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CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Studies in India
2.3 Studies Abroad
2.4.1 Facts Deduced From the Studies in India
2.4.2 Facts Deduced From the Studies Abroad
2.5 Conclusion
35
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
2.1. Introduction
Any worthwhile research in any field or knowledge requires an
adequate familiarity with the work which has been done already in the same area. A
summary of the writing of recognized authorities and of previous research provides
sufficient evidence that the research is familiar with what is already known and what
is still unknown. Since effective research is based upon previous knowledge, this step
helps to eliminate the duplication of what has been done. Only those studies that are
plainly relevant, completely executed and clearly reported should be included in the
review of related research.
This step places the current study into context of previous, related to
research. As such, the title review emphasises the relatedness between the current
study and the work of other authors. Research should be familiarised with the points
of agreement and disagreement among the previous studies, as well as with the
theoretical, and empirical relevance of each to the present research. Of central
importance the literature review provide a thematic narrative which guides the
formulation of the topic and suggests strategies for making operational the
independent and dependent variables considered in the study.
2.2. Studies in India
Though the investigator has found studies pertaining to the problems of
working women in India enormous in number, twenty nine studies have been chosen
to be relevant to the present study.
36
2.2.1. Tharakan, PNO. (1992) Occupational Stress and Job Satisfaction among
Working Women.1
It was hypothesised that professional women and non professional
working women would differ in their job related stress and level of job satisfaction. A
sample of 90 technocrats working women (Doctors, Engineers and Lawyers) were
compared with 90 non-technocrats working women (Clerks, Officers, and Teachers)
on these variables. Occupational Stress Indicator (OSI) Scale developed by Cooper
was administered to measure occupational stress and job satisfaction. The relationship
between occupational stress and job satisfaction has been found to be significantly
associated with professional women and non-professional women. It is observed that
professional working women experience greater work related stress than non-
professional working women, because the expectations of technocrats were much
higher than the non-technocrats.
2.2.2. Nathawat, S.S. and Asha Mathur, (1993) Marital Adjustment and
Subjective Well- Being in Indian-Educated Housewives and Working Women.2
The objective is to identify the marital adjustment and subjective well-
being in Indian-educated housewives and working women. Marital adjustment and
subjective well-being in Indian-educated housewives (N = 200) and working women
(N = 200) who were administered a Marital Adjustment Questionnaire (Kumar &
Rastogi, 1976) and 10 measures of subjective well-being (Warr, 1984). Results
indicated significantly better marital adjustment and subjective well-being for the
working women than for the house wives. Specifically, working women reported
higher scores on general health, life satisfaction and self-esteem measures and lower
scores on hopelessness, insecurity, and anxiety, compared with the housewives,
37
although the housewives had lower scores on negative affect than the working
women.
2.2.3. Mishra, P. and Bajpai, V. (1998) Role Conflict: The Spillover Effect.3
The present research was carried out to study the spillover effect of
inter-role conflict experienced by women on their marital relations and interpersonal
communication. The study was conducted on 220 higher secondary teachers of
Lucknow, U.P., between the age ranges of 17 to 40 years. Regression analysis
revealed that conflict between multiple roles certainly has spill-over effects
penetrating into their marital life but the extent varied with the area of marital
relations.
2.2.4. Andrade, C., Postma, K. & Abraham, K. (1999) Influence of Women's
Work Status on the Well-Being of Indian Couples.4
The objective of the study was to identify the influence of women’s
work status on the well-being of Indian couples. The Subjective Well-Being Inventory
was administered to 46 `one-working' (only husband employed) and 51 `both-
working' (both spouses employed) randomly selected urban, middle-class couples. In
one-working as well as both-working families, wives experienced less well- being
than their husbands. Working wives experienced more confidence in coping than non-
working wives.
2.2.5. Sharma, Renu, (2000) Models for Stress at Family Work Interface and
Intervention.5
The objective of the study was to understand stress in family and at
work and its mechanism of transfer across family-work interface. Using empirically
based generalizations cited in literature a conceptual frame work and a stress model
38
was synthesized. The model considered the family, work and individual as three
primaries. Integrated three module intervention model had been formulated. In
Module 1, interventions were at both the individual and organization levels. Module-2
focused on intervening on behalf of employees and their families in various work and
nonworking settings. Module-3 focused on specific family problems. Individuals were
trained to change their lifestyles to minimize stress related situations, whereas steps to
reduce stress in the work setting were taken at the organization level. Awareness of
each other’s work, responsibilities, hazards and consequences of failure or success
was enhanced along with training in stress management techniques.
2.2.6. Gupta, Namrata, (2001) Women Academic Scientists: A Study of Social
and Work Environment of Women Academic Scientists at Institutes of Higher
Learning in Science and Technology in India.6
The present study was conducted to study the background of women
academic scientists in selected institutes of higher learning and research; to explore
the formal environment of work and its impact on women academic scientists; study
the importance of and participation in informal activities, contacts and networking by
women in academic study; the presence of gender related stress on women academic
scientists; and the impact of multiple roles, on their career. Triangulation method was
used to collect quantitative and qualitative data. Four institutes, namely IIT Delhi, IIT
Kharagpur, Jadavpur University and University of Roorkee were selected. The
pressure of a joint family and the burden of managing both home and career fell
disproportionately on women. Women were almost absent at the higher levels of
administration in the institutes. Within Institutes, the clerical staff, though courteous,
was usually less willing to take orders from women than from men. Women scientists
suffered from lack of contacts and visibility due to lack of informal interactions.
39
Gender related issues were raised in interview committees for appointments and
promotions, directly or indirectly. Academic scientists considered success futile if
career and family could not be balanced.
2.2.7. Sahoo, Alka, (2001) Women in Policing in India: A Sociological Study of
their Status and Role in a Changing Urban Society.7
Sex discrimination still persists in the police force and status of women
is not very high. The study tried to fill this information gap and scale the status, role
and role conflict of police women in Delhi. It is based on the descriptive analysis of
the survey data. Police women lost feminine traits due to their profession such as
shyness, politeness, sensitivity, tenderness, etc. and developed boyish temperament.
Being a part of the police force, they became bolder. Women in Delhi police need a
better working environment and basic amenities, and regular workshops and meetings
to hear their problems would help a lot.
2.2.8. Gupta, Namrata and Sharma, Arun, k. (2002) Women Academic
Scientists in India.8
The objectives of this study were to analyse the experiences of women
Faculty members in institutes of science and technology, to understand the nature of
the dual burden faced by women, and to study their coping strategies. Four institutes,
namely The Indian institute of technology (IIT), Delhi; the Indian institute of
technology (IIT), Kharagpur; Jadavpur University (JU); and the University of
Roorkee (UOR) were covered. Data was collected using triangulation method, i.e. a
combination of questionnaires, interviews, case studies and unobtrusive methods.
Findings indicated that single women or divorced or widowed women did not
necessarily perform better professionally. Though a majority of women had the
40
support of their spouses, yet they had to shoulder a large share of domestic
responsibilities. The strategies adopted by women academic scientists to cope with
gender-related stress at work and dual burden included compromise with career,
postponing research and finding satisfaction through a re-definition of ‘success’. This
resulted in women being exhausted physically, emotionally and mentally.
2.2.9. Singh Sengupta, Sunita, (2003) Women Leadership in Organisations:
Socio-Cultural Determinants.9
This study examined the socio-cultural determinants of the low
representation of women in top managerial positions in Asian organizations and also
studied the issues from individual and organizational perspective. 129 male and 71
female managers working in South-East Asian countries participated in the study, of
which 32 were from Sri Lanka, 20 each from Nepal and Bangladesh, 15 from Korea
and 113 from India. Efforts were made to get responses from a wide range of
organizations ranging from IT consultancy, financial consultancy, banking and hard-
core manufacturing. Data was collected using structured interviews and
questionnaires. Findings revealed that both male and female respondents perceived
that societal culture has an important bearing on our thought processes and nature.
Managers reported organizational culture to be favourable to men. Women managers
reported family to be central in their lives, whereas male managers mentioned it was
work. Often it was women who sacrificed promotions for family commitments.
2.2.10. Uma Rani et al. (2003) Women, Work and Insecurities in India.10
This study focused on poor informal workers and their insecurities and
vulnerability. Globalization and flexibalization process has changed the structure of
employment the world over. The study was conducted in Ahmedabad city. Of a total labor
force of 1.5 million workers, over 75 percent about 1.15 million worked in the informal
41
sector. Insecurities faced by women workers, both within and outside the home due to their
dual responsibilities were empirically analyzed. Women with their dual burden, low levels of
education, skills and access to capital, found it difficult to cope with their responsibilities.
The pressure of earning an income, along with the house responsibility, affected their health.
There is a need to reform the social security system to recognize the value of women’s labor
at home.
2.2.11. Sheena, P. (2004) Employment of Women in the Organised Sector of Kerala: A
Case Study of Kozhikode District.11
The present study examined the trends of female employment in the
organized sector of Kerala and assessed the working conditions in this sector. Primary
data was collected from 495 women (292 from rural areas and 203 from urban areas)
employees in the organized (public and private) sector through a questionnaire.
Secondary data was collected from publications of the department of Economics and
Statistics, State and District Planning Boards, Department of Census and Reports of
national sample survey records. There was greater need for women to work in the
nuclear family set-up, in order to meet the family expenses. Employment also gave
women more decision-making powers and an improved status at home. In the public
sector, women in police, nursing profession and managerial posts had to work for
longer hours than others, whereas in the private sector nurses, clerks, managers and
last grade employees had to work for more than 8 hours a day. Also, salaries of
private sector employees were not in tune with their qualifications and working hours.
Most of the organized sector employees were from rural background, but more urban
respondents were found in high category posts (managers, lecturers, etc.) owing to
better educational backgrounds.
42
2.2.12. Mohsin Aziz, (2004) Role Stress among Women in the Indian Information
Technology Sector.12
This paper investigates the intensity of organisational role stress
among women informational technology professionals in the Indian private sector.
Organisational role stress scale is used on a sample of 264 to explore the level of role
stress. Resource inadequacy has emerged as the most potent role stressor, followed by
role overload and personal inadequacy. The research finds differences in the level of
stress between married and unmarried employees on several role stressors. However,
level of education does not emerge as a significant differentiator of stressors.
2.2.13. Benni, Basavaraj, S. (2004) Socio-Economic Impact of Role Conflict of
Working Women in Urban Western Maharashtra.13
The study aimed to find out the socio-economic impact of role conflict
of working women. 300 women working in government, semi-government and
private institutions were selected from district headquarters of western Maharashtra
namely Ahmednagar, Kolhapur, Pune, Sangli, Satara and Solapur. The survey
revealed that the number of married working women was 6 times higher than that of
unmarried women. Respondents above 45 years of age managed the two different
roles successfully. Role conflict (RC) was more common among women in younger
age groups.
2.2.14. Bhandan, Mala, (2004) Women in Two Work Roles and the Quality of
Their Life.14
The present study adopted a different approach and examined the two
roles in terms of their independence as well as joint contributions to the quality of life
of working women. A preliminary survey of women clerks in Delhi city, showed that
43
they faced many problems in their daily lives including transportation, long working
hours, worry about children, etc. A stratified random sample of 100 married women
clerks working in central government departments in Delhi was chosen for the study.
Women clerks in the sample belonged to Haryana, Punjab and Uttar Pradesh.
Interview methods were used for collecting data. At office, respondents were seated in
small, overcrowded and ill-maintained rooms with very little space to move around.
Most of them reported that running between office and home, traveling by irregular
and crowded city transport, and endless household chores caused them physical and
mental fatigue.
2.2.15. Centre for Organization Development, Hyderabad. (2004) Women in
Information Technology: Final Report.15
The present study was carried out to understand the role and
contribution of women in the information technology (IT) field. 229 women and 104
men across 20 companies were selected for the study. A Group of respondents
assembled in a discussion room for about 45 to 60 minutes and were asked to fill up
the questionnaire. Majority of women listed family, health and maternity aspects as
the most important reasons for not advancing in careers at the same rate as men. The
age profile of women respondents ranged from 21 to 53 years, with a median age of
27 years. Reason for getting attracted to the IT industry was challenging profession.
The IT industry also gives immense satisfaction, a sense of achievement, tremendous
opportunity for creative freedom and independence for women.
2.2.16. Eapen, Mridul, (2004) Women and Work Mobility: Some Disquieting
Evidences from the Indian Data.16
The present paper attempted to raise the issue of sex segregation of
jobs and its perpetuation over time to the disadvantage of women workers. In the
44
context of the nineties, the period of globalization in India, attention was also drawn
to the female work participation rates in Kerala. Data from Time Utilisation Survey
(TUS), the combined estimates for states was analysed, it was found that women in
Kerala enjoyed higher wage rate (casual) in both rural and urban areas than in other
parts of the country, and hence their annual earnings may be still higher. Kerala had
highest Female Literacy Rates among all states of India, yet it scored poorly in non-
conventional indicators, attempting to capture power and subordination.
2.2.17. George, Alex, (2004) Globalization and Loss of Employment of Women:
A Case Study of Nellore, Secunderabad.17
The objective was to study the impact of commercial cultivation for
the global market on women. This survey was conducted in six Mandals of Nellore
district, where the shift in cultivation from paddy to aquaculture, horticulture and
floriculture was being experienced. The study covered 100 women labourers in each
of the 12 villages in six mandals. Thus 1200 women labourers aged 15-60 years were
taken and data was collected through interviews. New crops not only reduced
employment but had in no way helped in pushing up wages, and women were the
main Sufferers.
2.2.18. Sunita Malhotra and Sapna Sachdeva, (2005) Social Roles and Role
Conflict: An Interprofessional Study among Women.18
The present research was carried out to study the effect of different
professions and multiplicity of social (familial) roles on the role conflict amongst
working women. For this purpose, a 3x3 factorial design was used. Results revealed
significant main effects of women’s professions and social roles as well as an
interaction effect on the role conflict. Women are more vulnerable after disaster:
45
Socio cultural and psycho-physiological vulnerability increases after the disaster.
Women are in need of special care. Women workers get exposed to various
situations, hence need for special care.
2.2.19. Asim Saha et al. (2006) Occupational Injury Proneness in Indian Women:
a Survey in Fish Processing Industries.19
The objective was to understand the frequency of occupational injury
occurrence and the associated factors in the fish processing industries of western
India. A cross sectional survey was initiated involving 185 randomly selected women
subjects. All the subjects were interviewed with the help of an interviewer-
administered questionnaire to collect information regarding their personal,
occupational and work related morbidity details (including details of occupational
injuries). Logistic regression method was used to analyze the data in order to obtain
the contribution of individual factors on occupational injuries. Apart from nature of
job of fish processing workers occupational hazards prevailing in the work
environment contribute significantly to the occurrence of work related injuries and
prevention of such occupational hazards may help in protecting workers from
occupational injuries also.
2.2.20. Jannet, JV. and Jeyanthi, GP. (2006) Pulmonary Health Status of Ginning
Factory Women Laborers in Tirupur.20
Ginning factories discharge large amounts of cotton dust, which leads
to decrease pulmonary function in the exposed subjects. An attempt was made to
study the pulmonary functions of women laborers employed in ginning factory
located in Tirupur, a textile based city in Coimbatore district of Tamil Nadu, India.
The women were subjected to spirometric analysis and chest X-ray examinations.
46
Occupational lung disorders that included byssinosis, chronic bronchitis and
occupational asthma were studied in these women by assessing their pulmonary
function tests, clinical symptoms, age and duration of exposure to cotton dust.
Standard normal distribution, Chi-square analysis and multiple correlation analysis
were the statistical methods applied in this study. Significant occupational acute and
chronic pulmonary changes were observed in these women. Both age and duration of
exposure together had a significant impact on their pulmonary function. There was a
significant distribution of women with pulmonary impairment in all the sections of the
ginning factory.
2.2.21. Ritu Singh et al. (2006) Assessment of Marital Adjustment among
Couples with respect to Women’s Educational Level and Employment Status.21
In this study, families with employed and non-employed women across
different educational levels from Ludhiana city were compared on their existing level
of marital adjustment. For it 300 Sikh families (N = 300) were selected according to
the working status of woman in the family and divided into two categories of families,
that is, families with employed women (n1= 150) and families with non-employed
women (n2= 150). These two categories of families were selected by drawing equal
numbers of families (n1i, n2i = 50) from each of the three levels of education (with
reference to woman in the family) viz. post graduation and above (Level I), upto
graduation (Level II) and matric and below excluding illiterate (Level III). A socio-
demographic questionnaire was used to identify families for the sample under study.
Level of marital adjustment in the selected families was assessed using marital
adjustment questionnaire. Arithmetic mean, standard deviation and t-test were used to
analyse the data. The findings revealed that sexual dimension of marital adjustment
among husbands and wives was unaffected by wives’ education level and
47
employment status. Husbands showed no variation on the emotional dimension of
marital adjustment with wives’ educational level and employment status, whereas,
wives were seem to be more emotionally dependent on their husbands when they
were educated up to Level III or were nonemployees.
2.2.22. Harshpinder and Paramjit Aujla, (2006) Physiological and Psychological
Stressors among Working and Non Working Women.22
The objective was to examine the psychological and physiological
stressors among working and non-working women. Data were collected from 75
working and 75 non -working women from four localities of Ludhiana city. The data
were collected through interview schedule, which was having questions to find the
background information of the respondents and questions were made to know various
physiological and psychological factors of stress among the women. Chi-square test
was applied for determining the association between the two categories of
respondents. This study shows that working women were more stressed as compared
to non – working women.
2.2.23. National Commission for Women, New Delhi, (2007) Working Condition
of Women in Call Centers: Issues and Remedies.23
The present study was carried out to assess what measures could
provide a safe and secure working environment to women working in call centers.
Methodology is based on software analysis of women employees in the Information
Technology industry. Call centre employees were under constant stress because of
their workload, competitive pressure and surveillance. Night shift work has also been
cited as one of the major reasons for women leaving their jobs along with high stress
levels and long working hours. Public transport service facilities during night hours
48
are minimal, and normally call centre employees are provided company contract
transport that allows them to travel to and from their work place. Safety of the
transportation provided by employers is an emerging concern.
2.2.24. Kaila, H.L. (2007) Women Managers in Indian Organizations.24
To review trend of problems faced by women managers, the ways in
which the problems affect them and the coping strategies used by them to overcome
their problems. In-depth personal interviews were conducted with the help of a
structured questionnaire using open-ended questions. The narratives of managers have
provided a broad base in understanding managerial life and profession of women. The
implications are underlined for better organizational health and performance.
2.2.25. Rama Rao, D. and Sandhya, N. (2007) Issues of Professional Women in
Agriculture.25
This study investigates the issues of graduate women in agriculture in
India. It is intended to help planners and policy-makers to effectively utilise the
increasing number of graduate women in the country. The study uses output from
brainstorming sessions, workshop and survey data from women graduates besides
official records from educational institutions and employing organisations. Although
women constitute minority work force in most organisations, there are no marked
differences in their approach to work and competence. Women’s career is affected
more by their family responsibilities, i.e., dual role. Physical facilities are, by and
large, not compatible to working women, and women participation is low in
professional and employees association, training, seminars and conferences. The
study identifies organisational shortcomings specific to working women. The
49
integration of women into traditionally male-dominated agricultural systems posses
challenges to build their careers.
2.2.26. Rajakumari Amirthagowri, A.J.A. (2008) Status of Working Women in
Family.26
The objective is to analyze the status and familial problems of
workingwomen in Thoothukudi Municipal area, Tamil Nadu. The statistical
techniques employed were critical ratio test, analysis of variance and scheffe test. 665
respondents were used. The questions were under the components - income and denial
of status, denial of support from family and denial of decision making rights. Working
women above 30 years have more familial problems than their counterparts. Working
women of SC community grappled with familial problems significantly. Working
women with only school level education are affected significantly with more familial
problems relating to income and status, and family support, than their counterparts,
the working women with collegiate education. To solve the challenging problems,
efforts should be made collectively with the mutual cooperation and understanding of
family members and working women.
2.2.27. Sima Roy and Aparajita Dasgupta, (2008) A Study on Health Status of
Women Engaged in a Home-Based “Papad-Making” Industry in a Slum Area of
Kolkata.27
The objectives of the study were to find out the health status of the
women, to find out the factors in the working conditions, influencing their health
status and to assess their felt needs. A slum was chosen by random sampling method.
Following this complete enumeration method was adopted. Data were collected by
interview clinical examination of the women engaged in this occupation with a pre-
50
designed and pretested schedule. Proportions and Chi-square test were used for
statistical analysis. Most of the women belonged to poor socioeconomic status. Sixty
percent were in this occupation for more than 10 years and they spent 5 hours for this
work daily over and above their household job. Musculoskeletal problem was their
commonest health problem. Pallor, angular stomatitis, Pedal edema, chronic energy
deficiencies were found on examination. Personal hygienic measures taken were far
from satisfactory.
2.2.28. Rajarshi Roy and Anjana Paira, (2009) Exploration of Impact of Age on
Professional Stress and Allied Psycho pedagogical Status of Female Engineering
Educators in India.28
The present study attempts to explore the level and interrelationship of
the psycho pedagogical attributes as apparent among the female teachers. Attempt
was also made to explore the impact of age of the female teachers over these psycho
educational-attributes. The female teachers of engineering colleges and universities,
teaching through distance education, from selected states of Eastern-India were taken
as samples. Findings of the study reveal that age of the respondents possesses
significant impact over the major psycho pedagogical attributes viz., professional-
interest, job-satisfaction, collectivism and professional-stress.
2.2.29. Rameshwari Pandya and Dhara Thakkar, (2009) Working Women and
their Problems.29
The objectives were to study the job related and household work
related problems of working women of Baroda and to study the differences in the
overall problems, job related problems and household work related problems of
working women in relation to their age, type of family, experience and distance from
the workplace. The sample consisted of 120 working women from Baroda. A
51
structured questionnaire was developed by the investigator. It was found that most of
the working women came from nuclear family because the nuclear family is free from
most of the traditional restriction about female behaviour and there is more freedom
for women to seek employment. Majority of the respondents had more job related
and household work related problems.
2.3 Studies Abroad
Altogether fifteen studies have been reviewed and furnished under the
study from abroad. These studies have been presented in short.
2.3.1. Mary Beth Mann & Kathy R. Thornburg, (1987) Guilt of Working
Women with Infants and Toddlers in Day Care.33
The objective is to study the guilt of mothers of infants and toddlers
who use day care. 89 white, middle-class mothers were used as the sample. A
questionnaire was administered to them which included a Maternal Guilt Scale and a
Maternal Satisfaction Scale. Mothers who reported more satisfaction with child care
also reported feeling less guilt about leaving their child in day care. Mothers who
reported more satisfaction with child care also reported feeling less guilt about leaving
their child in day care. Mothers who reported more satisfaction with home-school
communication reported feeling more guilt. Mothers with girls reported feeling more
guilt about leaving their child than mothers with boys.
2.3.2. Sears, Heather, A. and Galambos, Nancy, L. (1992) Women's Work
Conditions and Marital Adjustment in Two-Earner Couples.34
The objective is to identify women's work conditions and marital
adjustment in two-earner couples. It evaluated structural model of women's work
conditions, women's stress, and marital adjustment using path analysis. 86 two-earner
couples with adolescents were used as the sample. Support for spillover model in
52
which women's work stress and global stress mediated link between their work
conditions and their perceptions of marital adjustment
2.3.3. Yoko Araki, Takashi Muto and Takashi Asakura, (1999) Psychosomatic
Symptoms of Japanese Working Women and their Need for Stress
Management.35
This study was conducted to clarify Japanese female workers'
psychosomatic symptoms including women-specific complaints and their need for
stress management as part of Occupational Health Services (OHS). In 1997, a survey
was conducted in which a questionnaire was sent to 1108 full-time female workers.
Amount of overtime works, marital status in the 30-44 age group, the presence of
children were found to be important factors in determining health status. Workers
who performed frequent overtime work had a greater need for Mental Health
Management (MHM).
2.3.4. Michael D.Barnes, Marilyn Pasc & DawnVanLeeuwen, (1999) The
relationship of Economic Factors and Stress among Employed, Married Women
with Children.36
To identify the relationship of economic factors and stress among
employed, married women with children. A convenience sample of 62 married
women with children at home was measured on five economic variables and three
stress-related variables: mother / marital role satisfaction, mother work role
fulfillment and physical indicators of stress. Regression analysis also was used to
model the relationship among economic and stress-related variables. The analysis
revealed several significant relationships between the economic variables and
satisfaction, with fewer significant relationships for the fulfillment and stress
variables.
53
2.3.5. William M. Pick, Mary H. Ross and Yasmin Dada, (1982) The
Reproductive and Occupational Health of Women Street Vendors in
Johannesburg, South Africa.37
The objective is to identify the reproductive and occupational health of
women street vendors. This paper reports on 422 women street vendors trading in 323
city blocks in Johannesburg, South Africa. Those over 40 years and the self-employed
complained of a work-related illness or injury, mainly burns, cuts, headaches and
musculoskeletal problems. The type of health problem was related to age. They were
not comfortable with the working environment, for reasons ranging from lack of
shelter and dirt, noise and having to clean the area themselves. They felt unsafe,
violence and abuse was ever present. Women reported some form of abuse, either
verbal or physical.
2.3.6. Susanna, Lo., Raymond Stone & Catherine, W. Ng. (2003) Work-Family
Conflict and Coping Strategies adopted by Female Married Professionals in
Hong Kong.38
This study examined the kinds of work-family conflict experienced by
female married professionals with children in Hong Kong and the coping strategies
they had adopted. Data were obtained through 50 in-depth interviews. The results
revealed the general ineffectiveness of coping strategies being used by married
women professionals. The percentage of women who attempted to use positive coping
strategies designed around job changes was low, possibly due to their reluctance in
negotiating for family-friendly organizational policies. It appears that companies in
Hong Kong extend little support to working mothers in managing the work-family
interface.
54
2.3.7. Afroza Hossain Rahman, (2004) A Study on Psychological Adjustment of
Women Garments Workers in Bangladesh in their New Identities.39
This study is an attempt to focus on the psychological adjustment on
home, work and social situations of women workers in garments sector. The sample
consisted of 100 adult women from garments in Bangladesh. To obtain the data, the
researcher has developed one questionnaire including 30 items (home=10, social=10
and work=10) on adjustment. The investigator collected data from the respondents by
visiting their working places. Respondents were interviewed personally by the
investigator. Arithmetic mean, standard deviation and t-test were used to analyse the
data. Due to long duration of work they cannot bare the burden of household works.
Women workers are coming from low socio-economic background. Every day they
are striving for their food and cloth. Married women are actively participating in their
household works, bearing children and taking decision about their own children and
themselves as compared to unmarried women.
2.3.8. Ceballo, Rosario; Lozoff, Betsy Ramirez, Cynthia; Castillo, Marcela;
Caballero, Gabriela Alejandra, (2004) Domestic Violence and Women's Mental
Health in Chile.40
This study investigates the correlates and psychological outcomes of
domestic abuse among women in a semi-industrial country. The participants included
215 mothers residing in working-class communities located on the outskirts of
Santiago, Chile. They utilized structural equation modeling to test the hypothesis that
poverty and other structural inequalities would be related to incidents of domestic
abuse in Chile, as they are in the United States. Results suggest that lower
socioeconomic status, even within poor communities, and stressful life events have a
direct relationship to domestic conflict. Domestic abuse was, in turn, associated with
55
women's mental health such that greater domestic conflict was related to higher
reports of depressive affect and symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder.
2.3.9. Volkmar, John and Westbrook, Kate, L. (2005) Kate’ Does a Decade Make
a Difference? A Second Look at Western Women Working in Japan.41
The objective is to assess changes over the past decade in the self-
reported levels of adjustment, job performance, and professional acceptance of
western women professionals working in Japan. Napier and Taylor's benchmark 1995
study of western women working in Japan is replicated ten years later on a similar
sample group of women in Japan. Questionnaire responses to questions about cultural
adjustment, job performance, and professional acceptance are compared for the
original and new samples. Despite increased westernization of business practices in
Japan and a greater representation of Japanese women in management positions, no
statistically significant change is found in the scores for the three measures examined
over the ten years period. The incidence of formal training, preparation, and support
provided by employers was higher for the more recent sample.
2.3.10. Sadrul Huda1, S. S. M. & Afsana Akhtar, (2006) Leisure Behaviour of
Working Women of Dhaka Bangladesh.42
This paper theorizes on the concept of the women's leisure and
examines the situation of the urban working women in Dhaka-Bangladesh. Based on
the qualitative approach, this report presents the leisure scenario of the white-collar
working women of Bangladesh. The major findings of this report are very similar to
other situations prevailing all over the world. The working women have less time for
leisure activities. The women with children face more time constraints than their
unmarried counterparts. Though the unmarried working women have no marital
56
obligation but in most cases they are subjected to the obligations of the parental
family.
2.3.11. Sarminah Samad, (2006) Determining the Predictors of Employees’ Work
Attitude among Non Professional Married Working Women.43
To examine how perception of work-family conflict and work related
factors served as predictor of employees’ work attitude. 500 non-professionals
married working women from the selected manufacturing and electronic industries in
Malaysia were taken as sample. The results hypothesized that work-family conflict
and work related factors perceptions were negatively related to employees’ work
attitude. Aspect of work commitment of work related factors was correlated positively
with employees’ work attitude. Among all the variables, role ambiguity appeared as
the most significant predictor of employees’ work attitude. Both work-family-conflict
and work related factors made significant contribution to employees’ work attitude.
2.3.12. Yawen Cheng, (2007) Working Conditions, Psychological Distress, and
Health Status of Foreign Domestic Workers in Taiwan.44
This cross-sectional survey was conducted to explore the working
conditions, psychological distress, and self-reported health status in domestic workers
in Taiwan. A total of 231 female domestic workers (83 Vietnamese, 41 Indonesians
and 107 Filipinos) agreed to participate in an anonymous survey and completed
questionnaires. Information obtained by the questionnaire included averaged working
hours, time for rest, mental health status, burnout status, and frequency of various
psychosomatic health problems. As expected, working hours were long for these
workers, with an average of 13 hours per day. Feelings of home sickness and
loneliness were common, and a great majority of these women reported having
57
muscular-skeletal discomforts, menstrual pain, headache, and irritating stomach. Their
mental health status and burnout status, however, were comparable and even better as
compared to that of the general working women in Taiwan. Unexpectedly, findings of
this study indicated that the health status of foreign domestic workers varied
substantially across nationalities.
2.3.13. Abramson, Zelda , (2007) Masked Symptoms: Mid-Life Women, Health,
and Work.45
The objective was to identify the health and work of mid life women.
Data from the Canadian Labour Force Survey (1997) reveal that relatively few mid-
life women offer ill health as a reason for leaving their job or downshifting to part-
time employment, implying that the role of ill health may be inconsequential in
effecting changing patterns in mid-life women's labour force activity. In contrast,
interviews with 30 mid-life women (aged 40 to 54 years) illustrate that, although they
do not offer illness as their main reason for leaving their job or working part-time,
health is a determining factor. This research also maps the complex relationship
between work and ill health, showing that stressful working conditions (due to
funding cuts and policy changes) affected the mental and physical health of this group
of mid-life women, which, in turn, influenced their decision to change their labour
force activity. The author concludes that policy makers must recognize that ill health
may be under-reported among mid-life women in large surveys and that research is
needed that specifically examines women's working conditions as they relate to
health.
58
2.3.14. Waris Qidwai, Shahan Waheed, Salma Ayub & Syed Iqbal Azam, (2008)
Impact of Working Status on their Lives: A Survey of Working Women at a
Teaching Hospital in Karachi, Pakistan.46
The objective is to study the impact of working status on the lives of
working women. A questionnaire based cross sectional survey was conducted at the
Family Practice Center, Aga Khan University Hospital, Karachi, Pakistan, from July
to December 2006. The Questionnaire included data on the demographic profile of the
patient and questions in line with study objectives. Two hundred working women
were interviewed. SPSS computer software was used for data analysis. Working
women find it difficult to carry out their home responsibilities. There is a need for
further studies on how to improve the working conditions and home situation for
working women in our society.
2.3.15. Phyllis W.L. Lau, Judy G.Y. Cheng, Dickson L.Y. Chow, Ungvari, G.S.
and Leung, C.M. (2009) Acute Psychiatric Disorders in Foreign Domestic
Workers in Hong Kong: A Pilot Study.47
To explore the psychopathology of foreign domestic workers (FDWs)
who had an acute psychiatric disorder in Hong Kong. This was a retrospective chart
review. Demographic and clinical data were extracted from case records of FDWs
who were admitted for the first time as inpatients for psychiatric treatment to three
regional hospitals of the same catchment area in Hong Kong between 2000 and 2004.
Relevant socio-demographic data on local FDWs and the general population of Hong
Kong were obtained from local government departments. Home sickness and marital
problems were more commonly identified as stressors rather than work related
difficulties.
59
2.4. Analogy of the studies
2.4.1. Facts deduced from the studies in India
The investigator has reviewed twenty nine studies in India. Of these the
studies of Tharakan (1992), Sahoo, Alka (2001), Sing Sengupta, Sunita (2003), Uma
Rani et al.(2003) Sheena (2004), Mohsin Aziz (2004), The Report of Centre for
Organization Development, Hydrabad (2004), George, Alex, (2004), Asim Saha et al.,
(2006) Jannet and Jeyanthi (2006), The Report of National Commission for Women,
New Delhi (2007), Kaila (2007), Rama Rao and Sandhya (2007) and Sima Roy and
Aparajita Dasgupta (2008) were related with the occupational problems of working
women. The study of Rameshwari Pandya and Dhara Thakkar (2009) emphasized the
occupational and familial problems of working women. The study of Mishra and
Bajpai (1998) was related with marital status and problems of working women. The
studies of Nathawat (1993) and Ritu Singh et al. (2006) were related with adjustment
of working women. The studies of Benni Basavaraj (2004) and Rajarshi Roy and
Anjana Paira (2009) were about age related problems of working women. The
studies of Sharma, Renu (2000), Bhandan, Mala, (2004) and Harshpinder and
Paramjit Aujla (2006) were related with physical health and mental health of
working women. The studies of Andrade et al., (1999) Gupta, Namrata (2001) and
Rajakumari (2008) were related with the familial problems of working women. The
study of Eapen Mridul (2004) was related with educational level and problems of
working women. The studies of Gupta, Namarata and Sharma, Arun (2002) and
Sunita Malhotra and Sapna Sachdeva (2005) were related with personal problems of
working women. Concrete action programmes have been suggested for the
occupational problems, mental health and physical health problems.
60
2.4.2 Facts deduced from the studies abroad
A review of fifteen foreign studies furnished shows that the problems
of working women are worldwide. Among them the studies of Mary Beth Mann et al.,
(1987) and Sadrul Hudal and Afsana Akhtar (2006) were related with personal
problems of working women. The studies of William M Pick et al., (1982) and
Abramson Zelda (2007) were related with occupational problems of working
women. The studies of Yoko Araki et al., (1999) Michael D.Barnes et al., (1999)
Ceballo et al., (2004) Yawen Cheng (2007) and Phyllis et al., (2009) were related with
physical and mental health of working women. The studies of Sears, Heather A
Galambos and Nancy L., (1992), Afroza Hossain Rahman (2004) and Volkmar, John,
L.et al., (2005) were related with adjustment of working women. The studies of
Susanna Lo et al, (2003) and Waris Qidwai et al, (2008) were related with familial
problems of working women. The study of Sarmina Samad (2006) was related with
attitude of working women. The findings of the above studies show the intensity of
the problem and different dimensions of the problem. The different categories of
working women like nurses, teachers, managers, police, technocrats, self employed,
professional women etc. have their own problems pertaining to their field.
From the above studies, it is very clear that dual role is the basic
reason for their problems. The investigator comes to the conclusion from the above
studies that the ways to remove the problems of working women are to be attended
universally all over the world. The researchers all over the world attempted to study
the problems of working women.
61
2.5 Conclusion
The survey of related literature has helped the investigator to have a
clear perspective of the problem chosen for the present investigation. The review of
related research gives potentialities to bring out the different dimensions of problems
of working women and the related variables. It also helps in providing insight into the
selections and use of effective method of study, tool development, data gathering
device and appropriate statistical techniques to be followed for her study. This
analysis had paved way to the investigator to proceed successfully without any
repetition or duplication.
Thoothukudi is an industrial area. It is famous for salt and fishing as its
major occupation. Most of the women are working in salt pans and fishing related
jobs. Their working time extends from 8 to 12 hours. If so how could they spend their
time for their children? This is a big question to be solved. Again the women cannot
find time for attending to their children and others in the family and for her. Dual
burden not only affects the health of herself but also her family. Their problems
directly or indirectly affects their children’s education, health etc. So it is the need of
the hour to find out the solution for their problems. Hence the investigator decided to
take up the empirical study on the problems of working women in Thoothukudi
district.
Next chapter elaborates the plan and procedure of the study.
62
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