspector of Police, Edalakudi to the Commissioner of Police, 11 February 1926.

109 Ibid.,

160

Pillai, K.S. Velayudhan Pillai and Mootha Pillai/'^ Large volunteers from

the surrounding village also joined the satyagraha group.

As expected, encounter broke out as captain Muthuswamy

and Chinna Thampi Samban forced their way into the streets. Reactionaries

grouped under Chellam Pillai and Parakkai Arumugam Pillai, pushed them

round and struck on their back.

The police took side with high castes and warned the

satyagrahis against the unlawfiil trespass.*" Police threat and anti-

satyagrahis force struck a lull in the programmes of the agitating

satyagrahis. With a view to avoid any fresh confrontation the government

prohibited M, Emperumal Naidu and other satyagraha leaders from making

public speeches or taking part in public meetings or entering specified

o^^^o 112

areas.

Still they exchanged assaults and counter assaults. There

were intermittent clashes and wanton assaults in and around Suchindram.

In a sporadic wave of attack unleashed by caste Hindus the untouchables

were severely persecuted at many places. The satyagrahies were mostly

110 M. Lajapathi, Kumari Mavatta Swatantra Poratta Thiagi Siva Muthu Karuppa Pillai, (Tamil), Nagercoil, 1988, p.40.

111 E.Rs. Trivandrum, C.S.F. No.662, Satyagraha at Suchindram, Letter from R. Vishnu Pillai, Devaswom Commissioner to the Dewan of Travancore, M.E. Watts, Nagercoil Camp, 12 February 1926.

112 Proceedings of the Travancore Legislative Council, Vol. VII, pp.314-315.

161

Ezhavars and Sambavars from Karkad. For the Sambavars of Karkad the

only all weather road out of the village was through Suchindram.

That was a legitimate grievance on their part. The Karkad

villagers consisted of three sections namely 40% Hindus, 26% were L.M.

Christians and the rest were Salvation Army people.'^'* Sivathanu Pillai

M.L.C proposed in a meeting of Vellalars on Sunday 21** February 1926 to

stop the satyagraha at Suchindram.

But it was not stopped separate pandals were put up by both

the avamas and the savamas. The Pandals put up for the satyagraha by the

orthodox were barricades on the Vaikom model."^ The satyagraha was

continued till the end of February 1926. On 28* February 1926 the

satyagraha at Suchindram was suspended.''^ Thus the satyagraha continued

for about a month and was withdrawn on receiving assurances from the

117

government. But the government evaded the issue on account of the

pressure exerted by a few orthodox Hindus. The Parayars of Karkad were l i s

threatened with death for supporting the satyagrahis.

113 File No. 662, Letter form the Commissioner of Police to the Dewan of Travancore, dated 20 February 1926, p. 10.

114 Proceedings of the Travancore Legislative Council, Vol. IX 1925, First Session 1926, p.678.

115 E.Rs. File No.662, Letter from Mr. Pits to Mr. Watts, dated 24 February 1926.

116 E.Rs., Letter from Hutton to Mr. Watts, dated 28 February 1926.

117 E.Rs., Letter from Hutton to Mr. Watts, dated 29 February 1926.

118 E.Rs., Trivandrum, J.F.N. D.Dis. 1475, Telegram from G. Devasahayam to the Dewan of Travancore, 3 February 1926.

162

Their children were severely wounded on their way back

from the mission school at Nagercoil.'*^ Gandhiji who visited Nagercoil on

8* October 1927 met the commissioner of police and discussed with him

the satyagraha movement at Suchindram and explained that the demand of

the satyagrahis was very legitimate.

Gandhiji advised the satyagrahis was very legitimate. *̂^ He

advised the satyagrahis to desist from the satyagraha movement at

Suchindram for a while and held discussion with the Regent her highness

Sethu Lekshmi Bai.

Having found their prospect bleak, the satyagrahis turned to

press their demand from a different direction. At this juncture the Nair

Service Society and Harijan Seva Sangh recommended the government for

the grant of temple entry right to the non caste Hindus. Gandhiji also

carried on 'anixous negotiations' with the government authorities regarding

the matter.'^' He advised the satyagrahis to carry on non-violent agitation

by squatting on the streets until they were allowed by the anti-satyagrahis

to enter the streets.

119 Proceedings of the Travancore Legislative Council, Vol. DC, p.681. 120 Mahadev Desai, The Epic of Travancore, Ahmedabad, 1937, p.92.

121 Menon., The History of Freedom Movement in Kerala 1885-1938, Vol.11, Trivandrum, 1972,pp.298-301.

163

His tour had made tremendous impact in the temple entry of

the Harijans. In the light of the Vaikkam satyagraha settlement in 1926,

the Government promised to open the roads at Suchindram to lowcastes

within a month. Hence they suspended their agitation and expected

voluntary invitation from the high castes to open the temple streets for all.

But the roads remained closed as before and they lost their hope for the

right of temple entry for sometime. ̂ ^̂ As a result the satyagraha movement

had to be revived once again after four years.

In order to pursue the struggle the Suchindram Satyagraha

Committee was established under the leadership of Gandhi A. Raman Pillai

of Eraviputhoor at Nagercoil by the end of Medom 1105 (1930 A.D.) with

twenty active members. Youngsters from all communal groups became the

supporters of the committee. ̂ '̂*

On 12"̂ May 1930, the satyagrahis resumed the satyagraha

movement under the captainship of Gandhi A. Raman Pillai. Opposing the

satyagraha directly, the Government arrested the leader along with six

others under section 134 criminal procedure code and cases were filed

122 S. Mahadev, Mahatma Gandhi Warning and Flashes in Harijan Times, Madras, 1936,pp.l04-142.

123 Mahadev Desai, op.cit., p.23.

124 E.Rs., Trivandrum, C.S.F. No.746 of 1930 No. 7, Suchindram Satyagraha Committee.

164

under section 90 of the Criminal Procedure Code. On appeal, the high

court justice Chatfield acquitted the accused and observed that the sannathi

and car streets were not village roads and that there was no evidence to

exclude certain classes of people from those streets.'^^

The judgment evoked acumen interest and gave the people's

movement a shot in the arm. It also induced the lower caste people to reject

the concept of pollution that gave rise to serious law and order problems as

well. The frequent trespassing on the car streets and other temple roads by

the satyagrahis provoked the caste Hindu sentiments. One Manickam

Udayar and certain other sambhavars of Suchindram intimated the

government of their intention to go in procession through the car street of

Suchindram and to enter the temple.'^^

Similar demand was reported by the Ezhavars of Kottar. On

7* November 1930 they had another proposal to pass through the car

sfreets in motor cars and buses at 10 a.m. However these were avoided by

the intervention of Pitchu Iyengar, the deputy superintendent of police.'^^

The outcaste boys freely passed through the car streets in batches flouting

125 E.Rs., C.S.F. No.726, of 1930, Criminal Revision Petitions No. 438 to 440, p.l5.

126 E.Rs., Copy of the Judgement in Suchindram Satyagraha cases, Trivandrum, 5 November 1930.

127 E.Rs., Report of Chief Secretary K. George to commissioner of Police, L. A. Bishop, Trivandrum, 8 November 1930.

128 E.Rs., L.A., Bishop, Commissioner of Police to Venkataram Iyer, acting Dewan of Travancore, 7 November 1930.

165

the age old customs. The caste Hindus received threats of polluting the

temple tank and the very temple by the entry of low castes. Entry of Paraya

boys in batches and their passing through the car streets annoyed the caste

Hindus.

On 10* November when they remonstrated, a band of

Parayars with a 'KD' rushed to the street and dashed towards one of the

I '̂ Q

caste Hindus with a knife. The police also discovered the plot of the

Parayars near Suchindram to attack the caste Hindus in the subsequent

night. Soon, as a measure of precaution, district superintendent of police

tightened the police parol by deploying a reserved police force during the

Karthikai festival at Suchindrum temple.

The police prevented the satyagrahis from holding public

meetings and forced them to disperse. When the satyagrahis advanced

towards the temples ignoring the police barricades they were lathe-charged

by the police.'^^ It gave rise to a fresh wave of violence causing alarm and

terror.

The depressed classes were seriously assaulted. Against this,

Gandhi A. Raman Pillai again decided to launch a satyagraha on 9*

February 1931.'^* The agitation lasted for a couple of days before it fizzled

129 E.Rs., Devaswom Commissioner, Dikshidar to Dewan of Travancore, Trivandrum, 11 November 1930.

130 Proceedings of the Sri Mulam Popular Assembly, Vol. XX, pp.739-40.

131 P.K.K. Menon, op.cit., p.301.

166

out later. It marked the culmination of the satyagraha agitation at

Suchindram.

The satyagraha movement at Suchindram opened the eyes of

the orthodox Hindus and mobilized public opinion in favour of the non-

caste Hindus. The problem of temple entry was a pure social cleavage.

What wanted was merely that rare tact and talent for conciliating the

conflicting interests. The whole hearted support extended by a few

castes Hindu leaders and the permeating nature of protest substantially

ahered the Hindu opinion. Moreover the increasing protests and mounting

tension softened the attitude of the authorities.

In the State Legislative Council, members vociferously

attacked the government's stand and criticized the new legislation which

stipulated the contribution of labour service if the depressed social groups

needed approach roads. However the Suchindram Satyagraha Committee

under the captaincy of Gandhi A. Raman Pillai mobilized the satyagraha

camping for the right of temple entry through sannathi and car streets.

At the national level, the Congress Party was under pressure

to recongnise the temple entry agitation. Gandhiji expressed his approval

of the movement and apprised the Regent Queen of the necessity of the

right of temple entry to the low castes. The religious conference organized

132 P. Chidambaram Pillai, opxit., p.254.

133 Proceedings of the Travancore Legislative Council, Vol. XV, 1930, p. 195.

167

by the militant Hindu organizations also advocated the right of temple

entry.̂ ^^

The Ezhava movement posed a serious problem when they

exhibited an inclination towards mass conversion to the Lutheran church.

This created a novel situation. On the whole, fearing escalation of the

issue, the State authorities preferred to defuse the matter and dilute the

tense situation through constructive measures.

Under these circumstances the ruling sovereign on 8

November 1932 appointed the Temple Entry Enquiry Committee under the

presidentship of V.S. Subramaniya Aiyar to examine the question of

temple entry. The committee was mostly represented by the orthodox

pundits, and representatives of the communities to whom the temple entry

had not been granted.'^^

The committee was authorized to report whether in the

temples of the State the caste Hindus enjoyed either an exclusive right of

worship or recognizable civil rights in the matter of such worship.

134 Concordia Seminary Archives, Nagercoil, File No. A. 184, Sambavar Sangam.

135 V. Sathianesan, loc. cit, p. 11.

136 E.Rs., Trivandrum, Devaswom, File R.Dis.No. 648, dated 25 November 1932.

137 Report of the Temple Entry Enquiry Committee, p. 1.

168

It was also to find out the general feeling among the caste

Hindus about the efficacy of religious worship and the opinion of all

Hindus regarding the creation of social and religious equality by granting

temple entry.'^^ The committee was also to consider the probable results of

the recognition of the right and the possibility of affecting a compromise

between the orthodox and the progressive sections of the Hindu

community. Moreover it was also to assess the extent to which the

government might interfere in the affairs of the private temples. *'*̂

The Bombay session of the Indian National Congress held on

25* September 1932 resolved that "henceforth amongst Hindus no one

shall be regarded as untouchables by reason of his birth and that it shall

be the duty of all Hindu leaders to secure...an early removal of all social

disabilities now imposed by custom upon the so called untouchable classes

including the ban in respect of admission to temples".''*^

In August 1934 an all Kerala Provincial Board of Harijan

Sevak Sangh was formed and this organization made an earnest appeal to

the Governments of Travancore, Cochin and Malabar to open the temples

138 Kondoor Krishna Pillai, Travancore and its Rulers, Trivandrum, 1941, p.246.

139 Report of the Temple Entry Enquiry Committee, p.2.

140 E.Rs., Trivandrum, C.S. File No.793 of 1108 M.E., Guruvayoor Satyagraha.

141 B. Pattabhi Sitaramaya, History of the Indian National Congress, Vol.1, Bombay, 1969, p.576.

169

to the low castes.*'*^ Following the Suchindram satyagraha and the

subsequent appointment of Temple Entry Enquiry Committee the matters

began to take a favourable turn and the movement assumed a different

dimension.

During enquiry, the committee secured replies from two

thousand eight hundred and sixty seven high castes and two hundred and

fifty five low castes. On the basis of the evidences collected and opinions

elicited, the committee perceived that the savamas were favourably

inclined towards the entry of low castes in Hindu temples. The president of

the committee submitted the report on 11^ January 1934 with the

suggestion for a partial removal of restrictions and recommendation for

throwing open all public roads and buildings to every community

irrespective of caste, creed and colour.*

The shocking revelations of the committee favoured

immediate governmental action to save the situation from slipping out of

control. Though the appointment of the committee struck a hope of

confidence in the circle of the satyagrahis, contemplated to enter all roads,

tanks, wells, satroms and schools which were thrown open to the caste

142 The Hindu, 22 April 1936. Also see Report of the temple entry enquiry committee published on 21 April 1935, Trivandrum, 1935, p.52.

143 Proceedings of S.M.P.A., Vol.VlI, pJ73.

170

Hindus and non Hindus but not to non caste Hindus.̂ '*'* The Kerala

Provincial Board of the Harijan Sevak Sangh organized an all Kerala

temple entry conference at Trivandrum on 9*'' and 10* May 1936 for the

upliftment of the low castes.

In fact this innovation of the satyagrahis appraised the

administration. Subsequently, the government found that the best course to

normalize the situation would be the opening of roads, wells, tanks,

satroms, schools and so on to the depressed classes including other

religionists.^''^ Hence in order to nullify the attempt of the satyagrahis, the

Maharaja issued a proclamation on 24̂ ^ May 1936 by which all roads,

tanks, wells, satroms and schools were opened to all classes of people.'''^

The committee also suggested that 'distance pollution or

theendal' should be removed by appropriate legislative measures subject to

reservation in the matter of entry into temples and into their adjuncts like

temple tanks, roads and wells. The proclamation accelerated the process of

hot reform movement and activated the interests of low castes for temple

• 1 147

entry nghts.

144 E.Rs., Trivandrum, C.S.F. No.1365 of 1936, Telegram Private Secretary to Maharaja of Travancore, Trivandrum, 20 March 1936.

145 E.Rs., Throwing open of Roads to all classes of Hindus, copy of the Telegram from private secretary to Maharaja, 18 May 1936.

146 E.Rs., Copy of the Telegram to the Private Secretary form the Chief Secretary, 24 May 1936. Also see Desai Mahadev, op.cit., p.23. For further details refer Appendix-V.

147 The Hindu, Madras, 21 April 1934, p.7.

171

Enticed by the treating situational compulsions that arose out

of the agitation of Ezhavars and Harijan Sevak Sangh the temple entry

movement reached a decisive phase. On 8* October 1936, C.P.

Ramaswamy Iyer was appointed as Dewan.

On 3'̂ '' November 1936, the deputation which consisted of M.

Govindan, K.G. Kunjukrishna Pillai, K.P. Nilakanta Filial, V. Atchuthan

and G. Ramachandran waited upon the Dewan and submitted a memorial,

signed by fifty thousand five hundred and twenty two people of the high

castes praying for temple entry for the Harijans.''**

Cherishing no faith in half-measures, the enlightened

sovereign Sri Chitra Thirunal Balaram Varma, the Maharaja of Travancore

reexamined the whole question in the light of the external truths embodied

the Vedas and the Upanishads. The enlightened public opinion and the

pulse of the caste Hindus were also towards the grant of temple entry right

to the low castes.

Alarmed at the fear of becoming minority in their own soil,

the conservative caste Hindus lobbied together and forced the Dewan

C.P. Ramaswamy Iyer to make suitable progressive decisions. On the

advice of the Dewan, his highness Maharaja Sri Chitra Thirunal Balaram

Varm effected a final approachment with the historic proclamation on 12*

148 Desai Mahadev, op.cit., pp.34-40.

172

November 1936'̂ *̂ which threw open all the temples controlled by the

government to the worship of all the Hindus.

The proclamation was warmly received with delight,

enthusiasm and admiration all over the nation. The temple entry

proclamation, by the sublimity of its conception, the loftiness of its ideals

and the magnitude of its effects, occupies a unique place in the history of

social and religious reform in India.

The proclamation introduced a revolutionary change in the

Hindu society by destroying the last vestige of discrimination against two

million human beings.̂ ^*^ It is an epoch making manifestation of unparallel

beneficence.

Gandhiji hailed it as "a miracle of modem times" a Smriti

which is the people's charter of spiritual emancipation and the

proclamation is the beginning of the process of purification of Hinduism

and in the process both savama and avamas have to play their due part.'^'

It is an act of justice to the submerged Hindus in the State and the

Magnacarta of a resurgent Hinduism purified, ennobled and equipped to

149 The Travancore Government Gazette, 24 November 1936, p.355. For more details refer the Appendix-II.

150 The Temple Entry Proclamation Memorial Souvenir, Press Comments, The Times Of India, Bombay, p. 126. For further details refer Appendix-VIII.

151 A. Sreedhara Menon, op.cit., p.385.

173

prosper and conquer.'^^ It is undoubtedly a bold step and this stroke has

remove the blot of inequality and denial of man's birth right from

Hinduism.

Thus the twenty four year old Maharaja leveled what is

considered the severest blow ever struck at the Hindu caste system. *̂^ The

proclamation marked the beginning of a new epoch in the socio-religious

history of the Hindus. It brought about a silent and bloodless revolution in

the Hindu society.* "̂*

It rather liberated the Hindu gods and goddesses from the

grip of the caste Hindus and was made available to the non caste Hindus.'^^

The temple entry proclamation had for reaching effects on the Hindu

society.̂ ^^ With the proclamation the suffering section found a remedy for

many of their ills.

The outcaste Parayars and Pulayars gained the right to stand

along with Brahmins before the sanctum sanctorum of the Hindu

152 The Trivandrum daily news, Trivandrum, p. 134 also see The Travancore Directory 1939, Part II, 1938, pp.361-364.

153 The Temple Entry Proclamation Memorial Souvenir, Press Comments, The New World, Chicago, p. 141.

154 T.K. Velu Pillai, op.cit., p.386.

155 B. Sobhanan, ''''Temple entry movement in Kerala " he.cit., p.211.

156 Travancore Information and Listener, December 1948, Vol. IX., p.50. For further details refer the Appendix-VII.

174

temples.'^^ It sanctioned temple entry right, road entry and the common

rights to use all public wells, tanks, satroms, and rooms.'^* Hence the

proclamation ushered in the birth of a new era 'an era of quality and

freedom' in the State. But it was bleak period for the missionaries of South

Travancore.'^^

Further the proclamation led to the fusion of sub castes which

in turn fostered inter-caste marriages and inter dining. The proclamation

facilitated a healthy and vigorous spiritual life and helped the advancement

of the various castes and classes among the Hindus. It offered a

reconversion impulse and helped continuance of the process of socio-

religious movements in South Travancore.

The Nanchilnad Sambhavar Sangam extended its co­

operation to the caste Hindu organization in seeking the reconversion of

their fellowmen and participated in the Hindu conferences.'^" Further in

South Travancore as early as in 1937 a centre was opened at Arumanai and

propagandists were sent to Colachel, Mondaikkadu, Manavalakurichi and

157 The Travancore Directory, 1939, p.50.

158 E.Rs., Trivandrum, C.S.F. No. 1383, Letter from Chief Secretary to the Police Commissioner, Trivandrum 26 May 1937.

159 E.Rs., Hindu Reconversion Propaganda, Report of Commissioner of Police to Chief Secretary to Government, Trivandrum, 8 March 1937.

160 Concordia Seminary Archives, Nagercoil, File No. A184, Sambavar Sangam.

175

Eraneel.'^' As part of the after-care services to the reconverts, the All

Travancore Hindu Maha Sabha arranged weekly feeding and provided the

members with employment.

The Sabha also built burial ground, prayer-halls, reading

rooms, schools and libraries and also special care was taken to protect them

from molestation.'^^ These incentives and stimulant factors yielded

permanent result and the mass exodus to alien faith was arrested forthwith.

The structural reform through the temple entry proclamation paved the way

for a splendid social approachment among the Hindu communities.'^^

On its process of attaining social harmony, the macro conflict

prevailed on wider perspective among the Hindus as savamas and avamas

began to disappear and the micro conflict rose up on caste and communal

line. Conspicuously the temple entry movement gave birth to agitational

politics and radical programmes during the subsequent years.'^'*

Yet the overall impulse created by the temple entry

proclamation was short-lived, obviously due to the politicization of the

161 E.Rs., Trivandrum, C.S.F. No.D.Dis.460 of 1944, Report on the activities of the Kerala Hindu Mission and All Travancore Hindu Mahasbha, IG.P.S secret letter to the Chief Secretary, 12 March 1941.

162 E.Rs., Confidential Letter from District Magistrate, Kottayam to the Chief Secretary, 19 January 1941.

163 The Travncore Information and Listener, December 1946, p.32.

164 Robin Jeffrey, "Religious Symbolisation of the Transition from Caste to Class: The Temple Entry Movement in Travancore, 1860-1940", Social Compass, XXVIII, No. 2-3,1981, p.291.

176

social religious movement in the succeeding years. The temple entry

proclamation and subsequent development in temple administration put the

management of temples in a new track and it paved the way for the

popularization of temple worship in South Travancore.