CHAPTER-IV

ANTIQUITY OF THE USE OF PALMLEAF MANUSCRIPTS \

Old palmleaf manuscrip~ are-hard te-eome-by due-to-the-perishable-nature of the

leaves. So there is no way to find earlier manuscripts. But it cannot be assumed that

palmleaf manuscripts did not exist prior to 15th century A.D. The find of numerous literary,

inscriptional and sculptural evidence suggest the existe~ of writing en- palmleaf pt=\or to

this date. And the stylus, which was the common writing instrument in earlier period, is still

in use today on palmleaveso It is- the--only connecting instrument that- speaks abou.._t the

existence of writing on various materials.

Therefore any CGtnpartmentalisation Gt' writing on- palmleaf manuscr-ipt is. not borne

out by the surviving manuscripts; instead a far more complex picture emerges by a

comparison of these-with- reeerds-of inscriptional-and iconograph-ical evidenee:--More~ver it

is important that adequate attention should be paid to the antiquity of the palmleaf in

in ancient India. This chapter has been formulated as per the literary, iconographical and

inscriptional ev-idence- available- so- fa£; Further- it also diseu-sses- the- finds- of- ~rlier

manuscripts, Oriya manuscripts in different libraries of the world and existing important

Oriya rnanu~ripts.

19-5-

EVIDENCEFORUSEOFPALMLEAFMANYSCRWT

Pustakal booklmanuscript1

'

what is depicted in an artwork and to reveal and explain the deeper meaning intended by the

artist. A further area- ef ie~y- is- the-- investigat-ion of certa-in- pietefial- the,mes,

especially their development, tradition and content through the ages? In icono~phic

resear<;h one-can distinguish-fo.w:-levels--of meaaitlg;- whieh simultaneoosly- represeat four

stages. The first is the exact enumeration of everything that can be seen in the work of art

without defining the-relatienship-between-things. The-theme or- subject-Ethe things-~t we I

see, brought into relation with one another) forms the second level meaning. The third level

is th~ deeper- meaning OF content- of- the wor-k efthe art as-intended -by-the-artist. These.,~hree

. levels ofmeaning or phases of investigation are called, respectively, the pre-iconographical

descriptio~ iconographical description, and the iconographical interpretation. 3 The fourth

level- is- quite- comprehensive- in icooog~ reseru=ch that- is- the ice~ical

interpretation. Here it is the task of iconology to look beyond queries about artist and subject

to- a third question: why was-- it ereated? Of- why- was--this-aspeet- ereated just- se+ ~ the

help of last level of iconographical phase we can define or discuss which tool is necessary

situations in a work because of their resemblance to the things and situations that surround

him. Secondly, icooogmJ)hical-werks-are apparently realistic images-at' everyday life. Again

1The Sanskrit term for the physical form of palmleaf manuscript is pustaka, usually translated as book. The Hindi or Oriya derivative pothi is used to describe this type of book, for the format of of the palmleaf manuscript.

2Roelof Van Straten, An Introduction to Iconography, translated from the German by Patricia de Man, Revised English Edition, Gordon and Breach Science Publishers, USA-1994, p.4.

3ibid.

196

it can explain why an artist chose a particular object at a specific location and time, and

represented it in a certain way.

Usually we find that certain images hold books,pustaka or manuscripts in one hand.

How can one ascertain about the real purpose for depicting these themes or for what

purposes these are included in the sculptures. Does it convey any inner meaning of the artist

or reflects any trends of these pictorial theme of the then time. To analyse the significance of

pustaka or book in sculptures the arguments of various scholars have been ascertained.

Various scholars argued that deities holding manuscript or pustaka or book in this way

usually reflect the form of a manuscript of palmleaves.4 With reference to Hindu images,

this pustaka or bundle of palmleaves generally signifies a Veda or a iigama whereas in the

hands of Buddhist images it usually means the Prajfiiipiiramitii scripture or possibly the

Tripzjaka. 5 Even some argue that the manuscript held in the hands of some of the deities like

Brahma, Dak~i11amiirti, Ganapati, Sarasvafi, Hayagriva, Vyasa, A.Svin Kumar, Yak~I, etc. is

technically recognised as an iiyudha (weapon) belonging to the siitvika type.6 It is included

among the thirty-six iiyudhas listed in Apariijita-Sfitra(2.35) ascribed to Visvakarma. It is

usually accompanied by other iiyudhas like rosary (ak~amiilii), water-pot (kama1J4alu), and

gesture of exposition (vyiikhyiina-mudrii). So the stance in which the book as a iiyudha is

carried is often a seated one in yugapa.tta or padmiisana. According to Vi~nu-dharmottara

4According to Srivastava the pustaka is a book made up palmleaves is held by Brahma, Sarasvau etc. deities. K.M. Srivastava, Hindu Symbolism and Iconography: A Study, Sangeeta Prakashan, New Delhi-1998. pp.21 ,28,324.

5Gosta Liebert, Iconographic Dictionary of the Indian Religions (Hinduism-Buddhism-Jainism}, 1st ed.: Leiden-1976, 2nd ed., Sri Satguru Publications, Delhi-1986, p.231; T.A.Gopinatha Rao, Elements of Hindu Iconography, Vol.I, Part-1, (1st pub., Madras-1914), rpt., Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi-1993, p.l3; B.Bhattachlll)')'a, The Indian Buddhist Iconography, (1st pub:London-1924), AES rpt., Asian Educational Services, New Delhi-1993, p.195.

6S.K.Ramachandra Rao, Pratima Kosha: Encyclopaedia of Indian Iconography, Vol.IV, 1st ed., Pub. by Kalpatharu Research Academy, Bangalore-1991, p.90.

197

(3,77,5), the book symbolises scriptures (iigama) ak$amiilii smrtah kiilah pustakam

ciigamam smrtam.

According to Gupte7, pustaka in the Tibetan and Northern Buddhist pantheon is

made of palmleaves cut long and narrow and held together between two pieces of flat wood

of the same size; the whole held together by a string. The pustaka represents the

Prajfiiipiiramitii scripture of transcendental wisdom. This book is supposed to have given by

the Buddha to the Nagas for the safe keeping. Nagarjuna is supposed to have recovered it

from the Nagas. He founded his Mahayana school on its teachings. Thus it later became the

symbol ofMafijusri, Cunda, Prajfiaparamita, etc.

From Literary Sources:

Buddhist Literature

Palmleaves have been the most popular writing material in India and Southeast

Asian countries where Buddhism spread. Varying temperature, humidity and insect-

destruction have not allowed the survival of early manuscripts. The earliest known surviving

palmleafis from the lOth century. Large collections ofpalmleafmanuscripts can be found in

South and Southeast Asia. Most of the collections are in monasteries, libraries and historical

institutes. Often, these places have no environmental controls and to preserve the intellectual

heritage of a rich and old culture is quite a daunting task. After the introduction of paper, the

use ofpalmleafwas greatly reduced. However, for certain religious writings, palmleafis still

being used. It is believed that the Buddhist Canon was first written on palmleaves. Patra as

7RS.Gupte, The Iconography of the Buddhist Sculptures (caves) of Ellora, }51 ed., Marathwada Univ., Aurangabad-1964, p.ll9.

198

writing material is referred to in early literature. The Buddhist and Jain literatures and the

Arthasastra have specific mention ofpatra. Katahaka Jataka,8 for instance, reads: parmam

gahetvii ...... likhitva ... se~mmuddikayalaJWiwtvii-. .. ... . pa~adasi- .... ....... JXU:J...I?am

vacetva ( Taking a leaf (and) writing (on it) ........ sealed it as the merchant would

do ....... showed the-leaf ....... ha-ving read- the leaf .... }. Here ~i-s--mentiened- ~ the

material for writing a letter: According to the Canon of the Buddhists, leaves (pai'J_IJ:al were

in ancient times the most common writing_ material. 10 In Sri Lanka, the Sinhalese

commentaries- in- boekform-en-the-1'RfJ-(taka seem te have been in--use seen aftef-~ism

was introduced into the island, though, in fact, the writing down ofthe Tripifaka itselftook

place only in the first century B. C. These books were hand written, mostly on palml~ves. 11

These-leaves- are- nothing- else-but-ehiefly- &em--the-laFge-leafed- p-alm-trees.,. 'Ihe-~hist

Jatakas also refer to leaves (panna or panno) as writing materials, which most probably

were palmleaves. 12

In the- seventh century A.D. the Chinese pilgrim Hiuen· Tsang13 referred ·to the

8Katiihakajiitaka, note 31, ch.l. 'Tanna or Panno means leaves- refer to primitive character of writing. R.B. Pandey, Indian Palaeography, Part-

1, 2nd edition, Motilal BanarsiDass, Varanasi-1957, p. 9. 10 Georg Buhler,Indian Palaeography, 2nd ed., Today and Tomorrow's pub., NewDelhi-1973, p. 113; also see Buhler's Indian Studies ill, 2, 7 ff., p. 120. Rhys Davids also endorses that the oldest manuscripts on barks or palmleaf knO\m in India are Buddhist; that it is the Buddhist who first made use of writing to record their Canonical books, T .W. Rhys Davids, Buddhist India, Motilal Banarasidass, New Delhi-1971, pp. 118-19.

11Walpola Rahula, History of Buddhism in Ceylon; Tlie Anuradfzapura period (3rdc.B.C. -lOI!t-c.AD.), 2nd ed., M.D. Gunasena & Co. ltd., Colombo-1960, p.288.

12Katahaka Tataka; Mahasuta.~ma Jataka; Kama Jataka; Chultakalinga Jataka, Ruru rat~a etc.

13Samuel Beal (Tr.), Si-yu-ki, Book-ii, p. 225.

199

of Hiuen Tsang14, asserts that the Tripitaka (Canon) was written on palmleaves at the first

Buddhist Council held-just afteF the-remmeiatien4 Lor.& Buddha: Aeeefding--to-the-~onk

Hui-Li15, during the three months of summer retirement, the Tripitaka was collected and

written on palm leaf for cireul-atiotr. And- the- story- regar-ding Samghabhandr-al-s-- '~otted

manuscript of the Vinaya' published by Takakusu in JRAS. 1896, 436f, shows that this

tradition is- at least- two- century older. We-may- draw- the-inference-that- about-A.:9-: ~ the

Buddhists- believed that palmleaves had been used for writing since immemorial 'times. 16

Further there-are--numerous--Buddhist-deities, whieh-are depieted-holding-~cript

or pustaka. As has been discussed earlier that this pustaka is nothing but a manuscript of

palmleaves, The prominent deities-holding palmleaf manuscript. are- MaiijuSti, ~vati,

Cunda, Mafijugho~a, Prajfiaparamita, etc.

The- place- assigned- to- MaiijuSfi- in- the--BOOdhist pantheon- is-~ The

Mahayanists consider him to be one of the greatest Bodhisattvas. It is difficult to fix the

exact time when Mafi.juSR. entered- the panthoon- Gf-oolihem Buddhists. IIis-m ~s for

the-ftrst time-in-the-kyomaiijuS-Fimulakalpa,-whieh-is-OOvieumy apre Guhyasamaja \VOrk,

and then in the Guhyasamiija Tantra, which is dated circa 300AD. In this work there are at

least four references- to- Maiijusri and- three to- Maiiju¥ajfa; His- name- also--ooGUfS-- ~ the

14Samuel Beal, The Life of Hiuen-Tsiang, book-III, Pub. by Munsiram Manoharlal, New Delh~ (2nd ed.), 1973, p. 117 (during the rest of the three months, having finished the collection of three pi takas and inscribed them on leaf of the peito (palmleaf) they then distributed them every where for use); Also see Chinese Accounts of India, Book-VI, Vol-ill, tr. by Samuel Beal, Published by Susil Gupta (India) Ltd (New edition) Calcutta, 1958, p. 256.

15Monk Hui-Li, (compiled). The life of Hsuan Tsang, Published by the Chinese Buddhist Association, P~king, 1959, pp.l12-13; also see Chinese Accounts of India, op.cit, p. 286; also narrated by Samuel Beal,Si-Xu-Ki, Book-IX, Published by Oriental Books reprint Corporation, Dellii,(reprinted), July 1969·, pp. 161-63:

16guhJer, op.cit, p.l41

200

Sukhiivatf Vyuha or the Amitiiyus Siitra in its smaller recension, which was translated into

Chinese between A.D:348- and AD.4l1. Subsequent Buddhist werks- heweveF-give-~any

references to Maiijusri, and there are descriptions also in the accounts of foreign travellers

like Fa-bien, Hiuen-'fsang, I-+s-ing: His- images- are-ro-be-fo-und in the--seulptures--of-~ath,

Magadha, Bengal, Nepal and other places. In his simplest form Maiijusri carries the sword in

his right hand and the-Prajiiapiiramitii pustaka in-his-left In representatioos semetim.~s the

two symbols are placed on lotuses.

According to Ni~pannayogavali-the-formof.MafljuS&sheuld havethe-~Fiption:

pitiinllasklasavyetaravaktra/J $ac/bhujo dak$if!ai/J khaqgavarada bii11iin

viimai/J prajfiiipiiramitiipuslak-aniliibjadhammi#-bibhriirJaah--?-Ni~Wlli,.~.48

~ Maiijusri is three faced, with the three faces ofyellow, blue and white colour. He is

endowed with six arms-; in his-thfee-right-hands-he holds-the-swerd,mroda-mut~F4 and

the arrow, and in the three left shows the Prajfiiipiiramitii pustaka, the blue lotus and

the bow.

Mafi juS..i as- oae of. the eight Bodhisattvas--~ r-eGOgaised by. the fa\lO\lFite Ralll;e of

Maiijugho~a (soft voice) and under this name he is described in theLokanithasiidhana of the

Siidhanamiilii. The-text is:

~ Maiijugho~a is of golden colour and he holds in his two hands the sword and the

pustaka.

201

Sarasvatl has- five-different- forms- in- Buddhist- ieeoogmphy. bike-Maflju~ and

PrajiUiparamita, Sarasvat1 is also believed by the Buddhists as bestowing knowledge,

wisdom and memory. 1-Mahasamsvati, coneeived- as- twelve- years-· eld, is.- white I

complexioned, having two arms, 2-Vajrav1Q.asarasvat1, also white complexioned, also has

two arms- playing Oft a v'if!a, lief prineipal emblem, 3-¥ajFaS.araea, seated en-a-lotus, ~as a

crescent in the crown. She has three eyes and two arms, holding lotus and pustaka. All the

three- forms of Sarasvatt may- be--attended- by- foof-mint>r- divin-ifies.:. 4-Aryasarasvafix also

called Vajrasarasvatl, has a different appearance, conceived as a girl of fourteen, she is white

in complexion, holding a k>tus-stem in-the-left-hand with-the-Prajiiapammita~on it,

5-Vajrasarsvaff, the last one, has an entirely different form. She has three faces, six hands,

a red lotus in the pratyiiliqha pose, holding lotus with the Prajfiiipiiramitii pustaka, sword

and kartr: in the- right hands- and· Brahma-kapi/a· jewel-and- dise in-the left in deseen,?ing

order. 17

.Jain-Liternture:

The-Jain seriptures-must-have-been-eemrn·.vriting in-the early p~ the I

Christian era, which was prompted by a severe famine that threatened to break the chain of

oral transmissien. So-it is-believefr.that-such text would almost eeftainlyhave been exe~uted

on palmleaf or on other ancient writing material called birch bark. In India people believed

that the- manus.cript itself was- the-e&jeet ef ·Norship and· the- essence ef the- te}f~~ere

personified in the name of a goddess.

11Joumal of b1di(J]l Hist01y (JIH), Calcutta, XLI, pt.III, Dec.l963, pp.685-86.

202

The Jaina Srutadevl (the-goddessofSrn#s=i-.e: V-edas:):appiO)timates:.verydose,ly to

the Brahmanical Sarasvati. She is endowed with four hands, three holding a lotus, a book

and a rosary, and the-last held in-the-varada pese--icenographically-on-par witlrSam~vati

While the Svetambaras give her a swan as her vehicle, the Digambaras provide her with a

peacock. 18 Besides presiding over extensive Jaina literature, Srutadevi heads the collective

body of the sixteen Vidyadev1s or goddesses of leaming. 19

In the early Jaina texts the mention of Sarasvati20 is found as the goddess of wisdom

and intelligence. In the Bhagavatf- SiitM fll-II:4JO.} aad--PaumiicGrya- (359.)-there,is a

mention of the goddess of wisdom besides goddesses like Dhrti, Kirti and Lak~mi. Both the

SvetambarasasweHasthe-Digambaras-adorethe-goddess-Sarasvathtn(ttheittexts-pre89ribe

that she should be adored first-of-alt-the:-Oth:ecgoddesses: 'Fhe- Svetambara texts-IJlak.e her

ride a swan, having four hands bearing a lotus or varada, pustaka and rosary:

Svetavanra svetabastradharitfrhansaviiltattii-svetasinh-asaniisimi-eatttrbhttja-,. (I)

svetiibjivif}iilang/a:taviimakariim pustakamuktakshamiiliilang/a:tadakshif}iikariim (IT)

---- Aeiiradinakam-P~idhl. I

I

The Nirviif}akalikii text also speaks on similar lines about the goddess.

18B.C.Bhattacharya,Jaina Iconography, Lahore-1939, p.164. 1~hagwant Sahai, Iconography of Minor Hindu and Buddhist Deities, 1st pub., Abhinav pub., New Delhi-1975, p.l43.

20The Anti~ity of Jaina worship in Jainism can be traced from the Bhagavatz Sutra(Vol.III, Agamodaya Santi Surat, p.979), the Piib;ika Sutra(Devachand Pustakadhara Series, p.71), the DviidasiirmJYacakra, Paricaska(Paii.casika, ch.19, verse 24-25, p.297).

20-3-

Brahmanicalliterature:

The manuscript itselt, which- is- a &-ymbGI-o£ knowledge, is-found- in the-~s of

various deities especially associated with learning. According to the Anisumadbhediigama

a rosary in one of her right hands and other should exhibit the Vyiikhyiina-mudrii. While her

two left handsshould-carrya manuscript and a white lotus.21

The Vi~TJudharmottara22 (Vi~11udh., chapt.64.) mentions that Sarasvati should be

shown standing on a- white letus-msamabhan'ga, cattying a book and-a- rosary in-OOl:--{ight

hands and a kama1J4alu in one of the left, alternatively a rosary, a trident, a book and a

kamaf!f!alu in- the-four hands-tibi4-, ehapt 73-; }~

According to the Riipamal]qana (Riipamal]qana, chapt.l8.), besides a book and a

rosary in her hands, Sarasvatl-should cany-either-a-v~and-a-lotus or should-held-a4otus

and exhibit varadamudrii by her remaining h,ands. 23

The Piirvakiiraniigama (Piirvakiira1]iigama, EHI, I, App. C._ p.l38)24 also menti~ns a

rosary and a book to be-held-by the-twe-hands-et' the-goddess-, whereas the--remai~ two

hands carry siidal]qa and a kamal]qa/u. In the Dasa sloki of Sarnsvati in Sarasvati r

21Anisumadbhediigama, Anandasrama Sanskruta series No.4 I, Poona-1900; also see the appendices in T.A.G. Roo Elements of Hindu Iconography, V ol.l, Part-U, q>t, Motilal-Banarsidass, 2"d ed., Delhi-l-993-, p.3 77.

22Vi$7?udhannottara, Translation of Book Ill, A Treatise on Indian Painting and Image Making by Stella Kramrisch, 2nd ed., Calcutta University Press-1928.

23Riipama11c!ana and Riipiivatiira (Devata-Mfirtti-Prakarai)a), Calcutta Sanskrit series No.l2. 24T.A.G. RaoElements ofHind~rleonography(EHl},~I-&-II,Madras-l-9-14-16.

204

Rahasyopanishad she is described as four handed carrying ak$miilii, arikusa, piisa and

pustaka.25

The- Pancaratragama- in its- KFiyapada- states- the- efiafaetefistie of VagiS-v~ri is

another form of Sarasvati She is white in colour, seated on white lotus. She has three eyes

and four hands, She Gaffies-in-her hand-&-a-sti-Gk-(stylus}J*OOahlyfoi:the ~ of~ting

and a book, ak~amii/a and karrraf[f!alu.26

of her right and left hands; but it adds that the front two hands should be exhibited as

playing upon a vinii.21

Sarasvafi is- also- conceived as- the-Sakti-·of Siva- irr some of the-texts: In-the-Su ta-

Samhitii of the Skanda Purii7JcP Sarasvafi is described as a female figure having a

Jatiimuku-fa with- creseent-~ eveF- the-llea4- The--!Nvl ~ sestioo--~ the

Miirka7f4eya Purli7fa29 describes her as holding in her hands a rosary, a vinii, an arikusa and

a pustaka. It is in this fashion the Devi is represented in the Hoysala sculptures.30 The

Silparatna (Silparatna,_chapt2414i 1 describes a ten-armed Sarasvati as one holdingcakra,

sarikha, kapiila,paSa;pa-raSu, sudhii kumbha; Veda, mraryand-lptus.

25Rajeshwari, SaJ..-ri Jcono., op.cit.,p.25 2~jeshwari, ibid., p.26-27. 27M.N.Dutta (trans),Agni pura11a, (40/20), Vols.l & II, Calcutta-1903-4. 28Rao,EHI, Vol.I, pt.II,p.378. 29ibid. 30ibid., see Fig. I, pl.CXVI. 31T. Ganapatisastri ( ed. ), Sri K zmuu:a,. Silpamtna,. T rivendrum Sanskrit series, 2 vols., T riveo.drwn.-1924~ 25.

Thus Sarasvati is very often: 1- white complexioned, draped in white garments and

decked with ornaments-, ll-twe- or four armed, III-OOlding- in- hef hands-any- ef.the~ects

like vinii, manuscript, rosary, kamafJcfalu, lotus, etc. and IV-provided with a swan or pea-

fowl or even- a lien as- her vehicle:-The-white--eompte,fffin of the-ged<iess-and so-a~ her

white garments are in keeping with her purity. A manuscript in the hand of the goddess is

certainly indicative-of her intimate-eenneet-ioo-with-leaming:

Even some Tantra texts also mention about the characteristics of Goddess Sarasvati

found in different- iceoography texts-,-The-fellewing are-the-dh;yanas colleeted-from-4ift'yent

texts regarding Sarasvati:

Asinii-kamala karairjjapabatim-padmadhyam-pus-tabam-biw:_anii

Tarunendubadhya muku(a muktendukundaprabhii

Va/onmili-ta-loehane-kuehavar-aklantii -vabadat~taye I

Bhuyiidhagiidhtdevatii munigamairii sebyamananisiim : Tantrasiira. 32

The-goddes-s- is- seated-oo-a-lools-seat.- She-has--fuuf-haads,. She oolds-in-ller-hands-Japm~1a Ia,

two lotuses and a manuscript, she has a crown like a sparkling moon ...... .

Panca ~daivwarhita-vadanadoh-paduyakakuro-- _ -.\

kshavakshi desiim bhiisvatak parda kalitosa sikalamindu kundababadatam

aksha srakkumbha-cintii-likhitii varokamm- trikshanam-.

padmiisamsthii machchakiilpamiituchiichhii stanajiikhanii bhariim bharatim tiim namiimi

:Prapancha Sara Tantr~. 33

3" "Ed. by Panchanan Tarkaratna, sloka.35, p.205. 33by A. Avalon.,. T antra, Texts,. VoLIII,..p.60, sloka54_-54.

206

kumbha, lekhani and white is her cloth, and one hand exhibits abhaya mudrii. She has three

eyes. She- is seated on--lotus- seat:- Her-fa-ee--is---lilre-m{){)fl--anfr hef-eolom is--whi-te--li~nda

flowers.

Karpuriirrraladehe viigisari visodhayii sumama chetuh. .' .. :- Siiradiitilaka Tantra. 34

: She-has-ak$(Js-ii-lra- and-pust-aka--in--her- twe-hands-, whi-le--her other- t-w&-haruis--emi-bit\vara

and abhaya-mudrii.

According to- the- Vi$nudha-rmeHar-a-; Btftaspati should- have-on-ly--t-we--afms\ and

should carry a pustaka-arrd-alcyam-~ It-also--says that-Sukra-; the-sorrofBhmu, shou-ld1tave

two arms and should carry a nidhi and pustaka.

According- te- eafly- Bmhmanieal--SOOFGes--like Riipamllfjcfana-, Vi-ffl-u--P~ and !

Suprabhediigama Brahma should have four arms and in his hands there should be the

While dealing with the iconography of Brahma it may be stated that though in the

Vedic and post-Ved-ie literamre,- the-presenre--ef-B-Fahma-has- been-tmeed-in-the-fonp. of

Prajapati, Hiranygarbha and he is considered as the lord of all creatures and exponent ofthe

Vedas, his ~rap-hie features-started ha-ving-distinct-Ghafa{;teristiGS-in-too Ep-iG& B~t his

34Tantric Text, VoLXVI,_Part-1, p.358, sloka 4, Chapter-6; N.Ghosh, Sri Sarsvati, op.cit., p.33.

2&7

personality with particular reference to iconographical features was fully developed in the

purliflic and other classical works~ The Agnf Purii7za35 however, prescribes different

iconographiGal features- fOI"- the.. gOO-during the-fum yu.gas:

1. He is Brahma in Satyayuga and is to hold a pustaka, an ak~amiilii, a sruva and a

kamai'J4a/u. He--should-have-feUf-faces-and-faces-should be-of heated-geld-eem~ion.

2. In Treatayuga, he is to be conceived as Pitamaha, holding a pustaka, sruvii, ak$ainiilii

and kama1Y/alu.

3. In Dvapara-, he-is-t&be-adered--as--Vifinei, holding an-ak$amala; a-pu.ffilka,a-siie~nd a \

4. In Kaliyuga, he-has-te-be-aeered-as-Kamalasana miirti-holdi-ngan-ak.~ama/a, a-JN~aka,

a katJzaf/4alu and a siici.

Brahma should have four faces representing every one of the Vedas, yugas and var:nas. The

right hand of the-createf s-heuld--held-a-res-aty-and-a-SFUV&,-and-the left hands--apustaka ~nd a

kama1J4alu or ak$amiilii, ak$asiitra, a lotus and a pustaka.

rugvedadiprabhedena-- krntayuga- b-hetk~ \ I

bipriidiva17Ja bhedena caturvarktam caturbhui:Jam

pustakam kamaf14alum dhatte samurccah kamalasanah

35 Achacya Baladeva Upad.h,vaya (ed. ), Agni Puriina, KSS, V aranasi-1966, p.214.

208-

In Sculpture i

In tlris section- we-limit out'- pmv-iew- ef · researeh- te- Buddhist, Jaina-- aoo ~indu

sculptures. The description of the subject, however, is restricted only to the deities holding

manuscripts-, s-ince-the-deity -belding-a~ has-been--eoosidered as-ged--eF-~s of

learning. Besides iconography of various deities, we also come across certain secular images

not as-sociated- with any religions:- The-tabular sketsh--ef the- seulptural- data-is~ssed

below.

Buddhist

Fi~re- Origjnally Present Date Holding Posture Reference Found Location Manuscript

Female Aurangabad 7'111 One of her Main goddess- DulariQureshi, Dwarf CaveVll C.A.D. two. hands- is attended Af1 and Vision of ,

by this imag€ Aurangabad Cave~, l st pub., Bharatiya .. Kala Prakashan, Delhi~ 1998, p.124 ~ Amita.Ray, Aurangabad. Sculptures, Marg, . 1964,p.27.

MailjuSri Ratnagiri Manuscript . Upper.part -Deb ala Mitra,_ One part perched on. of the Ratnagiri (1958-6 O, recovered on an Utpala . image Vol.I, ASI, New the floor of proper is Delhi -1981 ' pp .226-front porch. missing. 27, pl.CLXXIll.A. and other part in front of cell22

MaiijuSri Ratnagiri, Late7m Left hand at Stands in a Deba1a Mitra, is an archit- or 8th his thigh pronounced Ratnagiri (1958-61 ), ectural slab centuxy holding a tribhmiga Vol.I, ASI, New from the nilotpala . pose Delhi-1981, p.242, facade of a supporting a pl.CL:XXXV.B. destroyed book temple

Maiiju5ri Amaravati gm Book resting Seated image, T .E.Donaldson, .,

fort near centuxy on the surface is badly Iconography of the Choudwar, nilotpala corroded Buddhist &ulptu'IY! of Orissa with fungus Orissa, Vol.I (Text)

1st Pub., IGNCA &-Abhinav pub., New Delhi-2001, p.I63.·

209

MaiijuSri Ratnagiri Late8m Left hand Seated in Debala Mitra, or holds the conventional Ratnagiri (1958-61),

(Bronze) early 9th stalk of a mode where Vol.II, MASI No.SO, century nilotpala he is in ASI, New Delhi-

supporting a Vajraparyarlka, 1983, pp.377-78, book appears on a pl.CCXCIX.A.

small bronze :found at site Laitasana pose

Maiijusri Sirpur, National 9[ft LeftJiimd Seated in S.P:Gupta (ed.J, Madhya Museum C.A.D: hotdsthe Lafitasana Masterpieces

(Bronze) Pradesh New stem oflotus from the National-rrelhi supporting a Museum Collection,

-manuscript National Museum, · New Delhi'- 1985; ' p:S I-.

Maiiju§ri Soro, Orissa 9UL Left hand -Seated T.E.Donatdsorr, century· placed on image /corrographyof the

his-seat- Buddhist Sculpturoof behind thigh- Orissa, VoU (Text)

· holds stalk l 81 Pub-., IGNCA&, of a Abhinav pab-., New. nilotpala- Delhi-200l,p.IM;. supporting a flg.16-9. book.

MafijuSri Ratnagiri 9th Left palm Standing Debala Mitra, ' 9lcm.high In the land of century holds-the with a RatmJgiri (1958-6l),

Devendra sta1k ot:an slight flexion- V{)l.IL MASI No.8Q, Panda, some Utpala. right palm A.Sl,.New Delhi-metres to the supporting a in Vara- - 1983.,-p-461, west of book .mudra pLCCCLVIB_ Mahiikala temple.

MaiijuSri Ratnagiri, 9mor Left palm Mahiirlijalila Debala~ Orissa.. lOth with. the posture on_a Ratnagiri (1958-6J),

(Khondalit Inside the century stalk of an Vi§vapadma Vol.I, ASI, New e slabs) niche of utpala Delhi-1981, p.105,_

drum-slab of _bearing a pl.LIID. Buddha manuscript

MafijuSti Ratnagiri Allofthem Seated in Debala Mitra, (17 Nos) hold1he Lalaitasana Ratnagiri (1958-61 ),

stalk of an attitude with the Vol.I, ASI, New Utpala right leg_pendant Delhi-1981, p.ll7.' supporting a book in their left hand

MaiijuSri Jhadamalli lOth Leftfrrst Badly worn. T .£.Donaldson, shrine at century hand holds a Seated in Iconography of the Kusinga, book Vajraparyarlka Buddhist Sculpture of Orissa vertically in Orissa, Vol.I (Text)

front of his 1st Pub., IGNCA & chest Abhinav pub., New

DelJii-2001, p.l69;·

210

MaiijuSri Highway IOtn First left Seated in T .E.Donaldson, No.5 at century arm holds a Vajraparyarlka Iconography of the Durgapur, book on a vi5vapadma Buddhist Sculpture of Orissa vertically in Orissa, Vol.I (Text)

frontofhis 1 "'Pub., IGNCA & . chest. Abhinav pub., New

Dellii~zoor, p.I69: Stupa with Ratnagiri Stalk of an Seated in Debala Mitra, Maiiju5ri Utpala Lalitasana Ratnagiri (1958-61 ),

bearing a attitude Voi.f, AST, New book Dellii-l98l, p. I t8:

Maiijusri Ratnagiri, Left palm Vara-mudra Debala Mitr-a, l4cm. high in sixth carrying the Katnagiti (1958-.tH),

Stupa stalK of an Votl, ASI, New Utpata Delhi-l98t, p.ll9:'·

·bearing a book

Maiiju5ri Ell ora, Holds-a R:.S.Gupte; The '

Cave No.l2 pustafurover Iconography of tfre.

Aurangabad an upright- Brrddhist&ulpturJJs pad:nr.r (caves}-of Eflora; 1-"t

ed., Marathwada Univ:, Aurangabafu. l-964,p.ll9.

MaiijuSri, Lalitagiri, Leftharui On 11ft image T .E.Donaldson, Served as Orissa holds an of Ak~bhyahe Iconography of the

an Utpala- stands on the Buddhist &ulpture..of attendant · supporting a right while O~oisMJ-, VoU, to Buddha. book Loke5vara.is on. l 51 Puh., IGNCA~ Part of a the left Abhinav, New stupa Delhi-2001, pJ6 L, maiJ.4alas

MaiijuSri U<ia¥agiri Raised-left He. stands on the . T .£.Donaldson.-Stupa,. hand holds right side of /c.anograph..y of the, Orissa an.Utpala V airocana while Buddhist Sculpture .of

supporting a on the left side is Orissa, Vol.I, book. ~itigarbha 1 at Pub., IGNCA &.

Abhinav, New Delhi-200l,_Q.l61.

.MaiijuSri Udayagiri Left hand He stands on left T .£.Donaldson, From a holds the of Amitlibha Iconography of the destroyed Utpala while Loke5vara Buddhist Sculpture_ of stupa supporting a is on the right Orissa, Vol:I,

book. I st Pub., IGNCA & Abhinav, New Delhi-200l,p.l61.

211

MaiijuSri Raghunatha lltll Left hand Standing image T .E.Donaldson, temple, century holds the Iconography of the Solanpur, meandering Buddhist Sculpture.of Orissa stalk of a Orissa, Vol.I (Text),

nUotpala I st-Pubo, IGNCA & . that Abhinav, New Delhi-blossoms . 2001, p.I62. aboveliiS shoulder. A manuscript rests on each blossom.

Ma.iiju§ri Dacca t2UL Left hand Sitting in N.K.Bhattasali, Museum centuty- the Iconography of

(Black Ban gala meditative Buddhist-and· •.

chloride -desh pose Brahmantcaf · stone) Sculpture:rirr the- 0

Dacca·Museum; p-ub. by Dacea Museum,·. Dacca-l-929; ]}.28,.

Maiijuvara Vajragiri Orissa 8tn Hands-are ifr Badly worn_ T .E.Doaaldson, State centuiY dlillllnllGakra condition, konegr-aphy oft/~ MuseumB -madt:a with Asana is-not- · Euddhist&u/ptw<Mf lmban- mlotpala. known ORssa., \loU-, I st ' eswar supporting a Pub., IGNCA &.

' book Abhinav, New DeJl.ll-possibly . 2001, p.l66,.fig.J7". over his left shoulder..

Ma.iijuvara Ratnagiri gtn Book on. the One each is in. Deb ala. Mitra,. (5 Nos.) century Utpala the Pacyriklisana. Ratrulgiri (195 8-61),

and Lalitasan.a. Vol.I, ASI, New attitude and three Delhi-1981, p.117 .. in Bhadrasana posture-commonly called Arapachana

Maiij.uvara Ratnagiri Passing over Seated in Debala Mitra, Second his left arm Lalitasana Ratnagiri (l958-6i), stupa is the stalk attitude Vol.I, ASI, New

of an Utpala Delhi-198l,p.l19.' . bearing a book

Ma.iijuvara Ratnagiri A stalk of an Seated in Debala Mitra, Third Utpala Bhadrasana Ratnagiri (1958-61 ), stupa bearing a attitude Vol.I, ASI, New

book passes Delhi-1981' p.1200 over his left arm.

Ma.iijuvara Ratnagiri Left-side of Seated in Debala Mitra, Fourth the figure is Bhadrasana Ratnagiri (195&-6l), stupa the stalk of attitude Vol.I, ASI, New

an Utpala Delhi-1981, p.120o 0

with a book on it.

212

Stupa with Ratnagiri In his left Seated in Debala Mitra. Arapachana First stupa hand, which Vajraparyan- Ratnagiri (1958-6 I),

rests on the kiisana attitude Vol.I, ASI, New chest, is a Delhi-1981' pp.l20-book. 21, pl.LXX.A.

Stupa with Ratnagiri In his left Seated in Debala Mitra, Arapachana Second hand a book Vajraparyan- Ratnagiri (1958-61),

stupa held against kiisana attitude Vol.f, ASI, New the chest. Delli!-1981' p. f2T.'

Bodhisattva Ratnagiri lith Left palm- Vara-mudra Debala Mitra, century parclieaon Ratnagiri (1958~61),

· the Utpala is Von, ASI, New a manuscript Dellli- 1981, p.226~ carefully tied by a string.

Bodhisattva Ratnagiri Passing over Dharmachakrapr Debala Mitra, In first his tefrarm avartana-mudra Ratnagiri (1958•61 ), Stupa is-the stalk Voll, ASI, New

of an Utp-abr Delhi-1981, p-.119.· on which is pereheda-book

Arya Ratnagiri 8tn With the- Standing image- T .E.Denaldsan, Sarasvati ·century book being included in a /eonography of the

supported on frieze along with Buddhist &ulpture-,of a lotus held other deities- Orissa, Vol.I (Text), in her left including 1st Pub., IGNCA&., hmld Manjusri. Abhinav pub., New,

Tribhanga pose. Delhi-2001, p.275~. D.Mitra,-Ratnagiri, I, p~42,.. pLCLXXXV .B_

Arya Ratnagirif Now gtn Left hand. She. is. in. T.EJ)onaldson '

Sarasvati ound.in. dislodged. centwy. placed. on Lalitasana .on_ a Iconography oftht:. two the seat, Vi.Svapadma Buddhist Sculpture_of fragments holds the Orissa, VoU (Text), near cell stalk of a 1st Pub., IGNCA & 15of lotus Abhinav pub., Ne'Y. Monast:ry supporting a Delhi-2001, p.275. I. book.

Arya Ell ora, Right hand Stands in the RS:Gupte, The Sarasvati Cave holds a samobhariga Iconography of the

No.IO pus taka over position on a Buddhist Sculptures Auran- an upright padma (caves) ofEI/ora, 151

gab ad _ padma ed., Marathwada Univ., Aurangabad~ 1964,p.! 19;Niranjan Ghosh, Sri Sarasvat! in Indian Arl and Literature, 1st ed., Sri Satguru Pub., Delhi'-I984, p.68, Fig. I, pl.XXI.

213

Sarasvati Vajrayo- Dacca lltn Black Seated in N.K.Bhattasali, (Black stone) gin~ Museum C.A.D. left hand Lalitiik~epa on Iconography of

Vikram- Bangia- double- Buddhist and pura, desh petalled a lotus Brahmanical Dacca Sculptures in the

Dacca Museum, Dacca Museum, Dacca-192CJ, pp.l88 & I90.

Prajfiiiparamitii In the 1015 HOI<fs a red- Seated in T.E.Donaloson, image A.D. and blue lotus Vajraparyan'ka IConography ofthe

(Now placed in in her right Buddhist Sculpture of worshipped as front of and left hands Orissa, Vol.I (Text), Buddha-Tara) the respectively, ~Pub., IGNCA:&

Sure8vari each Abhinavpub:, New temple, suppmting a - DelhF-2001, p.281.· Sonpur; buokof Orissa; Kama§ astra-

Prajfiaparamita Ratnagiri lltn Her-hands- Seated in Debala Mitra; In- niches of centllly shows Sattvaparya- Rtttnagiri, Vcl:I, monolithie dharmaeakra-- Iika on a po 148, pl.XCVII.B. stu pas mudri- and a- viSvapadma--

lotus-stalK passes under andover her left ann with the flower supporting_ a book.

Prajfiaparamitii Ratnagiri AnUtpala Seated in DebalaMitra.-Housed ina passing. over V ajraparyarlka Ro.tnagiri, VoLII.- . niche of both__arms, on a p.316, stupa rises up on viSvapadma pl. CCXXXVII. No.4lfrom either side, with her hands the group each in Vyiikhyiina-in front of supporting a mudrii monastery book. No .I

Prajfiiparamitli Ratnagiri A book Seated in . Debala Mitra, Housed ina appears on the Vajraparymika Ratnagiri, Vol.IT, niche of left lotus. on a p.317. stupa viSvapadma No.45 from the group in front of monastery No.I

Prajfiiiparamita NagaspurO llttt A lotus stalk Her hands are T.E.Donaldson, rissa century issues from in Iconography of the

under her left Dhannacakra- Buddhist Sculpture of arm with the mudri Orissa, Vol.I (Text), full blown Is~cPub., IGNCA&· blossom Abhinav pub., New supporting a Delhi-2001, p.282. · book.

214--

Prajiiaparamita Choudwar Now Iltn Rear left hand Seated in K.S.Behera and Orissa not century holds a Vajraparyarika T.E.Donaldson,

known manuscript Sculpture Masterpieces from Orissa-Style and lconogmphy, New Delhi-1998, p.63.

Prajfiaparamita Tarapur, Iltn · A lotus stalk Seated in P".K.Ray, OHRJ, Orissa century iSsuing up on V ajraparyarika Vol.XXIX, No. r,

the leff side on a p.49";fig.f; passes under vi8vapadma also see andover lier with her hands T.E.Donaldson, left arm to in Vyiikhyiiha- Iconography of the blossom mudra Buddhist Sculpture of opposite her Orissa, Vol.l(Text), face: The- lst Pub., IGNCA & blossom and Abhinavpuh., New

· the-book on it . Delhi-2001; p-:279-.• are mostly obfuscated by accretions of pastefrem

. pujarituals.. Prajiiaparamita Bai).eSwa- · lltn Holding book- Seated in . T.E.Dooaldsoo,

masi, century Vajraparyan'ka Iconography ofthr;. Orissa. Buddhist Sculpture. of Embedded Orissa, Vol! (TexQ, into a niche. 1st Pub., IGNCA &. ofthewall Abhinav pub.,.New. behind the Deh200l,p.279 .. Padme8var aSiYa temple

Prajfi iipliramita Nepal National 15tn Left hand Dhyiina-mudra Acc.No.-48.41256. (Bronze) Museum. C.A.D. Personal

New Observation Delhi

CWJ4a Bhubane- Orissa 9tn The book is Seated in T .E.Donaldson, swar State century held in the Vajrapacyarika Iconography of the

Museum uplifted left on a Buddhist Sculpture of Bhuban- back hand vi8vapadma Orissa, Vol.I, eswar IGNCA & Abhinav

pub., New Delhi-200 I, p.286, fig.333.

CuQ<}ii Udayagiri Patna 9tn Oneofthe Seated in T .E.Donaldson, Museum century three Lalitasana Iconography of the Bihar uplifted Buddhist Sculpture· of

back left Orissa, Vol.I, hands hold a IGNCA & Abhinav lotus pub., New Delhi-supporting 2001, p.286. manuscript

215

Cul)qa Ell ora, Left hand R.S.Gupte, The CaveNo.l2 holds a Iconography of the Aurangabad pustaka over Buddhist Sculptures

apadma. (caves) of Ellora, r•t Pustaka is ed., Marathwada carved in Univ., Aurangabad-half-relie! 1964, p.ll9. and its horiZontal proflle is seen.

Cuq.<Ja Niyamatpur Varendra 9"' Oheoflier Seated· witli Puspa Niyogi, (Stone) Rajashahi Research century eighteen legs crossed on J)uddliisr DtvJIJities,

dist, Society hands holds afullblown tstpub.,Munshiram · Bangladesh Museum ~rbouk- lotus Manolrarlai;

(Fig.88)- Newf>el:hi--200-t, ., p-.I-26-:- '

Fellow Buddhist ~ Receiving . Jolnr6ny; students of stupa, century- tuition-while- Palmieaf amiPap8r, Prince- central Java; holding theit Illustrated- -,

Siddharta- Borobudur- long Manuscripts H-om- . palmleaf · India-and Southerujl texts fOF Asia, National

' study Gallery of Vi~

Mclboume-l-982, p.ll.

V asudhara- Nepal Baroda- Oaeofhei D.C.Bhattachaty~, Museum. six-hands- kOJWlogyoj Gujrat holds a ComposiJe.lmages,

pustaka. 1st ed_,. Munshira.nJ., Manoharlal,_ Del.hi:-1980,_p.3.7,., fig.3.

VasudhBm.. Nepal NationaL 15m Left hand Seating. Personal (Bronze} Museum .. C.A.D. gesture Obsetvatlon

New Delhi

The-earliest- kno¥m-representation of the goddess Sarasvati-figuris-Gafved-, the

railing pillar ofBharhut.36 Besides being much mutilated,.. the figure does not bear even the

description label- fooad- usually attached- te--such relic fat-Bharhut; but-still-enough re~s to

enlighten us as to its nature. The figure standing gracefully in an upright frontal position on

what appears-to be-a large-full-&l~letus-is-shown-playing-ena-sevea-stringed-i~ent

vinii..31 Images of Sarasvati from Gham:asala (Andhra) are peritaps the earliest

36J.N.Banerjea, Development of Hindu Iconography, 2nd ed., Univ. of Calcutta, Calcutta-1956, pLXVI1.2. 37B.M.Barua,..&uhut, (VoUJ,..p • .75),.3. Vols...,.Calcutta- I 934-37.

216

representations in South India belonging to the 2"d century B. C. 38 The goddess standing in

samabhaliga posture has-fum: handS-with-t:he-uppet:-ri-g-hthand-holding a-lotus-bud, the-~wer

one placed over the head of a swan, the upper left holding a noose and the lower left hanging

softly. But (Arya) Sarasvafi images holding manuscript is certainly not earlier than ~he 8th

century and- that is- alse- frem- Ratn-agffi-.- The earliest amoog- the--BuE:ldhist deities-i-s-a-feptale \

dwarf belonged to 7th century AD. holding manuscript can be seen in Aurangabad cav~ Vll.

Mafijusri of Ratnagiri dates back to as early as 7th century. The finds of numerous d~ities

holding manuscripts- from- Ratnagiri- are-mere-than--any- otheF- site&- Fmm--Ratnagifi-w~ find

vanous tmages of Maiijusri, Boddhisattva, Maiijuvara, Arapacana, Sara.Svati,

Prajiiaparamita, etc. are- holding pu-staka-- while- in different- pest-mes- like- tFi!Jhqriga, ' '

lalitiisana, paryrikiisana and bhadriisana. Besides India, Buddhist deities holding

manuscripts- have-also-been r-epefted- from-Nepal-and-Bangladeslt-

The most popular form ofMaiijusri in Orissan sculpture, standing or seated depicts

him displaying varada- with- h-is- right- hand-- while his-left hand- OOkis-- the-stalk of- niletpala I

which supports a manuscript, a generalised form which does not conform exactly to any one

textual description..39 This is the form he usually adopts when serving_ in a maqqala~ th~ugh

in set-A at- Lalitagiri- one-of h-is-attendants--additionally- holds--a- swo-r4 In-this-simple., two-

armed form with a pustaka, seated images are far more popular than standing images.

Further, in addition to- his role-as-one-ofeight Bedh-isattavas-in sculptural-~Ias-, ther,e are

a few examples where Maiijusri serves as an attendant to Buddha, as on an image of

38A.Rea, South Indian Buddhist Antiquities, Madras-1894, pl.XXXI; also see G.V.Subbaya's Histmy of Ghamasiila, p.73.

39T.E.Donaldson, Iconography of the Buddhist Sculpture of Orissa, Vol.I (Text), lstPub., IGNCA & Abhinav pub., New Delhi-2001, p.l61.

217

Ak~obhya from Lalitagiri where he stands on the right holding in his left hand an utpa/a

supporting pustaka-. Secondly, SaFas-vatl-'s-great-peplliafity with the-Buddhists--is-evffiep.t in

the Siidhanamiilii wher-e- eight- Siidhan69-are devoted to- fief· 'WOFSh.ip as- Afya-Samsvat1

(Siidhana Nos.164, 168) also named as Vajra-Sarasvati She appears as a maiden of sixteen

in the-prime- of youth, has- a-white-eomplexion, ana- helds-the-stalk-efloms-suppoftmr the

pustaka in her left hand. The dhyiina is silent about the object in her right hand, or the

mudrii,. and there is no mention of her iisana. 40 Thirdly, Prajiiaparamita occupies· an exalted

position- in- the- Buddhist panth.een-, She- is-- believed to- be- the--~~ of

'transcendental knowledge' embodied in the Prajiiiipiiramitii-Siitra, an important

Mahiiyiina-Siitra worshipped in India as early as 5th century. Of the nine surviving exarp.ples

ofPrajiiaparamita in Orissa; all-but-ene-aFe hve armed:- 'Fhree-ofthe-twe-armed-exam~s are \

small images housed in niches of monolithic stiipas at Ratnagiri, and the pustakas appear on

their respective-lotuses-: An-~y- pepular Buddhist-deity with- a-vafiety effurms-is-~nda.

In the Dharmadhiirurviigisvara-maf}4ala of the Ni~pannayogiivali she is one of the twelve

with- the-entire-mystW powers-that this-dharaqi or mantra-presents.-ller-antiquity date~~o at

least as. early as. 3rd century AD.41 where she is named Candra in the Arya-Maiijusri-

4<13.Bhattachanya, The Indian Buddhist Iconography, rpt., Calcutta-1968, pp.349-51. 41 Donaldson. leo no g. of Bud. Sculp. of Orissa, Vol.I, o~.cit., p.282. · ·

218-

Figure Originally Present Date Holding Posture Reference Found Location Manuscript

Sarasvati Karikali Provincial 132 Holds a. SeatedswaL _ V A Smith, The JaiJ:J._ Tila, Museum, A.D. manuscript with knees Stupa andDthe~ Mathura Lucknow in-her left- drawn up Antiquities ().fMathur~7-

hand which above an Allahabad-190 l, pp:56,. rests on the oblong -57, pl-. XCIX; waist pedestal · V.S.Agrawala;A sh-ort·

guide Booktu the Archaeological Section of the Provincial Museum'-Lucknow, Allahabad -1940, p.5. Shantilal Nagar, Iconography of Jaina Deities~ Vol.I, B.R..Pub.~ New Delhi-1999"pp317-18; forpl~te seeVoll4 pU 6&, fig_&Q.

Sarasvaff Vasanta- 7m Left hand Niranjan Ghosh-, ~i-(Bronze) gadh, C. AD -Sarasva# in Indian- Art.

Sirohi Post and Literature, 1st pub:, Gupta Sri Satgumpub~, Delhi« period 1984, pp.88-89, Fig.2, ·

pi .XXXI. Sarasvaff Karnataka British lOtll- Manuscript Stands in ShantiTaiNagar, Jain a ·

Museum, . 11th in the left an elegant Sculptures in Indian and London C. AD hand manner WorldMusems, Kalinga

Pub., Delhi-2002, p.l69: Sarasvafi Karnataka 10m or A Standing Shantilal Nagar,

11th manuscript figure Iconography of Jaina _ C. AD inherleft looking Deities., Voll,-B.R._ Pub,,

hand downwards . Ne-w Delhi-1.999, p.3-l9,; -for plate see Nagar-'s-. Volll, pl.l-72; A.Ghosh, Jaina Art and--Archizecture; New-Delhi-1975, p.543', pl319.B.'

Sarasvatl Carved on lltlr Holds a M.N.V.Tiwa~ Elements the door C. AD manuscript of Jaina Iconography, · lintel of the in her Indological Book House, back shrine upper left Varanasi-1983, p.114. on west of arm the ParaS\' a-natha temple, Khajuraho

219

Sarasvati Another 11m Holds a M.N.P.Tiwari, Elements figure is C. AD manuscript of Jain a Iconography, . carvedin in_her__ IndologicaLBookHous~, with upper left Varanasi-1983,..p~l4. Lak!?mion hand the south I of the mat}.Qapa-of the Parasva-natha temple, Khajuraho

Sarasvati Digambara 1162 Upper left Standing Shantilal Nagar, Jaina (White Jaina A.D. hand holds on a lotus Sculptures in Indian and makrane Temple,. a book pedestal in__ World Musems, Kaling~ marble) Ladn~ tribhariga Pub~Delhi,-2002, p.44;,

Nagaur pose N.Ghosh,Sri SarGSJJatijn district, Indian Art andLiterature, Rajasthan l 51 pub-., Sri Satguru-pub.,

Delhi-l984, p.92. Sarasvati Western Late Lower-left Standing irr M.N.P :Tiwari; Elemenu (Buff exterior llth hand holds-a tribhariga of Jairrcr korrography,--· sand wall of C. AD ··manuscript- pose Indotogical Book House, stone) Temple Varanasi-1983~ p.55,

No.1, fig.35. Deogarh

Sarasvati South-west British um- Lower left Standing in R.P. Chanda, Medieaval (White Rajasthan Museum, 12th hand tribhariga . Indian Sculpture in the Marble) London. C.AD pose . British Museum, London-

1936,_pA6;..Shantilal _ . Nagar, Jaina Sculptures in Indian and World ' Musems, Kalinga-Pub-., . Dellii-2002,_p.16-7.

Sarasvat'f Rajputana British ttth Lower left- Nitanjmt 6hoslr; Srt Museum, or hand Sarasvati in Indian rtr.r

·London. 1211>- and Literature, lstpub.; Belongs to C. AD Sri Satguru pub., Delhf.> Stuart 1984, p.90. Bridge collection

Sarasvati Jain. cave,. Holds a Seated in_ Niranjan Ghosh, Sri Ell ora, book in her ardhapad- Sarasvatf in Indian Art Aurangabad. lower left masana and Literaturey- 1st ed_, ~ri

hand Satguru Pub-., Delhi-1984, p.93, fig.2, pl.XXXVII ..

220-

Sarasvati National Oneofher Stands in Shantilal Nagar, (Marble) Museum, four hands tribhariga Iconography of Jain a

New Delhi holds a posture Deities~ Vol!,.. pustaka__ RR.Eublishing Corp...,. .. ,

New Delhi-1999, p.3-l ~ for plate see Nagar' s-VoUI, pl-. 170;

Sarasvati National · Chau- Holds a Standing Shantilat Nagar, Jaina , (White Museum, harr book over a lotus Sculptures in lmitarrcmd MarOle) NewlJelhi times on Worlt:tMusems, Kaling8

tribhariga Pub., Dellii-2002, p.#: posture

Sarasvati South 12lll One ofher Stands in Shantilal Nagar, (White western C.AD left hands tribhariga Iconography of Jain a Marble) Rajasthan holds a posture Deities,Voi.I, p.319; fo.r

book . plate seeN agar's Vol.II1

pl161;.A_Ghosh,.Jaina. Art and Architectur~ . NewDelhi-1975-, p539_. pl.317.R

Vagesvari Bikarrer· A Stands in -Shantilal-Nagar; \

(Stone) manuscript tribhariga Iconography afJama · in her left between Deities, Vol.I, RR Pub~, hand the two Corp., New Delhi-1999~

decorated p.JI&; fOr plate see pillars Vol.II, pl.l69. surmounted by an arch

YaksL Carved . 10m One ofher Stands in_ Shantilal Nagar, over pillar C.AD three extent tribhariga Iconography ofJaina of the hands_ posture . Deities., Voll,. '.

RarigatnaQ cames-a- B.RPublishing Col}h; .

d~pa of manuscript New Delhi-19-99, p-.31 0. Vimalava-sali temple

Yaksi Ina l(}IIL Holding Lalitasana Shantilat Nagar, temple of centwy pustaka Iconography of Jaina ·,

Cam bay A.D. Deities, Vof.l, H.R. Pub. Corp., New Delhi-1999; p.310.

Yaksi Prabhasa- 10m Holding Lalitasana Shantilal Nagar, patan centmy pustaka Iconography of Jain a

A.D. Deities,. VolJ,_B.R.. Pub.,Corpry- New Delhi-. 1999, p..310.

221

Yaksi Prince of Holds the The U.P.Shah, Jaina-Riipa..: Wales book in her standing MalJtfana, Vol.I,Jaina Museum,. left lower Yaksa& Iconog~raphy, 1st pub., Bombay hand Yaksi Abhinav pub.,. New

shown on Delhi-1987, p,286; the two U.P.Shah, Yaks~"iofthe sides near Twenty-fourth Jina-the legs of Mahavira, Journal- tTf the the · Oriental~. standing Baroda, Vol.22, Nos.l-2, Jina fig.9: sculpture

Gomukha Deogarh 9th to Holding These are Shantilal Nagar, Ya~a& 12th pustaka present Iconography of Jaina Yaksi C. AD with Deities, Vol.I" cakr.e8van ~abha B.RPublishing Corp., (Eight (K.ayotsa.r- New Del.h.b1999~p-80 .. cases) gaposture) Yaksiiji Sahu 12th One han<! M.N.P .Tiwari, El€ment$

Samgraha- C. AD abhaya- of .!ainu Jeonography, . lay a, mudraand lndological Book House, Devgarh· . otherhand- Varanasi-1983, p:6-1 .

displays-a book

Siddha- Barabhuji lith Leffhand s-eated in RIT.Mohapatra, Jain a · yika Gumpha, C. AD Lalitasana Monuments of Orissa, 1st

Khandagiri pose . pub., D.K.Publishers, Hill Delhi-1984, p.236; Bhubanesvar B.C.Bhattachacya, The

Jaina Iconography, Lajore:-193 9,- p.J_ 46_

Siddha- Right wall . One.ot:hel: Lalita pose Shantilal-Nagar, yika of the ten left-arms Iconogrophy of Jain a

inner holds a· Deities; Vol-.1; chamber of pustaka· B.RPublishingCorp., · Bmibhuji · New DeJb:i--1999-, p:31 0.. Gunipha

Siddha- Barabhuji 11th- Oneofher Debala Mitra, yikii cave near or left ten SasanadeviS in tli.e

Navamuni, 12th hands holds KhaQ.Qagiri Caves, KhaQ.Qagiri C. AD a book Journal of the Asiatic Orissa Society, Calcutta, New

Series, Vol.I, 1959, No.~, pp.127-33; U.P.Shah, Jaina-Ril.pa-Man4ana, . Vol.~Jaina Iconography, 1st ed., Abhinav pub., New Delhi~l981, p.288.

222

Santidevi Modem 1092 Oneofher Standing- M.N.P.Tiwari, Elements temple .A.D. four arms figure with _of Jaina Iconography~ . No.~ . holds_a Varada:- IndologicalBook Hous~, Khajuraho manuscript llll.ldra Varanasi-19~_p_l7_ ._

Goddess-? Adinath Late One_ of her. Seated ina M.N.P. Tiwacij Ele.me.n4 Ambika-? temple, half bands holds a_ balitasana · of Jaina konography, ,

Khajurah<t of -manuscript with a lndolegical- Book House, Vahan- 11th entwined by tampmtt -Vaxanasi-198-3, p.89: Lion C. AD ·a-lotus lion(Viihan) Gauri Barabhuji Left hand Seated in RP.Mohapatra, Jaina

Gumpha, Lalitasana Monuments of Orissa, l st

Khandagiri pose pub., D.K.Publishers, Hill Delhi-1984, p.229; Bhubanesvar B.C.Bhattacharya, The

Jaina Iconography,. Lajore-1939,. p.llL

The-early deity holding- a-man-uscript-of Jaffia- pantheen is-an in-seribed-but-~~ged

image of Jaina Sarasvati discovered from Mathura, which belongs to 132 A.D.42 It bears a

dedicatory inscription. 43 The goddess is specifically named as Sarasvafi who holds a

manuscript in her left haoo, which- rests- on the-waist; The- installatien- of-an-~e of \

42The head with the halo as well as the upper part of the raised right hand is lost, but other details of the inscription seem to prove that the figure represents the Jaina version of the goddess. The sculpture was found in Kankali Tila, Mathura, in 1899, near the first or eastern temple in the mound, which seems to-have belonged to the Svetamaber sect. V.A.Smith, The Jain Stupa and Other Antiquities of Mathura, Allahabad-190 1, pp.56-57, pLXCIX; V.S.Agrawala,A short guide Book to the Archaeological Section of the Provincial Museum-Lucknow, Allahabad-1940, p.5; also seeN .K.Bhattasali, Iconography of Buddhist and BrahmaJJical Sculptures in the Dacca Museum, pub. By Dacca Museum, Dacca-1929, p.l87, pl.LXII(b). (The el}fliest image of Sarasvati preserved in Lucknow museum appears to be the inscribed one installed by a Jaina deyotee at Mathura, towards the beginning of the Cliristian era. The goddess squats on a rectangufar seat and is clpthed in a loose drapery. The goddess holds a pabnleaf manuscript in her left hand. The upper portion of the ~age is lost together with the right hand, which is raised and probably had either the Vakhyan Mudra; or a p~. On the right side is a male attendant with a pitcher. On the-leftis-als<T another male attendant with hands fol~ed in adoration).

43The pedestal bears a six-line inscription in the-Brahm:i-script-oftbe-Kushan period; it records the-insta:Qation of the image Saraswati, the gift of the Smith- Gova; son-of Sib-a-at-the instance of the- preacher :Atya-~a in the year 54. The sculpture- thus-can-be-dated in- the-first-half-of the--2-"d century AD-and be- regarded as op.e of the earliest representation- of Saraswati-, though most-prOOably in- its-Jaina sitting: The-pitcher in- the-h:~d of one of the attendants may symbolise the receptacle of knowledge Jfianabhlil!4a of which she was the presiding deity. Jitcndra Nath Baneijea, The Development of Hindu Iconography, 4th ed., Munshiram Manoharla~ New Delhi-1985, p.378; also see D.RRajeshwari, Sakti Iconography, Intellectual pub., 151 ed., New Delhi-1989, pp.25-27 variotts seulpturesofSarasvftti-holding-mamiseripts-and-even-one stylus, p-;26-, Figs-;-53, ),4, 55.

223-

Sarasvat'i holding a mamiS£ript at such- an-eafly- date- is-(}f great-impert:aru;;e;- as- it "'\ould

indicate that the Jainas not only attached great importance to the pursuit of knowledge but

also started using palmleaf manuscript at- a- vety early time:- But-~ find- is- -of a--~mall

bronze image of Jaina Sarasvafi of outstanding quality, obtained from Vasantagadh near

Sirohi is very attractive:- It is-an example--efthe-brenz-e-ef-the-pest-Gupta-period, an&,_may

possibly be assigned to the-school of the ancient west sta:Ited bySitangadeva in ~sa in

the th century A.D. as referred to by Taranatha. The goddess holds the lotus in her _right

hand held aloft, while the left hand carries the manuscript.44 We do not get iconogr~phic

evidence of any other sculptures holding manuscript in between 1st century to 7th century

A.D. Other Sarasvatt-images-assoeiated-with--pustaka ar-e-hailed-~pa$> of

India. So it is quite common that despite of hailing from north, south, east and west parts of

India many Sarasvati images- bear the-emblem- ef-pu-staka-: Even- seme-of the-images\ bear

inscriptions on their bases i.e. the white marble of 11th-12th century A.D. Sarasvat'i image

hailing from- Rajasthan, now in- the British-Museum, is-four- armed, both- fight ~eing

lost. The upper left hand holds a rosary and lower a manuscript, which together with the' five

Jinas- seated- cross-legged- en- the upper- part- of-the- baG1~-slab, indieate that ~age

Sarasvat'i represents the Jaina goddess of learning. The image has a late Nagari inscription

on its base. 45 Most of the Jaina images are of Sarasvafi with pustakas, whereas

representations- of other few deities-assoGiated- with--pu.stakas-are Gauri, Siddhayika-, :X~&'i,

Yaksrnr, Vage5vari anctSanti;dev'i.

44Niranjan Ghosh, Sri Sarasvati in Indian Art and Literature, 151 pub., Sri Satguru pub., New Delhi-1984, Fig.2, pLXXXI, pp.88-89.

45R.P.Chanda, Medieaval Indian Sculpture in the British Museum, London-1936, p.46; also see Bhagwant Sahai, Iconography of Minor Hindu.-and Buddhist Deilie.s.,-L51 Puh..,Abhinav puh.,..NewDeJhi,.1915.-p.l51.

224

Alongwith sculptural evidence we also have some Jaina illustrated palmleaf

manuscripts where- we- find- images- of SaFasvatt- and Vasudfl.afa -helding- -p~leaf

manuscripts. These belong to the 11th to 14th century A.D., known_ by various names,,these

are preseFVeti- in various-librafies-ef maia- and-a~oad.

Jaina Dlustrated Palmleaf Manuscript

Fig_ure Manuscript Pres-ent Date Holding Pos-ture· Reference Name Location palmleaf

manuscript Vas-udhara Cambridge 1015 One. of her John_ Guy (ed.),

Univ. A.D. hands.. Indian-Art and, library, holds-a Connoisseul'ship London palm leaf IGNCA with- ,

-manuscript Mapin-Pub~, '

Ahmedabad- -.

1995, p.l79. Sarasvati Jfianasutra Santinath 1127 Lower Tribhariga Nfranjan Ghosh,

Bhandara, A.D. hand pose Sri Sarasvatf in Cam bay Indian Art and

Literature, 1st . ed., Sri Satguru Pub.~ Delhi-l984~p.96~1, pl.XXXXII. ..

Sarasvati Orghaaityukti U~hyayji Sri. 1161- Left !Gwer Niranjan-Ghosh, Vira- A.D. hand Sri Sa-rasvaH m Vijayaji Indian-Art and Sastrasa- Literature; 1st ' mgraha, ed., Sri Satguru Cbhani, Pub., Delhi-Baroda- 19-&4, p.96.

Sarasvaff Savagapa<!ikk Bostan 1317 Right hand Niranjan Ghosh, 3Dli!Il3- Museum V.S. Sri Sarasvatfin suttacuqnj. Indian Art and

Literature, 1st ed.~ Sri Satguru Pub.., Delhi-1984, pp.96-97' Fig.2,

I pl.XXXXIll.

225

Sarasvati Siddha-Haima Sarabhai 1150 One of her Padmasana Niranjan Ghosh, Nawala, A.D. four hands Sri Sarasvatl in Cam bay Indian Art and

Liter.ature, 1st . ed., Sri Satgw:q Pub,, Delhi-1~84-, !}.~7-, Fig.3, pl.XXXXIII

Sarasvati Vivekam- Santinatfi ltnc One ofher Niranjan Ghosh, afijara Bhandara, A.D. rower Sri Sarasvatzih

Cambay hands Indian Art and Literature, 1st ed., Sri Sat~~ Pub., Delhi-1984,p.97, Eig_l,_ pl.XXXXV ..

Numerous- illustrated-manuscripts-en-palmleafare available in-Jaina-eoUectioos-<fated

from_ 11th century AD. onwards.46 Nonnan Brown47 refers to the 'Early Western Indian'

Schoo~ of painting KOOWH· in-manUSGrtpt illustration-fr-om-· tHe yeR£· l-l27- A-D:- anG GeSC\ibed

in literature. From its beginning until about 1400 AD, that is for approximately three

centuries- the illustratiens-appear-en-palm leaf; .whiGh- is-too matefial fGf-Wfiting. 'The-~at;_liest

dated appearance of an image of the Goddess Vasudhara in the Buddhist art of Nepal

which is inscribed, equivalent to the year 1015. In the later centuries the production of her

bronzes and paubhtis became prolific. Vastidhara is the source and sbeam of wealth like Sri

Lakshmi, her- personality being- gentle-and- benign; She--holds- in- her- hands-a- sheaf. o~rain

and a sheaf of jewels, and an auspicious jar. One of her hands is shown in the gesture of

gifti~g away or showering· treasures:- She also ooids-a- (palmleat)-boek-of knewle~ and

46Niranjan Ghosh, Sri Sarasvati in Indian Art and Literoture, 1st pub., Sri Satguru pub., New Delhi-1984, p.96. 41American Oriental Series, Vol.21, Manuscript Illustrations of the Uttaradhyayana Sutra, ed. by W. Nonnan Brown, New Haven, Connecticut-1941, p.Intr.l.

226

appears as the very image of knowledge, conceptually similar to Sarasvati. 48 An illustrated

twel-fth century marntS(;ript of V asudhara Dharaffi from Nepal in the-British library, -~ated

1184 AD., has folio depicting the six armed Vasudharii flanked by Avalokiteswara and

Vajraradhara seated- on an- impressive. throne with- an- elaOOmte back and- a l?~abali

(nimbus) behind. Interestingly, two Yak&as pour money from large bags while flying above

the throne. 49 Jaina tirthankaras and their subsidiary deities, forming the Jaina pantheon,

appeared- in- Jaina- manuscripts-painting- from around- the--eleventh eentwy- and- hundfe\ls of \

manuscripts and bronzes were gifted to the temples and to the monks for earning pterit. 50

Hindu imel%es with palmleaf manuscripts

Figure ·originally Present Date Holding Posture Reference Found Location Manuscript

Sarasvati Philadel- 8th Left hand Seated in. Niranjan Ghosh.,.Sri phia -C.AD. the Sarasvatimlndian Art__

(Dark Museum posture of and Literature, 1st pub .• grey sand of Art, ease Sri Satguru pub., Delhh stoneJ USA (Varada 1984, p.28; H.C.Das, .

pose) lconographyo-fSakta · Divinities, VoU, l"1 ed:, Pratibha P'rakashan , Delhi-1997 p. 172.

Sarasvati Gwjara- Central 9nr Pustaka in Playing H.C.Das, Iconography of Pratihara Archaeo- C.AD. upper hand on Viqa Slikta Divinities, Vol.l~

logical . in the 1st ed., Pratibha Museum lower Prakashan, Delhi-1997,

hands. _11_.178.

48John Guy (ed.), Indian A11 and Connoisseurship, IGNCA with Mapin publ;shing_pvt. ltd., (Essays in honour of Douglas Barrett), Ahmedabad-1995, p.l79.

49W. Zwalf (ed.), Buddhism: Art and Faith, British museum, London-1985, pp.l27-30 (J.P.Losty's Manuscript of a Hymn to Vasudhara); John Guy (ed.),lndian Art, ibid., p.l80.

50The Jaina manuscript writers used the typical cha, cha, cha mark while ending their manuscripts of the adapted Vasudhiirii stotra and giving it a further Jaina flavour. An important Jaina Kalpasutra manuscript was written and painted at Mandu in 1439. Karl Khandalavala and Moti Chandra frrst drew our attention to one of the illuminated folios, which depicts the place of king Siddhartha and two servants ofKUbera showering coins on it. Continuing the subject the authors say 'the place is a simple structure .............................. on either side stands a god pouring gold coins. The scene iS rare in illustrated manuscripts of Kalpasut~a. K. Khandalavala and M. Chandra, A consideration of an IHustrated Ms. From Mandapadurga (Mandu}, 'gated 1439 AD., Lalit Kala, No.6, 19:59, pp.S:-29'.

227

Sarasvati Gaya, Bihar National lOth Pustaka in Seated in H.C.Das, Iconography of Museum, C.AD. upper arm a double Siikta Divinities, Vol. I; New Pala lotus l 81 ed., Pratibha · DeihL Period pedestal Prakashan Delhi-199( , '

p.l7-9 .. Sarasvati Gwalior lOth Pustakain H.C.Das, lconography,of

Museum, C. AD. lower hand Sakta-Divinities, Vot 1" Madhya pt ed:, Pratibha-Pradeslr Ptakashan -, Delh:i-1997.,

_p.l81. Sarasvati Suhania Gwalior IOm Lower left Niranjan Ghosh, Sri

Museum, C. AD hand holds Sarasvatf in Indian Art Madhya apustaka and Literature, 1st ed., Pradesh . Sri Satguru Pub., Delhi-

1984, p.40. Sarasvati British_ 1035 In one of Niranjan. Ghosh,.Sri

Museutn,. A.D. her. hands _ Sarasvati in1n.diarLAr.t. London andLiieJ'ature, 1st~

Sri-Satguru-pub., Delhi-19-84, p..39.

Sarasvati Mathura British lOU!- Backhand Seated in L.Binyon, etc., Exampl~s (Reddish. Museum 11th Lalitasana of Indian Sculptures at stone) C. AD. the British Museum,.

London,..O.xfonk 19~ .pl.IV. .

Sarasvafi Temple llUl One ofher Stands in- Ninmjan--Ghesh; S# No.I ·C.AD four hands tribhariga Sartl5Wlti in-lndi-artArt. Deogarh, cames-a· pose ~Literature; Jst ~ Lalitpur, manuscript Sri Satguro pub:, Delhi-Uttar 1984, p.94. Pradesh

Sarasvati Dhara British 11th ·In one of Niranjan Ghosh, Sri Museum, C. AD. her hands Sarasvati in Indian Art London and Literature, 181 pub.,

Sri Satguru pub., Delhi~ 1984, p.29.

Sarasv:ati Chhatingram, Rajashahi 11th Backhand- Seated in. R. G.Basak-&-Bogra dist., Museum C. AD. Lalitasana- . D .C.Bhattachatya; A- -. Bangladesh Catalogue efthe

Areltaeologieaf Relies-,in the Musetmr-oftlw Varendra R-esearch Society, Rajshahi-1919', pp.30-Jt; R.D.Banerji, · Eastern Indian School of Medieval Sculpture, ASI, New Imperial Series, VolXLVII, Delhi-1933, p.l~l.LXII.

228-

Sarasvati Brihadisvara- Early Left hand Seated in Niranjan Ghosh, Sri temple~ Chola holding a Virasana Sarasvati in Indian Art Tanjore period manuscript pose and Literature, 1st pub._,

is placed..on. Sri Satgum pub..,..Delhi~ her left 19&4, p.27. thigh-

Sarasvati Brihadesvara Chela -Left hand Seated J.N.Baneljea; The temple, period holding-a erect in Development of Hindu, Tanjore manuscript- the· Icanography;4th..ed., ,

is placed on Vfrasana Munshiram Manoharlal, her left pose New Delhi-1985, p.379, thigh pl.XX, Fig.5.

Sarasvati Bagali Front left Seated in T.A.Gopinath Rao, ' (Stone) Chalukyan hand Vfrasana Elements ofHindu

speci- pose Iconography, Vol.l, part-men II, 2nd ed., .

Asanamurti (lst ed.,.Madras~l914). Reprint, Motilal. BanarsidasS; Delhi-1993, p.377,pl.CXV; H.Cousens, Chalukyan. Architecture-of the Canarese Districts, Calcutta-1926, pp.l09:.

. 112. Sarasvati Pallu, National 12th Holds a Standing S.P.Gupta (ed.),

Bildiner, Museum, centuzy pustaka in on a lotus Masterpieces from the Rajasthan New AD one of her pedestal National Museum

Delhi four hands Collection,Pub.by National.Museum,New Delhi- 1985, p.43.

Sarasvati Jamsot Allahabad 12th Left hand Seated in P.Chandm, Stmze (Buff Museum . centucy ardhapar- &ulptuFe in the coloured AD. yarlka Allahabad Musem-, sandstone) Poona-19-10; p~l25,

.QLCVill.229. Sarasvati Kesava 12th Holds a Profusely · H.C.Das, Iconography of

temple, centuzy ·book in ornament Sakta Divinities, Vol. I,' Kama taka AD. one of ed 1sted., Pratioha Yub.,

Hoy a- her hands dancing Delhi-1997, pp.l79-80. sala image

Sarasvati Hale bid Hoya- Front Dancing . Niranjan Ghosh, Sri sala hand posture . Sarasvatf in Indian Art

holds a and Literature, 1st ed.,. : book Satguru.Pub., Dellii-1984,

_Q.36. Sarasvati Brihadesvara Left hand Seated in K.A.N. Sasrti, The·

temple, Ardhapar Cholas, 2nd ed., Madras-Tanjore -yarika 1955, pp.729,759,

pl.XXID.54.

229·

Sarasvati Hoyasalesvara One of Dancing T.A.G.Rao, Elements of temple, her six 1mage Hindu Iconography, Hale bid_ hands _ Vol.I, part-II, Madras- .

1914, pp377-78,_ pl.CXVI, fig~ I &2; K.M.Munsh-i, Saga of . Indian Sculpture, Bombay-l951,pl-.ll9-.

Sarasvati Orissa In the One of Seated in -T .E.Dorraldorr, Hm-cta-Jagamohan the ardhapar Temple .ttrt of Orissa, of uplifted yarika Vol.II, p.l87. Madliuke back pose svara hands Temple, holds a Mukhalin manuscri g_atrl, pt Andhra PradeSh_

Sarasvati Kallesvara Lower _ Seatedm D~RRaJ-eshwa.ri,..Sakti . temple of left hand Padmasan_ Iconog-raphy, 1st ed., Betur, a Intellectual Pub-., New . Kama taka Delhi--1989, p-.26-, Fig.55.

Sarasvatf Compound A book T.E.Donaldon; Hindu wall of in one of Temple Art of Orissa, Viraja ·her Vol.lf,p.57l. temple in- uplifted .Jajpur, hands Orissa

Sarasvati Kiindariya- Second- Urmi} Agrawal. Mahadeo- hand KhajttrahtrSeulptures -. temple, and Their Significance-; Khajuraho New Delhi-1904, p.59, ·

fig.40: Sarasvati Sactum gate Secon<f Urmif Agrawal.

ViSvanatha hand Khajuraho Sculptures · temple, and Their Significance, Kha_iuraho New Delhi-1964, p.59.-

Sarasvati. Viman.a_ Left hand Urmil Agrawal. temple, Khajuraho Sculptures , Khajuraho and Their SigniflCaJ'lCe..,

NewDelhi-1964, p-.59 .. Sarasvaff British In one of Niranjan-Ghosn, Sri

Museum, her hands- Sarasvati in-Indian Arl London and Literature, 1 stpub.~

Sri Satguru pub., Delhi:.. 1984, p.39, Fig.3, pl.VII.

230

Sarada Patan In one of Lalitasana · -NiranjarrGhosh-, Sri her upper Sarasvati in Indian Art hands and Literature,_ pt pub.,

Sri Satgum pub..,.~ 1984-, p.3&, fig.l, pl.VU.

Brahm a- Badami 5&0- Holding in- lA., Voh VI: p.33(Y, \l{}l. A.D. one-of his XXXII, p-.1-;RB. Pandey,

llandsa- Indi-mr Palaeographr, , bundle-of Pa!Ft, rt-ed:, Motilat-pabnleaves Banarsidass, Varanasi-

. 1957, Q. I 5. Brahmii Varanasi, Indian Late Holds in A bulky '

Uttar Museum, Gupta his left body, ASIR, 1928-29, pp.130-Pradesh__ Calcutta Period hand a seated l31,_pLLIII.B.

_pustaka over a swanm easy posture

Brahmii Vijayawada,_ Late Holds a Stands Shantilal Nagar, The '

And bra lOth pustaka in beneath Image of the Brahma i~ Pradesh_ century one_ his_ left_ aaarch_ India.and Abroad,_Vol,I,

A.D. . haruk 1m ed.,_Parimal Pl.lb_,_ Delhi-1-992, p_.l58. '

Brahma Alampur 11th Holds-a- Dvibhatiga -Shantilal Nagar, The. Gelltllty- book in- pose Image of the- Brahmtt in AD. upper-left Indi-c.-amiAbt oad, Vobl,

hand- · 1"1 ed-., Par:imal Pub:, Delhi-t~, p-.15~.

Brahmii fndian Late :teffliand Seated in -ShantifaiNagar, The- ' (Black Museum, llth holds a ardhapary Image of the Brahma in basalt) Calcutta century book arikasana India and Abroad, Vol1, -Au:-- · ~1st ed .• Parimal Pub.,

. Delhi-1992, ~.160. Braht:n.a_ Aihole Early One ofhis Seated T AGopinath.~.

' Chalu- four_ hands_ astride. on. Elements ofHiJuiu_ kyan holds-a. the back- Jconcg,:apky, V ol.2, part-

period manuscfijlt efhis . II, rd 00:, rpt Motilal- -swan Ban-arsidass-, Delhi-199.3, mount ·p:-5%;_ pt.CXLIV-;

J.N.Banetjea, The; ' Devetopment of Hindu· li::onography, 4"' ed., Munsli.fram Manoharlal, New Dethi-1985, p-.518.

Brahma North niche Front left _ T.A.Gopinath Rao, ' of the hand Elements ofHindu central Iconography, Vol.2,._part-shrine of the II,. 2nd ed.,_ rpt,_ Motilal Siva temple Banarsidass,.Delhi-199~,

at Tiruvadi p.512.

231

Hari- Central Private Upper right Seated in D.C.Bhattacharya, Brah.ma India collection hand Laitasana Iconology ofComposite

of Mr.& t .

Images, 1 s ed., Mrs. Bob . MunshiramManoharlal. Willioughby Delhi-1980, p.20. USA

Cakr.e5van _ Vasantagarh In. a 7th Left hand Standing Niranjan Ghosh;Sri Sirohi temple. in centuty on a lotus. SaraSYati in Indian Art_

Pindawara A.D. andLiteratunz., L51 p~ Sirohi Sri Satguru pub., Delhi-,

1984, p-.89-. Svachc- Chamba, National lOth Oneofher Seated in . S.P:Gupta-(00:), hhanda Himachat Museum, centmy left hands Lalitasana Masterpieces from the · Bhairavi Vradesh New A.D. holds a National Museum (Bronze) Delhi manuscript Correction, Vub. by

Nationaf Museum, New Delhi- 1985, p.54.

Vi.Saliik!?l Temple near lOth- Left upper Rajasila K.G.Goswami, Chandidas llth hand pose Excavations at mound.,. centuty Chandidas Mound,.. Nanoor, A.D. Nanaor,. Distri.ck Birbhum, Birbhumj Univ. of West Bengal Calcutta--1950., p-.225.

MllQikka- Tamilnadu National 12th Left hand ·Standing Acc.No.-57.16/3. vachakar Museum; eentmy posture· Petsonal Obset vation-

(Bronze} New A.D. with Delhi Chola- Vyakhya

styie namudra -

Viisudev- Nepal National 18ur Left hand Standing Personal Observation Kiimariij _Museum, centuty posture

(Bronze) New ·AD. Delhi

The- finds- of Hindu-- gOOs-- and- goddesses-like- Sarasvati--and- Brahmii hel_ding

manuscript in different parts of India ranging from east west and north south, of the ruling

dynasties of late-Gupta; t:hola, Chalukya, SeRa-, Boys-ala, Gwjar-Pratihara-- is- -quite

significant, as it reflects familiarity with palmleaf manuscripts in those areas. The earliest

available- specimen of a- Hindtt- deity; CakreS.va&,. now-in-a temple-Pindawafa, Va~arh, '

Siro4. belongs to 7th century. The earliest Sarasvati image made of dark grey sandstone is

232

now preserved in the Philadelphia Museum of Art, USA and belongs to 8th century: 51 In

ancient time-a few univefS-ities-beeame-famoos-vi-z-; Taxi-la; Banaras; Nalanda; KanehHu;td so

forth. All these universities had libraries (Pustaka Bhariqiiras) and in the hall containing

such books- was- an image-ofSaras-vatl-with-the book in-her- harut One--efthe finest~atl,lples

of such figures is the famous inscribed Sarasvati given by Bhoja for his University at Dhara,

which is now in the British museum, belonging to the 11th century AD. 52 We have so far few

specimens of bronze images holdingpustakas, among those, Maqik:kavachakar53 found from

Tamil Nadu- and Vasudev Kamamj-fmm-NeJml-held-pustako- in their-left-hands:- New-these \

are in the sculpture gallery of National Museum, New Delhi.

The-earlies-tseulpt-ural-r-epresentation-ef.Bmh-ma-feund--at-Badami ofaboot--A.-~ 580,

shown the deity~ holding in one of his hands a bundle of palmleaves,. denoting a book. 54 The

figure- of Brahrna found- in- the--oorth- niche-of the- eentml- shfine-ef the-Siva--t~e at

Tiruvadi. In its back right hand, is the ak$amiilii; the front right one seems to have been held

in the- abhaya pose; the baGk- -left hand and- front- ooo are cafl)'-ing- the- kamaf-!6/alu a._,nd a

pustaka respectively. 55 It is one of the finest pieces of sculpture of southern India. Further,

there- are- also- instances--of human--being-depiGted-in-sculpture i-.e;- a- sage-with matted-~cks,

bearded, wearing a dhoti, reading a palmleaf book, possibly representing Manikka Vacagar

51 The head of this figure is broken. The goddess is seated in the posture of ease. Her hands are placed on her thighs. She has fruit and rosary in her right hand in Varada mudra. Her left hand holds a book. Niranjan Ghosh, Sri Sarasvafi in Indian Art and Literature, 1st pub., Sri Satguru pub., New Delhi-1984, p.28.

52ibid., p.29. 53The saint who wrote- the- hymn Iiruvachak-am, with- the book- in- his- hand. From- sooth-India; Qhela-,style.

National Museum, New Delhi. The image has a short inscription in Tamil letters of the twelfth century that corroborates the style of the.figure...Mario Bnssagli and .Calemhus Sivaramamurti, 5000 years. of ureArt of India, Harry N.Abrams incorporated, New York. -

54I.A., Vol:. VI. p.336; Vol.XXXII, pol; Pandey,/mf Pal-., op-.eit-.; p.l5. 55T.AG. Rao, Vol.II. Part-ii, op.cit., p.512. ·

23-3--

(4th century) less probably (but in accordance with tradition) ParakrarmrBahu the great (12th

century) granulite; colossal, perhaps ninth or tenth century A.D., Polonnamva, Ceylon. 56

The- earliest representation- ifr the-seulJ)tufe-ef- Orissa, images--ethef-than-t~e of

deities holding a palmleaf manuscript is seen in the Paciuramesvara temple at Bhubaneswar

belonging_ to 7th. c.en1ucy AD. 57 Eurther, a similar representation occurs in the ne~rby

Muktesvara temple of 1Oth century A.D., and the Sun temple ofKonark of 13th century AD,

where- the--seulpture- shews king--Narasimha, ·the-builder ef- the--temple--heki-iag-- a-~leaf

manuscript in his hand. 58

Another important seulptumhwidenee-is-an eleventh eentwy image efBuddha-~und

at Haripur, Orissa. In this sculpture, one finds on the pedestal a scholar studying some holy

scripture in the shape of a stringed palmleaf manuscript placed on Vyasasana. 59 In a

sculpture from the Jagannatlta-temple- at-I>hamkot one Gall-find- a- beautithl-presentatiot:\ of a

scribe writingwiththe stylus-on apal~leaf.60

To sum up, a study of the images Gf:Sarasvati belooging to-nerth-lndia-makes-it_quite

evident that the Sarasvati images are either two armed or four armed and this is suggested

even by the-literacy descriptioos.:. When-two-armed,-whether independent OF asseeia~ with

Visnu as her consort, she usually holds a vffJa, which she is represented as playing upon with

56Standing rock cut figure. A.K. Coomaraswamy, Vi.SWakarmii, 1"1 pub., Munshiram Manoharlal, New Delhi, 1978, p.22, p1.LI.

57Subas ·Pani, Illustrated Palm leaf Manuscript of Orissa; A Selection from Orissa State Museum, 1 '' Pub., Bhubaneswar-1984. p.l.

58ibid. 59; bid. 60ibid.

234

b_er two hands. Sarasvatl with v1TJii appears in Indian art as early as 2nd century B.C"? her

earliest- representatioo- being- found upon- the-Bhaffiut- railing. lH- another vat=-iety; t~ two-

armed Sarasvatl is provided with a manuscript in one of her hands, as in the Lucknow

Museum example, other hand- being broken, it- is--diffieul-t- to- sugges-t- f*OOisely as- tQ the

object held in it. Probably the object was a pen. When four armed, she is represented in the

sculptures-of early- medieval sehool-of-Bengal- and-Bihar-with a vlf!fl- in he£-front- hands-~d a

rosary and a manuscript in her backhands. It was in accordance with the Agn1 Purii11a that

theartists-ofBengal-and-.Biharseem-t-o--have prepared majority of-the images of8aras¥at'i in

the medieval period. Images of Sarasvatl with four arms have been differently prepared in

other parts- of the- country, Images- from- Rajasthan ref)fesent the- goddess- wit4 the

Vyiikhyiina-mudrii exhibited by the front right hand pendent with a rosary on the palm, while

thefronthandholds-the-ka-ma~J4alu,whereas-the--baek-left-handearries-thepustaka-~back

right hand a lotus.

From Inscriptions61

In this- seetion- we-will-follow up-the-debate-whroh-was- argued-by various- seholars as

has been mentioned briefly in the introduction part of this thesis and copper section of

descendants, since their loss or destruction rendered the reveT\ue free holdin.gs, created by

them, ordinary rent-J*lYing-lands-unless- Hesh- ehaftefs were-issued-in the-plaee-of ~ old

61Generally the copper plates have been fashioned with the hammer, and many among them show distinct traces of the blows. Their thickness and size vary very considerably. Some are very thin sheets, which eould be bent double (T axila plates) and weigh only a few ounces; others are exceedingly massive and are eight or nine pounds in weight or even heavier (A.liila plates of Siladitya VI of Valabhi). Their size is partly determined by the nature of the writing material commonly used in the districts where they were issued, and partly by the e:x1ent of the document to be engraved, the size of the clerk's writing, and so forth.

23-5

ones. There are instances- of charters--written- en-palmleaves-or engmved- en eeppet=-plates

being destroyed by fire and the re-issue of copper plate grants by the later rulers of the

territories in question.62 The donees therefore preserved the documents received from the

donorS- generally with- special- care. It i£-_a{s()_ said- that a- dupliGate- 00cument-~d be

prepared when the original one was left in a distance land or was illegible, lost, damaged,

stolen, broken~ burnt ortom.63 The smiths copied not only the letters- but also the shapes of

the- OFiginal-. If these 'Were-written- en-palmleaves; the-plates-were made narro'N and-len g. If

the material was birch-bark; the plates became much braoder, often almost square. 64

The- right to rule- one+bhukti or vi~ya-would- natural-ly imJ*y-the--right-t-e-collect

taxes and to maintain an army. This may very well be compared to the charters given to the

brahmanas- to-collect-taxes--and- to-maintain law and--or-der in- the-villages gmn-ted-ti)-~hem.

Nonetheless, the epigraphic reference to siisana-yiicana65 or request for charters from rulers,

leaves- no-doubt about the preval-ence <*the land grant-system. Siooe seeala£-ehafasteFS-Were

renewable and did not assign land on a perpetual basis as religious grants did, they were

62See the Kurud plates of Narendra. Epi. Ind., VolXXXI, p.267; Dubi and Nidhanpur plates of Bhaskaravannan, Epi. Ind., Vol.:XXX, p.290.

63We have some instances of the issue of a duplicate raja-sasana (cf. Nidhanpur plates ofBhaskaravannan in Kiimaropasiisanavati, pp.lff.). Sre Epi. Ind. Vol.:XXX, p.290; Epi. Ind., VoLXXXI, p.267.

64Buhler and Burnell argue that of the first description are all the copper plates from southern India, widt the exception of those of the Yidavas of Vijayanagara, which imitate stone stelas. To the seond class belong all the sasanas issued further north, with the exception oftfie raxifa pfate, which is the size o!a pafinfeal.Byhler, Ind. Pal., 1973, op.cit., p.ll5; Burnell, Elem. ofSout. rna. Pal., op.cit., p.92. The charters from SOUthert\ India being long and na.row in imitation of palmleaves, from nortliem India being comparativery wider. ~ text was incised parallel to the long side. Usually several sheets were required to comprete the text, and these were ~tten in the usual pothi format, with blank first and last sides, and then strung through a hole on a ring. .

65Sasana generally came to mean royal order regarding land grant It is argued that under Samudra Gupta ~egan the practice of sasana-yicana in the early fourth centucy. Further, the feudatories mentioned- in the All~abad inscription may lesser chiefs and officialnnay-have- teceived charters {SaSa.na), wbiclr have-nor-smyived. R.S.Sharma infers that the-epigraphic evidence-fm wnbactaal obligations· goveming-tlKnelations b-etwet(n the lord and the vassal in the-MadhyadeSa-is certainly as old·-as-the-ftrst-half of the-fourth--century and-the-~ctice may have started- much- earlier: Further; he-argued- that-exeept-for- the--Nalanda grant· of S1mmdra-~ (CII, III, 198-l, pp:224-26}, in-the-eere-part of the-Gupta-Empire, futtrth-centucy charters; seeularor-~ have not been discovered so far. R.S.Sharma, Early Medieval Indian Society: A Study in Feudalisation, Orient Longmanltd.,.Kolkata:200l,..pp.6~5-96.

236

recorded on perishable material such as the palmleaves, bark of the tree, pieces of cloth and

wooden- tablets. As a- res-ult; these-have-oot--survived in- the- roo-ist- Indian- climate:- Since

reference to palmleaf and birch bark charters (siisanas), even for religious purposes, are

found in Assam and Madhya-Pradesh-, it is-likely that--may- sueh grant-were-issued in- fa_,vour

of both religious and secular parties. Also we learn how those patra grants were burnt and

replaced by copperplate in Assam~6 and Madhya Pradesh67.

In ear lief times; J*llmleaf-must have-been- in- extensive use than-birofl-bafk, ~ause

even the Bhujapatra of the Bower manuscripts68 are cut according to the size69 of

palmleaves. For we find, as early as 1st century AD., even the copper plates used for

charters- were- fashffined-like- J*l-lmleaf, i.e; eblong-and- narmw. The-earliest copper p~te of

this sort is the Taxila Copper Plate of Patika70, which certainly is not later than .the 1st

66Dubi and Nidhanpur plates ofBhaskaravarman, Epi. Ind., Vol.XXX, p.290. 67Balachandra Jain, Utkima Lekha, No.3, IT. 6-11, p.8, Mahanta Ghiisidiis Smiiraka Sarigrahiilaya, Raipu:r-1961. 68JASB, Vo1.59, 1890 proceedings, p. 221; Indian Antiquary, Vol.XXI (21), 1892, p. 37. 6~The Bower manuscripts (Birch bark) have the sizes: 228 X 50mm. to 290 X 63mm. 70 According to Buhler the size of the plate is 14 inches by three inches and its weight 3 and 1/2 ounces. It is

broken into three pieces, two large ones, right and left, and small one fitting in between them. Some po(tions of the central piece, which is half eaten by verdigris, have been lost. Besides, the left hand upper and 4>wer comers of the plate are broken off, as welf as a smalf6it o1tlie rower portion of"tlie large liand piece. The inscription consists of five lines. Tlie letters consists or-smarr aots, punched into the plate as in some other Kharosthi inscriptions. The alpliabet is Kliarostlii of ota s-aka type. In Januacy t86~ Mr: AA ~berts presented to the Royal Asiatic Society two copper plates canying Kharosthi- inscription. They had been brought to him by the vilfager Nur, welt known as treasure hunter in the mounas at ancient Taxila. Bpt the exact find place is not certain as the Nur himself diffeted his statements at different times when-he-~ later on examined by Cunningham. t.ateron-the-then- Assistant connnissioner, Mr. Dehnerick, was- infmmt:4 that the actual find-place was the-villageofTofkii-in-S1rsnldr; thethird-cityin Taxila: CH; I-99t,Vol-11; ~art-1, pp .23ff,-Plate-V .1; 2-1 A.D.-JR:AS, 1863-,- p:222, PE-J; see also the Kalwan-copper plate measuring &:8-5-~ches by 2.65 inches and weight-&-19- gr~ Kalwan- is-the-name-of-a-site-near Taxila-where-Sir- John- Marsltt¥1 has been- condueting excavations-during-the-winter l93-l-E. It-is-situated about three--miles--te- the-seutlr~t of Sirkap, on one of the many flat topped eminences jutting out on the north side of the Margalla hills. Under the- foundation- of a- stupa-foond- a· copper· plate; the-alphabet-is-Khamsthi and- the-letters-at'e-6f-the so~ kind and type as in the Taxila silver scroll of the year 136. Epigraphia Indica, Vol. XXI, 1931-32, pp. 2511f, Kala\van Copper Plate-inscriptioo-year--1-34· by Sten-Keoow; for- the--cbte-of the-1nseription see Jtntmal ~~the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, Part-IV, October-1932, London, pp.949ff.(the inscription is.dated Samva.t.Sa.J.:ay.e. 134 ~masasa divase.trelllie-23.,.in..theyear_134. ___ 0n..the..twen.tthird-23 day of the-OlOftth Sfiivllflft;- i.e: it-is-abeut-tw&-years-older than--the Taxila-silver- SGFell-efthe 136;- ~r the shape of the letters clearly shows that the same era is used in both records).

237

century A.D.71 The Taxila plate of Patika is so thin that it was found bent double and it

weigh& only 3 and Y2 ounces, The size of a plate-depended on faGtm:s-like- the length- q_f the

writing to be engraved (i.e. the nature of the draft used in a particular area), the size ofthe

letters in the-eopy prepared- by the-elefks, ete. 'Ihe-smitfls. made-~-«? the

size ofthe clerks' drafts received by them. When the drafts were written on palmleaves, the

plate& were narrow and- kmg, while, fot:- copying draftS- on- bit=eh- bark, t~ plates-requit:_ed to

be much broader, sometimes almost square. Even many of the charters of the early Western

Ganga kings too are in this size: 25 ems. X 4.5 ems 20 ems. X 4.5 ems. etc.72

It is assumed that the-eepper plates-of small- size-resembling- palmym-~were

originally employed in writing royal documents and recording grants of land. 73 The ~anas

plate74 ofLokavigraha measures 4 and 17/20 inches in length and 2 and 1/2 in height, -yvhile

the Kesaribeda 75 plates of Arthapati are each 7 and 2/5 inches long, and 1 and 1/2 inches

71John Guy, Palmleaf and paper, Melbourne, 1962, p. 8. John Guy also endorsed this fact that the precise antiquity of the pahnleaf manuscript is unknown though there is little reason to doubt that it extends back in time almost as far as the art of writing itself in India He argued that the engraved copper plates retrieved> from the ancient city of Taxila, dating from the first century AD. are of a narrow landscape format, presumably already emulating the palmleaffolio.

12Mysore Archaeological Reports, Vol.l2, p.2 (220 X63 mm.);Mysore Archaeological Reports, Vol.14, pl.1 (202 X37 mm.); also see Epigraphia Indica, Vol.21, p.39 for Kal\van copper plate measures zz:r:x-64. mm.; also see Maungunn gold plates:Two Maungunn gold plates were found in a brici tiy some peopte wlio .were digging foundations for a new pagoda at Maungunn village near Hinawza in the Prome diStrict. These--plates were sent by Sir Frederic Fryer, the Lieutenant Governor of s-urma, to Dr. Hullzsch for transmission -~o the British museum, London. Each of the two prates bears three lines of writing and is inscn"bed on one side, only. The letters show through on the reverse. The weight of the first ptate is IIO grains, and that of the seconp 148 grains. The inscriptions consist of quotations fium the Buttdhislscriptures. They- anr irr Pxli languagy and written in characters, which, it is believed, were in vogue in the- first century AD:- when- the ~dom Prone(Sirikhettara) was in the zenith of its-power. The-alphabet conesponds to a large extent with that ~ed in the inscriptions at Pagan of 1he- four1h- and- fifflt centuries; and-several-of the letters also- zesemble those-of the South Indian class of alphabets-. It- i_s. written- that- Burmese-written-language-was maio:Jy derived-frolfu,lndia, whence colonists settled in- Prone; whieh-was-ooee-a-seaport·town; Maungunn- GoltJ plates-by- Matms, Tun Nyein, Honorary Archaeological Officer, Burma. E./. Vol.V, 1898-99, pp.l01-2. .

73D. C. Sircar, Irnl. Pal., op.cit,, pp-, 1-20-21-; R.B-.Pandey, ln4 Pah, ~p.cit. 14El, Vol.XXVIII, Ptm:by ASI, New-Delhi-1-; p,329. . 75Found from the forest adjoining the village Kesaribeda of Umarkot police station in the Jeypore of Koraput

district of Orissa by tre Amin-·of UHlftfkot-police-statiea-in-Febmmy 1-944. The-set oonsists-efthree-~pper

238.

high. These-resemble-sheets--cuteut-efpalmyra-leaves,. The shape of-the-plate is-generally

oblong or rectangular and the comers are usually rounded off but the earlier records,

especiaHy those- written OR more-thaH- one-plate;-- have-thin- sheets, resembling t~e of

palmleafthat means these fashioned after a palmleaf

On the basis of epigraphic evidence of the sixth century A.D.76 that, the Kurud

Charter77 of Maharaja Narendra78 issued from his camp of victory at Tilakesvara in the 24th

plates strung_ together on a copper ring. The plates are roughly 7 .5" in leng!h and 1.5" in breadth and have their comer rounded off. The weight of the plates toge1her with the ring is 37.75 tolas. There are altogether 14 lines of writing. The alphabet used is of the 'scooped out' type of 1he box headed variety of south Indian script. Language of the record is Sanskrit. It is written on prose. The date of the record is given as the new moon day of the month of Margasirsha in the year-7 (7ttt- regnal year of king Arthapati of the family of king Nala, sometime in the 6th century A.D.) E.!., VoLXXVIII, No.Z, 1949-50, pp.Jz:.n; alSo see JaORS, Vol.XXXIV, pp.33-42 & 'NaJa Frtstoty' by D.C.S"trcar Vo[Jfo1Hlstory of India edited by R:C: Majilpldar,

_ _pub. by Bhiiratiya ltihasa Samiti ofirombay. · ~oreswar G. Dikshit, Kuroda Prates o!Narendra, year U', in E.r., r-art VI, VotXXXt, April t956, Delhi-

1957, p.263-266.; also see ibid, p.267 written by D:C.Sircar; J.P:Das, Chitrapothr lltustrated Pafmleaf,MSS from Orissa, lst ed. Pub.by Arnold-Heinemann; NewDellri, l%Y, pp: 18-19. ·

71The Kurud C. P. Grant was found by-~rfanner while ploughing his field at Kurudlr, abuut-21 mih:s-nm1li-east of Raipur, in the tehsil and district-ofRaipnritr Madhyapradeslr. !twas broughtto-notice of Mahanta ~sbmi Narayan Das, Presidentofthe Mahakoshala-€~ €ommittee, Raipur. The-plates- are-at-present-~ed in the Mahant Ghasidas Memorial-Musemn-at Raipur;- This-charter- consists of a-set-of ~lates, each measuring· 5: 9'' broad and ~2" high;-seeured-by· JHeaftS"ofa-eircttlllr ring· ~through holes -~e left margin ofthe-platesc 'fhe-ends..efthis ring are-soldered-into the secket-ef a seal, about-2.~ ~hich has on its counter sunk surface the figure of Gaja Lakshmi, standing on a lotus, wi1h two elephants poUring water over her-&om pitehers-heJ.ti. in-their-upfftised..tmnks:--The- weight of the-pl~-~ption consists of 21 lines of writing in prose, of which five each appear on the second side of the first plate and both sides of the-seoond- while the remaiaing~Hr~ eagmved-e&-lhe first side-of-the-thin! plate. The ~ side of 1he frrst plate and the second side of the third are blank. The characters are of 1he box headed variety of Centr4Indian...alpbabet, assignable to tbe.fifth renhuy AD and commonly notiood in the copper plate kts of the Sarabhapura kings. The language is Sanskrit. The charter was issued by king Narendra from his amp of TilakeS\'ara on the 4t1t day of VaiSiikha in the Z41h regnal year of his reign. The charter was issued in confirmation of an earlier grant made by the deceased father of the king. It is addressed to the residents of the village.. of KeSa.v~ ~ilL the.. CbnJiii~asima bh.oga_ and states thaLthe...viJJage was. granted ~y the deceased king to one Bhasrutasvamin belonging to the Dharatli gotra, after taking a bath in the Ganga, or his own religious merit awLwasregistereil by a charter. written..on.tala_(palm)J.elllzes....This.charteLwas.b~in the courseof a conflagration in the don~ house; but.iLwasknoWJLtn the secretariat thaLthe...village contin~ed to be enjoyed by the- donee- unhindered-. King Narentka-· cenfirmed.. ~ grant-· to- Sonkhasvamin, ~n of Bhasrutasvamin, by means of a charter incised on copper plates, together with all the rights such as blloga, b}Jjga,_ dhanya.and...hiraeya,.. for. the-increase. of. the religions meriLof his. deceasal father The dntaka ,of the grant was the secretariat itself The reoo£d. was-eagtaved by-one Sridatta Of Datta- E.J., Part-1-\l, Vol. XXXI, April-1956, pp. 263-268; D. C...Si.rcar. Indian Epigmphy p 6 L .

78King_Narendra, Son of Sar.abha,.the_founder._of Sarabhapura dynasty of South Kosala; see bufian Histqrical Quarterly (lliQ) Vol.XIX, No.2, June 1943, pp. 139-146 (Pipardula C.P. Inscription of king Narend.ra of Sarabillipura);..CII. Vol.IR-pp.93ff.

239·

regnal year of his reign records the renewal of the grant of the village Kesavaka. The record

states that the-village-had-been-form.efly granted-in-a-palmleafeharter te-ene-Bhasrutasvami It

of Dharani gotra by the previous king, but as the palmleaf was destroyed in fire, Maharaja

Narendra regranted it- in- a-· copper plate-· charter in- favour- of- Sankhasvamt, s~ of

Bhastrutasvami, for the increase of the religious merit of his deceased father. The record was

engmv:ed by one Sndatta.

engraved on metal by an engraver. It is interesting to note that many of the copper plates

were made-in- the shape-and-sire-of palmleaves. 'I'he-te,a-was-engraved-pat=allel-te-t~long

side as on a palmleaf and several plates strung together through a hole on a ring, which often

bore the royal seal. 79 In the Orissa State Museum, there is a Gita Govinda manuscript

written on thin_ivory plates resembling palmleaves80.

The- finds ef palmleaf manusGri~date-from the beginning- et-the Ghri~ era

though the earliest manuscripts have been discovered outside India. A few words copied on

palmyra leaves in the early centuries of the Christian era were discovered in central _Asia. 81

The- earliest manuS£ript written- en- palm-leaves- is- that- ef a- fragment of a- drama, ~hich

79J.P Das, Chitrapothi, op.cil., pp.l8-19. 80ibid., pp.l9-20. . 81Joumal of Asiatic Society ofBengal,(JASB) Vol.LXVI,p.218, Plate VII, I etc. Forpahnleafmanuscriptsfrom

Turfan, which contain parts of Asvaghosa's Sanskrit drama entitled Sariputraprakarana; see N.P.Chakrabarti, India and Central Asia, p.31. As regards various oilier manuscripts from central Asia, see ibid, pp. 351f. for the manuscript of the Sanskrit Udanavarga, pp.3 9 ff. for that ofKumaralata' s Kalpanamanditika and pp..41 ff for the Bower manuscript.

240-

roughly belong_ed to the second century A.D. 82 The manuscripts discovered by Macartna in

Kashgar can be assigned to the fourth century AD~ 83 The manuscript of the

Prajnapiiramitii-hrudaya siitra and the Usnisa Vijayadharint of the sixth century A.D. 84,

which were-originally prepared- in-eentmllfld.ia; travelled te-Japan--and- are-new ~d in

the Hori-uzie monastery. The manuscript of the Skanda PuriifJa now kept in the Durbar

library at Kathmandu (Nepal) belongs to the seventh century A.D.85 The Cambridge

manuscript of the Parameivaratantra is dated in the Harsa era 252 (A.D.858).86 The

manuscript (}I the Bu-ddh-ist \Wfk- .Lankavatara is- dated Newat=- era- 28- (AD.-90&7) in

Nepal. 87 Besides these~ hundreds of Indian manuscripts available in the Indian Institute

library of Bodleian Library of Oxford University88, Indic material in Victoria and Albert

museum in Lend<m-and-Chestef-Beatty-library. '.

Some Early Specimens

> The-oldest- wel~reseFVed- palmleaf- HlaiH:lS£fipt- is--that- of Dha'.•ala, J)FeseFVed-i~J ain

Bhandara, Mudbidri. The manuscript contains 14 78 leaves written in ink in old

Kannada of about 9th century A.D. On either end margins of each side of the leaves,

there-are-artistic drawings of patterns; whielt-are different ft&m-eaelt-etheF, there--Sfe no

repetitions.89 Jaisalmer Jain Bhanqar has a copy of Pancamikathii (1053 AD),

Oghaniyu-tti-El~ and ofKuva/ayamala (1 082_AD).

82Published by Dr.Luders Kleimere Sanskrit-Texte, part-1 83JASB, Vol.LXVI,p.218,pl. 7. 84 Anecdota Oxoniensia, Aryan Series, Vol.l, part ill, Plates I-IV. 85H.P.Sastri, ed. Catalogue of palmleaf and selected paper manuscripts belonging to the Darbar library ,

Vol.l, Eng. Introduction., p. 52, p. 140 and Plate. FortheKiranatantra copied in A.D. 924. See Vol. II, p. 99; see also Mem. ASB, Vol. V, Plates-XXXVI ff.

86ibid. 87G.H. Ojb3, Bharatiya Prachina Lipimala, Munsiram Manobarlal Publisher Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi, (3rd ed\tion).

1993,p. 143 880rissa Review, April 1996, p. 4S:46 (An article Oriya p-abnleaf Manuscripts ill Bodleian I:.ibrary of opord

by P.K.Misbra). 89 A microf-tlm copy of Dhavala-manuscripts-in- the Oriental R~ch--fnstitute, My sere University.

241

);> Then Bhanda£kar Oriental researeh- Institute, Pune; is- said- te-pessess--a-- Jain- ~ork

Upamiti-bhavaprapaiica-kathii (170 folio) of A.D.905-6.

);> A copy of .Ama-fflko.fu tikii-- in- the- Mysore (fflental- Researeh- Institu-te- is- ~a ted

AD.1130.

);> Then- Hori-uzi- Monastery-, Japan,- has-- in-- its--- -cel-leetien,- twe- maJHlSe~ of

Prqjiiiipiiramit-Hrudaya-Sutra and Usn'isa-Vijayadharani belonging to 6th cen'tury

.A_D-_90 The_ s_cript shows- that its original home was somewhere in Central India. The

mantiSefipts-are Vifitten-with\pen. I

);> The- Ca:mbfidge--Uaiversity has-a-eepy- of PaMmdvar-tan-tr-a-and- beat:s--the--da~ 251

Harsha era, i.e. AD.858.

);> A. manuscript written of Skanda Puriina of the 7th century AD. and of Larikiivatiira­

Siitra (AD-. 9()(H}a£e-in---Duffiaf 1-ibfaty, Kathmandu,

);> The manuscripts discovered in Kashgar by Macartna and Godfrey are said to date from

about 4th century_ AD.91

)- The- manusGr-i-pt- OF-rather ii:agmen-ts---Gf-a- maffil-Sef-ipt-disoovered-- in---1'-llffan-d-l:lf~ an

expedition between 1902 and 1905, are called Turfan manuscripts or more correctly

'Turfu.n_fragments'.92 There were about 160 pieces ofpalmleaves recovered from the

sites-. Dr-. budefs-strived te-JffiHhem-in--an-effier, and-has-edited the next thus av&4able

therein. They were the fragments of a drama, Siiriputtappakarana by ASvaghosa,

whos_e date is ZW century_ AD.

~ori-uzi manuscript is not earlier than A.D.700 according to A.H.Dani, Indian Palaeography, Oxford Univ. press, Dclhi-1963, p.l54.

91A.F.R Hoernle, Three further collections of Ancient Manuscripts from Cental Asia (Fragments, Godfrey and Marcatney Mss), in Journal of Asiatic Society of Bengal, Vol.66, 1897, pp.213-60.

92H. Luders, Brnchstucke Buddhisticher-Dramen; Berfin..19ll.

242

Oriya Manuscripts in Different Libraries and Museums

Oriya palmleaf manuseripts- are-avai-lable-in--the-palmleaf lllafHlSGfit*s-libf~s of

Orissa State Museum, Sambalpur University Museum, Utkal University Manuscript Library

(Parija-) Blmba-neswar, Berhamp-w: lJJl-i-ver~Li-l.mu:y, Brahmaput; Prach-i-Samiti--o£~ck,

Baripada Museum of Mayurbhanj, Raghunandan Library of Puri, Banchhanidhi Library of

Nayagarh and Dasa-rathi ~s-oollectie& ot' Dasapalla, Qriya- Department--of-\l-~rati

(Santiniketan), Ashutosh Museum, Calcutta, National Museum and National Archives of

New Delhi-, Aur:OOirulo-Sa-ngraha-la-ya-, Udaipm-, IOOira- Gandhi NatiGnal- Centre fut:An and

Lalit Kala Academy ofNew Delhi, where thousands ofpalmleafmanuscripts are preserved.

Besides- the-Indian museums-and--libraries- there are also- vafious- ferei-gn-- museums

and libraries where some of the Oriya manuscripts are preserved i.e., Royal British Library,

Bodkin Library of OxfBfd, V iGtofia and Albert Museum, an-d- Chestet:-Beatty Libfat:y aJl are

in London, Durbar Library ofNepal and New York Public Library, New York.

Existing Imoortant Manuscripts in- Orissa "

Though- clear evidence for Vlfiting on palmlea'res--in-ancient India is availa~e in

various sources, but as far as the finds of manuscripts is concerned, these are not generally

oldef- tha-n- 60G- years- (in- Orissa),- because-G£- the-fragile- nature- -M--the- material -~ for

writing. Though many manuscripts of the earlier period are not to be had, the history of

writing- on--palmleaf-ean--easily- be--tfa-Ged, thanks -t&-the-·ffil~ous- existing-manusG{ipts.

While almost all of them are dated, they are also available in large numbers almost

24l--

continuously since L6th_century A.D. till date-irrvarious-museums.arrdcountrysideofOrissa.

The- Orissa- State-- museum and- Samba!~- University- museum-- have--preseFVeth,such

invaluable manuscripts. in. their palmleafmanuscript libraries,. Le. the 16th century illus~rated

manuscripts_ like Amamsataka containi.ng_the text of 9th century Kashmir poet A.m4ruka

found from Baripada!3 and Gopicandwr manuscript by scribe-poet Chanda Das; the

illustrated-Gila- Govinda- manusefipt-celleeted-by-late Kali f:hafan--Patnaik-ftem-Badaml>a of

Cu.tta.ck_dis.trict_ Scrihe-illustrator Dhananjaya_Bipra wrote this_ in.A.D:J 689 during t~e· 39th

popularity when it was exhibited in America, England and France courtesy National

Museu.rn._ofllelhi on_ the occasion of Bhiirat Utsav. The 17th century manuscript Cau_~afhi

Ratibandha by GopalBhafija based on the text of Kiimasutra;94 18th century's colour

illustrated manuscript Bidagdhamiidhava._and Dasiibatiira manuscripts-found from Banki;95

I gtll_ century illustrated manus_cript Bhiigabata by scribe-illustrator Brajanath Badajena

preserved in the Sambalpur University- Museurrr,% besides Murari Mishra's Anargha

Riighaba Niitaka composed in 9th century ,Bhiisvati and Satiinanda Sanigraha composed in

1099 AD. by Satananda-Acharya are the other importantmanuscripts.97

Some- palmleaf manuscripts- ef histefieal- iffitx>rtance- wer-e- reG~red ~ the

villages around the Konark temple.98 Two main sources for these manuscripts were the

93Gopal Kanungo, Qqisa Sangrahiilayare Tiilapatra Pothira Chitrakalii, in Jhan'kiira, Vth year, No.9, p.840.

94Nilamani Mishra, Ama Chitra Pothi, in Utkal Prasan'ga, April-1989, pp.12 -15.

95Jharikiira, Vth year, No.9, op.cit., p.839. 96Utkal Prasarlga, April-1989, op.cit., p.l4 97

Nilamani Mishra, Qqisara Tlilapatra Pothi, in Utkal Prasariga, December-1982, p.34. 98

These manuscripts were preserved in the religious centres and private houses as heirloom of people whose ancestors had been directly associated with the history of the temple, either in some administrative capacity or as priests for the perfonnance of rituals during the construction and afterwards, as long as tlie temple was in official worship and use.

244

families of the ancient landlords of Rupasa Gada and Kila Bayalisbati, whose forebears in

the t3 th c.entury had been chief administrators and supervisors on the worksite. Both the

authors argue-on- the-bas-is-ef the-colophons efthese manusGripts- that these are eopi~ of a

later date, but their original sources are invariably attested. The copies of Baya Cakada, the

• Book of Aeeonnt' held-dlli'ing-the-eonstruction of the temple, for instance, -are-as-lateii\,S the

19th c~, whi.ch.shows, that among locat people tlle attachment to this. shrine had never

been broken.; The manuscfipts-which-mentioo-about the temple ar-Chitecture-Of. grourui.._plan,

rules, rituals and account of the Sun temple of Konark99 are: The architecture of the_ Sun

temple of Konark Padmakesara Deula100, Trikiila Mahiimiiyii Arcana Vidhi101

, Baya

99 Alice Boner and Sadasiva Ratha Sanna, New Light on the Sun temple ofKonark (Four unpublished russ relating to Construction, History and Rituals of this Temple), 151 ed., Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series, Varanasi-1972, pp.Intr.xl-xlvii; also see the counter paper published against this book by K.S. Behera of Utkal University, Bhubaneswar, Palmleaf Manuscript on the Architecture of Konlirk temple, in the Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, ed. by R.N.Dandekar and G.K.Bhatt,Part-1-IV, Vol.57, Poona-1976, pp.l75-180; also see Alice Boner, Economic and Organisational Aspects of the Building of the Sun Temple of Konarka, in K.M.Shrimali (ed.), Essays in Indian Art, religion and Society, Indian History Congress Golden Jubilee year publication series: Vol. I, Munshiram Manoharfat Dellll- I98T, pp. 99-I OS:

1~ound in the houses of Jagannath Sahu andK"arunakara Saliu fu Baiiguriglin; wn1ten in antiquated-Oriya, in Kara11i script, collated with variant reaatil.gs founa in tlie records of the MiidalaPanJl,·tlie clironicte'9f the Jagannath temple. This is an illustrated pahnleaf manuscripts of n teaves with a technicat aescription (with designs of the entire structure and its various parts, with ground plans and yantras) ofthe tempte, is according to its cotophon, a copy of the report on a-smvey;whiclrRaja-Pmusottama-Deva·ofthe-Khurdii-dynasty~circa A.D.l607-162t) ordered" to-be-made in the 4l!Larlka-ofhis-teign (about A.D.l6ffi)-of the three nrnjor1eJ¥ples in his country: Lidgaraja temple-irrBhabaneswar, the Jag8llllath temple in-Puri and1:he-Padmakesma femJ'le at Konlirk: (Anolher incomplete version of the same report was-found-in- the- NateS'\ ara Math-just-beloW the Koniirlc temple: It contains a-· big- drawing of ~temple-on--~ side and-on:-tbe-re\erse ~ but measurements of single-partst.

101This is the second manuscript found in the house of Jagannath Tripathy in Kurujanga through the help of Sri Vasudeva Ratha- of Pwi It mentions aboot-the-mles-for. the-thrice-tiai worship of Mahamaya-~pt of 16 leaves. Written in Sanskrit tex1 in the Karani script containing the hymns to the Devi and the piijii offered to her. It shows-on- the-first-eight-leaves-a· full-design of the Mahiigiiyatri-temple,whieh-is-inside the compound to the southwest of the Sun temple and the three mystic yantras, on which its three parts were built. Surrounding- the- design- of· ~temple- are-·the- personified-- Jigures- of the- nine-planets- and- of- the-twelve Adityas=the twel+e different- aspects-~- the--Sun. during. the-twelve-mootbs-Qf. the.-yem; On--ooe--side-t~re is also a design of the ten-armed figure of Mahagayatri Devi, to whom the temple was consecrated. These leaves are fulloweclcy the eight further leal1es..which.contain.~of the three Smya ~aktis: Mahagayatri, Sa\itri and Saraswati, who all reside in this temple. It also explains the meaning of the three yantras representing the-three-goddess with their mantras and mode and time oftheir..w.qrship.

245

Chakadii102 and Padmakdara Deula Karamiingi (Ritualsi03.

INFERENCE:

Hence, it is.signiti.cant..OO-nmethe basic.arguments-Gfthe ch~before~ up.

There is no denying the fact that we have inherited considerable numbers of inscriptions and

sculptures- illustrating-di-fferent- chameteFS;-~ns of the different ~s of ·

using palmleaves, and information about the time and sequence when such forms first

appear for- writing. It is-fr.om-tOO aGCUTate- recording Gf the date o£ an- inscriptirm. or-~ture

that the date of writing of a manuscript is determined. Here the elaboration went a step

further- in traeing- the-eflgin- and- development ef the--regienal- data- on-palmleaf writing.

Barely any records mention the raw drafts, which were prepared earlier before inscribing or

engraving onto- CGJ>Pef. plates.- Secoodl¥, even. the- icooographic evidence-~ into

different religious groups and the method rest again on the formal identification ofthe signs

or symbols-ofthemes--ef.pustaka or manusefipt:- By this-analysis-we-found--that-this-~ular

form is prevalent in both north and south with minor variations. Different scholars worked

102This is the thinl and biggest manuscript, consisting of73leaves, which have been translated in full. Ms.No.l­Leaves I, ill-IX. XXII-XL Vll, XLIX-LXXI found in the Ga«:Jacaqqi Devi temple in the village Rupasa; Ms.No.2-Leaves·IL XXI, XI, XIII, LXXII: Originally belonging to Brajakishore Bhramarabara of Kila Bayalisbliti found in Ayurbanga Matha through the courtesy of Mahant Rli:mratan Dlisa. It is a book of account, recording the expenditure that went into the construction of the Padmakesara temple, the Natamandira, the Mahagayatri temple, the Gate temples and the compound wall. It starts from the 5th anka of Raja Narasimha.J)eva with the excavation for thefoundation of the big temple awien.ds in.. the 18111 ankaof the raja, with. the. consecration. of all.. the shrines and their images AJ.so_ the-main.. interest. of the-text lies._ in its human and human social aspects. It provides exact infor.nation about the work processes, the organisation of labour and. the relationship between patrons, administrators,artisans.andJabollf-forces,..about.the.p~alities and qualifications of all those collaborated in this enormous wotk, from the experts in silpa siistras and the priestly ad\cisors to the an:hitects and sculptors with their various.specialities,.to the masons, the stone -'<Utters, the.qwurymezund the auxiliary labour forces '

1030fthis-text-twewpies-have bee&-found; one in-the Nateswafa.Gadi-under the Arkavata, the~ Tree near the Konlitk temple, and the other in the Balarama temple in Ayurbanga. This is a manual of the ritual that used to- be-performed- in the-PadmakeSara-temple of KQ!Jifk: It gives-detailed- instruetions--fer-all-~ and ceremonies, for the functions of the various officiating priests and for the innumerable varieties of 'food offerings- that had to- be- prepared- in-the-latehen- and-presented- to--the-divinities;- The-te,a is-very-lon~d is limited to the technical aspects of the ritual. This ritual has a number of features, which are common to all ten_lples.

246

with their own interpreta-tioos-o£-the-termin-olegy-efthe-pustaka, but theiF-eentral-a-rg-mnents

identify the pustaka with the palmleaf manuscript. Further the finds of earlier manuscripts in

India, and Oris-sa i-n p-aflieu-lar, provide-an embl-ematie view e£-ou-r enrieh.ed--~ript

records. The next chapter will concentrate on the importance of colophons in palnileaf

manuscript and- diversified da-tas---it---eontain&;-- T-o---eonsolidate the-afgllments, an--a~s of

colophons of one hundred fifteen palmleaf manuscripts has been undertaken, especially

drawn from Oflssa- State--Museu-m- and- U-tka-1-- Yniver-s-i-ty-- Parija--lilimry-, Bhubaneswaf\ and \

Sambalpur University Museum.

247