Upload
vantram
View
276
Download
11
Embed Size (px)
Citation preview
CHAPTER II
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF THE TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE OF
ASSAM
2.1 Introduction
Assam is rich in the field of art, architectures and sculptures from very
ancient times because numerous temple ruins are discovered throughout Assam.
The ancient rulers took active part for development of the temple architectures in
Assam. The development of sculptural activities became increase through the
architectural activities. Under the patronage of the rulers, the temple architecture
developed in large scale because they provided grant land to the religious edifies
for developing the religious as well as cultural environment of the state.
Innumerable sculptural images of different deities along with others elements
from the nature were engraved on the surfaces of the temple's walls to attract the
minds of the devotees.
2.2 Early History of Assam
Assam is situated in the North Eastern part of India and is known as
Pragjyotisa in the earliest time and Kamrupa in the later time. This place has a
great significance during the time of epics, Puranas etc because the name of
Pragjyotisa has been found in the Ramayana, Mahabharata and some other
Puranas like Markandeya Purana, Brihat Samhita, Bhagavata Purana, Kalika
Purana etc (Barua, 1986). Kalika Purana recorded, ''Immediately after Naraka of
Mithila became king and was placed in charge of the Goddess Kamakhya, the
name of the land was changed fi-om Pragjyotisa to Kamrupa. The term Kamrupa/
Kamakhya symbolised a new cult'' (1989).
Assam history was started from the legendary period, where Danavas and
Asuras were the legendary traditional rulers of Assam and they belonged to non-
Aryan tribes. It was thought that demon Mahiranga Danava was the first ruler of
this country and the Ghataka was the last ruler of this dynasty. After decline of the
37
Danava dynasty, a new dynasty, which was founded by Naraka, a prince from
Videha arose. His name was mentioned in the epics and Puranas like the
Ramayana, Mahabharata, Harivamsa and the Kalika Purana. After Naraka,
Bhagadatta, who was the son of Naraka came to the thorn. In the Mahabharata,
he was mentioned as a powerful warrior in the Kurukshetra war. It was known
that the nineteenth generations of Naraka ruled Assam (Barua, 1986).
After the end of the legendary dynasties, the authentic political history of
ancient Assam was started from the Varman dynasty in 4"̂ century A. D.
Pusyavarman, who originally belonged to central India was the founder of
Varman dynasty. With the help of Samudragupta of Gupta dynasty, he established
the Varman dynasty in Assam (Nath, 1948). It was assumed that some of the
emperors of the Varman dynasty were the contemporaries of the Gupta emperors.
Pusyavarman was the contemporary of Chandragupta and Samudravarman of
Samudragupta (Choudhury, 1987). Besides, the historical reference reveals that
Kamrupa had a good relation with the Gupta dynasty (Bahadur, 1933).
The Varman dynasty ruled Assam approximately from the 4"̂ century to
the 7"̂ century A. D. Bhaskaravarman was the last and most powerftil emperor of
this dynasty. He ruled since 594 A.D to 650 A. D (Choudhury, 1987).
Bhaskarvarman was not only a greatest emperor, but also made remarkable
contribution for Assam. During his lifetime, all round activities like political,
cultural etc were developed. Therefore, he was able to occupy a most conspicuous
position in the history of Assam. He was the contemporary of Harshavardhana,
the powerful king of Northern India of the time. Emperor Bhaskarvarman showed
the great respect towards religion, in which he was the devotee of Lord Siva, but
he had also great respect to Buddhism. He invited the Buddhist pilgrim, Hiuen
Tsang to his country. Hiuen Tsang recorded in his account that there were
hundred Deva temples in Kamrupa (Bahadur, 1933).
After the end of the Varman dynasty, a new dynasty, which was known as
Salastambha dynasty came to be focus in the history of Assam and the twenty one
rulers of this dynasty ruled Assam. It was assumed that they ruled during the
period for 650-990 A. D (Choudhury, 1987). Salastambha was the great chief of
Mlechlias and was the first ruler of this dynasty. In addition, Bahadur remarks,
38
" the word undoubtedly means the non-Hindu Mongoloid people of the
kingdom. A tribe of these people is still known by the name Mech which is clearly
the abridged form ofMlechha'' (1933).
The Pala dynasty was the last dynasty of the first phase of political history
of Assam. Brahmapala was the founder member of this dynasty. It was estimated
that their ruling period was 985 A. D-1125 A. D (Bahadur, 1933). Some of the
most powerful emperors of this dynasty were Ratnapala, Indrapala and
Dharmapala. They gave great contribution towards the cultural development of
Assam. The Pala dynasty of Assam was the contemporary of Palas of Bengal.
Brahmapala of Pala dynasty of Assam was the contemporary of Mahipala, who
was the ruler of the Palas of Bengal (Baruah, 1997). It was known that
Brahmapala of Pala dynasty of Assam took the title 'Pala' imitating the Palas of
Bengal (Bahadur, 1933). The Pala dynasty of Assam played a vital role in
developing the cultural background of Assam because numbers of inscriptions
revealed that the temple architectures were developed in large scale during their
period.
2.3 Evolution of Temple Sculptures in Assam
The temple building activity in Assam was started from early 4"̂ century
A. D and reached its peak of excellence in the 9"̂ century A. D and continued up
to the end of the 12' century A. D. During these periods, the architectural
activities were done by the stone materials. Evidences showed that most of the
temples were built by granite and sand stone.
The temple architectures of Assam basically follow the Nagara style or
the Northern Indian type, in which the sikhara part is curvilinear. The sikhara part
symbolises a mountain, which is mythical mountain, Kailasa. It is noteworthy that
to construct, the temples are based on the theory of Vastupurusha Mandala, which
is a magical ritualistic formula. It is not known that how the original shape of the
temple was developed. Different views are observed regarding the form of the
temple tower. According to Longhurst, the shape of the temple tower was derived
from the Buddhist Stupa (1974). Another source informed that the form of the
temple tower was copied from the shapes of the chariots or Rathas, which
prevailed in Vedic period (Sundaram, 1974).
39
It was accepted that the conceptions of different parts of the temple
architecture were borrowed from some other ancient elements. For example, the
base of the temple was imitative of the Vedic sacrificial alter. The conception of
the sanctum was borrowed from the prehistoric dolmen. The garbhagriha of the
temple was constructed by the massive walls with dark room represented the cave.
In the earlier times, the temple was of flat slab-roof The mature phase of the
temple architecture occurred during the period of Gupta having the jagati,
garbhagriha and the sikhara and continued up to the mediaeval period (Agrawala,
1979).
It was observed that the temples of mediaeval period of Assam carried the
stylistic features from Orissa and Bengal in structurally as well as in execution of
the images. In addition, according to Rao, "Viewing broadly the conditions and
characteristics of Hindu sculpture, it may well be said that there are four different
schools representing four different regions of India. The fourth school, which
resembles closely the third in respect of ornamentation and grouping, is chiefly
represented by the sculptures of Bengal, Assam and Orissa. It is at once
recognised by the human figures therein possessing round faces, in which are set
two oblique eyes, a broad forehead, a pair of thin lips and a small chin (1914). In
general, the temples of Assam have different architectural chambers such as the
garbhagriha or sanctum, in which the main worshiping idol is installed, the
antarala or vestibule, which serves as a corridor and the mandapa or pillared hall,
where different types of mandapas exist like bhogamandapa, natmandapa etc.
Evidences revealed that the sculptural art of Assam was started from the
Gupta time. The Daparbatia temple of 5''̂ -6''̂ century A. D was the earliest
example of the sculptural art of Assam. The carving door frame bears the
characteristic feature of the early Gupta School of sculpture (Choudhury, 1988).
Banerji remarks, ''The artist's sense of proportion, the beautiful symmetry of the
figures and ornamental devices and the excellence of execution tend to prove that
this door lintel belongs to the same period as the great schools of sculpture which
existed at Pataliputra and Benares in the fifth and sixth centuries A.D"{\92A-25).
Sculptural art of Assam was very similar to the art of Gupta and the Pala
art of Eastern India. This matter was proved with the help of authentic evidences
40
and valuable references. During the period of Varman dynasty, the Gupta art
influenced the sculptural art of Assam. The establishment of the rule of Pala
dynasty towards the middle of the 8'*̂ century A. D was an event of great
significance in the history of India and concentrated in Bihar and Bengal in
particular. During these periods (8"̂ century A. D-12"^ century A. D), a new school
flourished in the eastern part of the country during the early mediaeval period
under the patronage of the Palas, came to be designated as the Pala art or the
Eastern Indian School of Mediaeval sculpture (Banerji, 1981). The Pala sculptures
were influenced by the Gupta art tradition of sensuous lips and smoothness body
of the images (Sahai &French, 1983). A notable feature of this art style was the
stele carving, which was borrowed from the Gupta classical sculpture. The images
of deities were placed on the stele carvings, which were decorated by the
Kirtimukha motifs and floral designs at the top of the steles. These were the
special features of the Pala art.
In early time, the Pala art concentrated on creating of the Buddhist
sculptures. According to Kramrisch, 'T/ze images of the P" century are mainly
Buddhistic, but there are also Brahmanical images; in the 10' century Brahmanic
sculptures begin to increase in number; in the 12' centwy Vishnu images are so
abundant that they scaicely can be counted, but the images of the various
Goddesses are equally widely spread, whereas Saivitic and Jaina images are less
frequently met with" (1983). The temple ruins of Assam revealed that mostly
sculptures were done basing on the Hindu religion. Sometimes, Buddhism was
also given important to create the sculptures in temple art of Hinduism.
Another important aspect of the Pala art of Bengal was the influence of
Tantricism. Therefore, Tantric elements were introduced in Pala art. It was known
that under the Pala art of Bengal, Buddhist art was greatly influenced by the
Tantricism. Due to the effect of Buddhist Tantricism on the art, images of
Goddesses showed different mudras and asanas along with terrific aspects.
Besides, the erotic nature of the sculptures was derived from the Tantric
inspiration. In addition, ""The Tantric ideas including the Sakti worship greatly
influenced the Brahamanical faith, and the Hindu divinities represented in the art
hardly display any difference from the Buddhist ones, excepting in their attributes
and vehicles''' {^dincr]\, 1981).
41
The emergences of the stele carving and the Tanthcism of the Eastern
Indian Mediaeval School of art were the great impact on the sculptural art of
Assam. But Tantricism deeply influenced on the sculptures of Brahamanical as
well as in Vaishnavism of Assam. The Kamrupa emperors from Indrapala to
Dharmapala of Pala dynasty of Assam were the followers of the Tantric tenet and
during their periods Kamakhya became an important seat for Tantric Buddhism
(Choudhury, 1987). In approximately 12"̂ century A. D, which was the last period
of the Palas of Bengal, the Buddhist Tantricism gradually blended with the Hindu
Tantricism (Banerji, 1981). It can be said that both the sculptural activities of
Bengal and Assam were almost contemporary to each other, therefore, sculptures
of Assam display the influence of art of Bengal. In addition, 'T/ze East Indian
School of Mediaeval Art in Assam are found from the 9"^ century A. D The
evolutionary stages of the school are gauged through some dated sculptures"
(Dutta,1990).
The sculptures of Assam also showed some other influences. Sculptures
of Akasiganga executed the Chalukyan style. Sculptural designs of Gosaijuri
recalled the art style of South India, even of Ceylon (Ramachandran, 1936-37).
Carving door jambs of Gachtal in Nowgaon, showed the features of Pala School
of art (Choudhury, 1987). Choudhury mentioned that sculptural art of Assam had
a strikingly similarity with the Sena art of Bengal. The Sena artists of Bengal were
influenced by the lavish ornamentations of Hoysala art and they reflected this
style on the Pala School of art. Therefore, Assam sculptures belonging to the
period of 11"" -\2^^ century A. D were the style of Sena art (1985).
The sculptures of Assam were influenced by the central Indian style. In
this regards, the art style of Orissa is in particular. Dikshit remarked, ''The
affinities of Assamese art would seem to lie more with the schools of Bihar and
Orissa, than with the contemporary Pala art of Bengal" (1927-28). Sculptural
evidences showed that sculptural representations of dance and erotic postures of
Madan Kamdeva temple are very similar to the sculptures of Khajuraho.
Moreover, in the ornamentations of Tezpur ruins contained the characteristics
features from the temple art of Orissa. Another slab of Tezpur ruins depicted
Caitya window pattern, which was commonly found in the temples of Central
India especially from Rewa state and in Khajuraho (Banerji, 1924-25). Observing
42
the stone sculptures of Assam, Banerji remarked, "The medieval architecture and
plastic art of Assam were closely related to the general architecture and art of
Northern India" (1924-25).
Influences of South Indian sculptures upon the sculptural art of Assam
are found. Among the different sculptural sites of Assam, the sculptures of
Deoparbat temple showed the influence of the South Indian sculptures because a
good number of sculptural images are depicted like the South Indian images. For
example, Siva's various images like Vinadhara Dakshinamurti, Kankalamurti
Bhairava were commonly met in South Indian sculptures. The literary evidence
informed that the artists of South Indian migrated to Assam. Nath mentioned that
during the time of Ratnapala of Pala dynasty of Assam, a large number of
architects and sculptors migrated from Tanjore, Mysore and Travancore and the
emperor made them settle in his country (1948). According to Ramachandran, the
sculpting image of Venugopala in the western gate of the Kamakhya temple
recalled the decorative features of the Gupta and Pallava period in North and
South India respectively (1936-37). Depictions of makara and Kirtimukha
ornamentations were found in most of the temple ruins. Some of them were found
very similar to Java and China motifs (Choudhury, 1988).
In some cases, the appearances of the images revealed Mongolian look.
Amalgamations of late Gupta, early Pala and the Mongolian feature were
prominent on some of the sculptural images. In some of the specimens of art from
Bengal, there were marked Mongoloid elements, which must had been due to
ethnic infiltrations through the North East. This tradition was surely passed to
Assam through Bengal (Choudhury, 1985).
2.4 Growth of Indigenous School
Assam produced a separate art style with the amalgamations of different
foreign artistic influences. But regarding this mater, in art history of India, there
are not found any available references. According to Banerji, ''Assam is the only
province of India, the history of the architecture and sculpture of which is still
practically unknown" (1924-25). Numbers of scholars provide different views
regarding this matter. Kakati mentioned that Kamrupa had a separate school of
art, which was known as Kamrupa School of Sculpture (1941). But some scholars
43
did not accept his idea. Choudliury mentioned, ''Local variation does not prove
the existence of a separate school of arC (1985).
The literary evidences mentioned that a local art style, which was known
as Deopani School of Art, was developed in ancient Kamrupa and revealed a
separate identity. This group of sculptures came to be focused for the first time at
the place, Deopani, Golaghat of Assam. It was assumed that this new art style was
practiced in between late 7"̂ century A. D - 8' century A. D. The Deopani
sculptures retained the characteristic features of the last phase of Gupta classical
style. Deopani sculptures specify the ethnic affinity of the Bodo people of the
region (Dutta, 1990). The classical features like transparent drapery, limited
jewellery, drooping eyelids, finely polished body were found in this new style.
Besides, sculptures were carved out on black sand stone. Some other
characteristic features such as the round face with thick lips, broad and pointed
nose, long ears, broad forehead, long hair and thick eye brows, and broad shoulder
are illustrated (Dutta, 2007).
In ancient Kamrupa, it can be said that the development of sculptural
activities are found in three styles such as pre Gupta art, Gupta art and Pala art.
The first two styles displayed the sculptural activities in limited numbers. But
majority of the sculptures were produced in Assam during the time of Pala and
Sena period of Bengal. During this period, naturally the artists of Assam
amalgamated their regional variations with the Bengal style in the sculptural art
and created a different type of art style.
2.5 Sculptural Development under Different Dynasties of Assam
In Assam, sculptural development occurred in two distinctive phases, the
first phase belonged to the period between the 4"' century A. D to the 12"' century
A. D. During these period, three dynasties ruled ancient Assam namely Varman
dynasty (4"̂ century A. D-7"' century A. D), Salastambha dynasty (7"̂ century A.
D-IO"" century A. D) and Pala dynasty (lO"' century A. D -n"" century A. D).
Sculptural activities of during these periods gained its zenith. When the Pala
dynasty declined and their practising of art works became slow due to the lack of
royal patronage, another class of people, which was known as Ahom came to be
focused and they started to rule Assam till the advent of Britishers. These people
44
practised another style of art works of second phase to develop a cultural
atmosphere in Assam. During these long periods of sculptural developments, each
dynasty showed a distinctive changing style. Each dynasty performed an
important role for constructing the temple architectures in ancient Assam. During
the first phase of sculptural activities, most of the temple architectures were
constructed by stone material because a great number of temple ruins indicate this
matter. The emperors of all dynasties gave prefer to build the temples by stone
materials like other parts of the country, but now most of the old temple
architectures were totally disastrous due to the violent earthquakes, natural causes
and invaders who attacked Assam many times.
The information about the temple building activities was found from the
numerous inscriptions and literary sources. The emperors of different dynasties
recorded their cultural activities in the written form of inscriptions on the stone
slabs, copper plates etc. According to the inscriptions, it was assumed that the
temple architectural activities of Assam started from the Varman dynasty. A
limited number of temple sculptures were found with the influence of Gupta art
during this period. Though Assam was not included under the rule of Gupta
emperors, but the Varman dynasty appeared approximately with the Gupta
dynasty. A literary source spoke that the Varman emperors had direct relation
with the Imperial Guptas and what developed in the Gupta Court was at once
copied in Assam (Nath, 1948). From this reference, it can be said that the art and
architectures in Assam were done with the help of Gupta influence. An earliest
rock inscription of S"' century A. D, Umacal rock inscription recorded that a cave
temple was constructed by Surendravarman on the Nilacala hill (Sharma, 1978).
Surendravarman is identified as Mahendravarman, who was the ruler of Varman
dynasty from 450 A. D to 485 A. D. It was known that in early phase of Gupta
architecture, numbers of cave temples were produced in the Udayagiri hills near
Vidisa (Sharma, 1985). The inscription of Balavarman III, recorded that the
Salastambha ruler, Vanamala, who ruled approximately from 835 A. D to 860 A.
D constructed a huge palace consisting of numbers of rooms, which were
decorated by numerous carvings. The Indrapala inscription stated that the Pala
ruler, Ratnapala built numerous white temples of Siva in his country duringlOOO-
1030 A. D (Bahadur, 1933).
45
Besides the inscriptions, numbers of ancient texts recorded about the
temple architectures of ancient Kamrupa. For example, the Markandeya Purana
speaks about the construction of a Surya temple in Kamrupa. Some other most
important Tantric works, the Kalika Purana and the Yogini Tantra are informative
sources regarding the temple architectures of Assam. It was believed that the
Kalika Purana was composed in Assam during the time of Pala ruler, Dharmapala
who ruled for the period of 990 A. D-lOlO A. D. The Yogini Tantra also recorded
about the information of religious architectures of Assam (Choudhury, 1987).
AH these sources informed that the architectural activities were given great
importance by the ancient rulers. These religious edifices were dedicated to
different Gods and Goddesses like Surya, Siva, Vishnu, Mother Goddess and
some other deities. It can be said that through the development of architectural
activities, the emperors showed their great respect towards the religion as well as
the cultural activities.
2.6 Religious Influences on the Temple Architectures of Assam
Religion is the prime factor to construct the temple architectures. Religion
played a predominant role to inscribe various images on the temple buildings.
Like other places, temples of Assam were ornamented with numerous sculpted
images giving importance on the religion under the rules of different emperors.
Numerous inscriptions, literary evidences, the temple ruins etc said that God Siva
prevailed in ancient Kamrupa. Almost all ancient rulers of Kamrupa worshipped
Siva as their main worshipping deity. Besides, architectural evidences proved that
not only Siva was the main worshiping deity, but also Vishnu, Sakti and Surya
were the major cults in ancient Kamrupa. According to the Kalika Purana, the
fifteenth sacred places of Siva existed in ancient Assam. On the other hand, five
sacred places were provided to Devi and five sacred to Vishnu (Kakati,
1989).This reference reveals about the popularity of Lord Siva than other deities.
Assam was an important centre for practicing of the religions like Hindu,
Brahamanic, Buddhist and the Saivism and all the religions were practised
without losing their own identities (Barua, 2003). The ruins of the Sun temple at
Surya/>a/?a/- of Goalpara spoke about the practice of Sun worship in early Assam.
46
Taranath mentioned that the people of Kamrupa were transferred from the Sun
worship to Buddhism (1970).
2.6.1 Influence of Saivism
Siva was the most popular deity in Assam from ancient times. Abundant
temple ruins proved that Siva was worshipped in his iconic form as well as in
symbolic form, which was the form of linga-yoni. Numerous linga-yonis
discovered throughout Assam. Earliest evidences showed that Siva was worshiped
in his various manifestations. Siva was the most well known deity amongst both
the aborigines and the Aryanised people. It was thought that most probably
Aryans borrowed phallic worship from some aboriginal tribes (Choudhury, 1995).
It was known that Siva worship was first introduced in ancient Assam by
Jalpesvara, a ruler of North Bengal, which region was formerly included within
the Kamrupa kingdom. The emperor built a Siva temple is knovsTi as Jalpesvara in
his region (Kakati, 1989). Before the introduction of Devi worship in Kamakhya
temple, Siva was regarded as the guardian deity of this land (Choudhury, 1987).
The Yogini Tantra also stated about the worship of this deity in linga form. This
text also mentioned that Siva lingas of Kamrupa exceeded a million (Choudhury,
1985).
Most of the emperors of ancient Assam showed great respect towards Lord
Siva because numerous temples which are in ruin now are dedicated to Siva.
Banabhatta in his Harsacarita mentioned about Bhaskarvarman's devotion to
Siva (Choudhury, 1987). The Nidhanpur inscription of Bhaskarvarman mentioned
that Siva was tutelary deity of the emperor. The Vanamala inscription of 9"'
century recorded Siva as Kameswara. Again the inscription mentioned that the
emperor built another Kamakhya temple on the Kamakuta hill near Silghat
(Bahadur, 1933). The Vanamala inscription recorded that emperor Vanamala
rebuilt a lofty temple, which was dedicated to Lord Siva as Hetuka Sulin and is
offered a numbers of girls to the temple. It was mentioned that original temple
was constructed by his father Harjjaravarman of the Salastambha dynasty. The
inscription of Dharmapala said that Siva appeared as Ardhanarisvara, who is the
embodiment of two principles (Choudhury, 1987). Indrapala's inscription
47
mentioned that his grandfather Ratnapala constructed a large number of Siva
temples in his country (Bahadur, 1933).
From various references, it was clear that the Lord Siva was worshipped in
large scale in his various manifestations. But authentic documentations of these
temples are rarely found because they became disastrous for many reasons.
Besides, religious information can be found from the different images, which are
inscribed in the temple architectures.
2.6.2 Influence of Vaishnavism
The worship of Vishnu was practised in Assam from the very early time.
This was known by numerous iconographic images as well as epigraphic
evidences. In addition, "The worship of Vishnu was evidently prevalent in Assam
from early times, for as has been said before, the kings ofKamrupa traced their
lineage to Vishnu through Naraka" (Barua, 1986). God Vishnu appeared in the
Vedic period, in which Rig Veda mentioned him as Adityas (Choudhury, 1987).
The deity is compared with the Sun God. The Harsacarita and numbers of
epigraphic records mentioned that the Varman rulers and the Pala rulers of
Kamrupa were the descendants of Vishnu (Choudhury, 1985). The earliest
inscriptional evidence, Umachal rock inscription of Surendravarman of 5"̂ century
mentioned Vishnu as Balabhadra (Borpujari, 1990). The inscription of
Dharmapala also said about the worship of Vishnu (Barua, 1986). Evidences
proved that the worship of Vishnu in his various incarnations was also famous in
ancient Assam.
The numerous inscriptions speak about the worship of Vishnu in his image
form. Besides, a large number of Vishnu images and his incarnations in the
sculptural representations are found from the temple ruins throughout Assam. An
ancient Vishnu temple, which is known as Hayagriva Madhava temple is found at
Hajo as an authentic documentation. But there is controversy among the Hinduism
and the Buddhism. The composite form of Vishnu, which is found in the
garbhagriha of the temple, is known as Hayagriva. Besides, some of the
incarnations of Vislinu are found in the image forms on the outer walls of the
temple. The Daparbatia temple is influenced by Vaishnavism because an image of
Garuda in flying attitude is inscribed on the lintel of the door frame. The temple
48
ruins showed that at least from 5"̂ -6"̂ century A. D Vishnu was worshipped in his
iconographic representations in Assam (Choudhury, 1987). The inscriptional data
and the numerous discovered images revealed that the worship of Vishnu in his
iconographic representations prevailed in Assam form the Varman dynasty to the
Pala dynasty.
2.6.3 Influences of Saktism and Tantricism
The Saktism and Tantricism reveal their nature in almost same mode. The
Saktism as well as the Tantricism influenced a special type of sculptural images of
the temples. Kamrupa is regarded as the great centre for the Saktism and the
Tantricism from the very early period. In this regard, Kamakhya is closely
associated with these aspects. Numerous temple architectures of Assam are
influenced by both the religious modes. The concept of Sakti deals with the
female energy while female Goddesses appear in the terrific aspect of
iconographic representations such as the images of Parvati, Durga, Kali, Tara,
Bhairavi, Chamunda, Ugra Tara etc. In fact, all these forms are the incarnations of
Devi Parvati.
Saktism was a mode of worship became popular along with Saivism and
Vaishnavism in ancient Assam. Kamrupa was regarded as the great centre for the
Saktism. This land was an important centre for Devi worship representing the
symbolic and iconographic aspects. The Kamakhya temple was one of the
Saktipithas in India. In any ancient inscriptions, there was no any mentioned about
the Sakti worship, but the inscriptions of Vanamala and Indrapala spoke about the
temples of Kamesvara Mahagauri and Mahagauri Kamesvara (Choudhury,
1985). Regarding the matter of silence, Barua remarked, 'Saktism represents a
particular phase of religion which was in the main personal and esoteric.
Consequently it had no connection with any public religious order or
establishment. Personal in origin, its tents and history were preserved in a special
class of magical and sacramental literature, commonly known as the Tantras"'
(1986). In addition, Choudhury mentioned that the Goddesses of this cult were
worshipped by the Saktas as symbolic fonn (1985). In the Saktipitha, Kamakhya
temple, there was no any image or deity in the garbhagriha, but an image of
'yoni' is inscribed on the stone block as the symbolic representation. The
49
Kamakhya temple contains a number of female divinities in the sculptural
representations.
Tantricism is another major influence for the development of special type
of images in the temple architectures. Tantricisim was another form of Siva and
Sakti worship that was known as Tantra of non-Aryan origin (Barua, 2007).
Hutton believes that the Tantricism possibly originated with the incorporation into
Hinduism of a fertility cult, which preceded the faith in Assam as the religion of
the country (1987). About in 9'*' century A. D Tantric faith was developed under
the Palas of Bengal as an offshoot of later Buddhism (Choudhury, 1987). It can be
said that Tantricism is associated with Buddhism because sometimes temple
carries the sculptures of Buddhism along with Hindu sculptures.
From the inscriptions, it was known that Tantricisim appeared during the
time of ancient rulers. The Pala ruler, Indrapala himself was well knowledge
about Tantras. Tantricisim was the branch of Buddhisim of the Mahayana school
of the ninth century under the Pala rulers of Magadha. During the period of Pala
ruler, Dharmapala, Buddhist University at Vikramasila was the famous centre of
the Tantrik doctrines. Through this centre, Tantricisim probably spread into
Kamrupa and Tibet. During the period of Kamrupa emperors, Kamakhya became
the important centre of Tantric sacrifices, mysticism and sorcery (Bahadur, 1933).
2.6.4 Influence of Buddhism
In Assam, the temple ruins reveal that most of the temples are influenced
by the Buddhism. In the Hindu temples, along with the Hindu sculptures, the
Buddhist sculptures were also discovered. Choudhury mentioned that the Hindu
temples were established with the materials from the old Buddhist temples (1988).
Buddhist scholar, Hiuen Tsang spoke that there were a few Buddhists in the
country, but they performed their devotional rites secretly (1933). Taranath
mentioned that the people of Kamrupa were converted from the Sun worship to
the Buddhism during the time of Dhitika, who came to be focused as early as third
century B. C (1970). These references revealed that the Buddhism prevailed in
Assam in very early period.
50
The Vishnu temple, Hayagriva Madhava temple of Hajo, is the major
pilgrimage centre for Buddhists, who come from Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan etc.
According to their tradition, Buddha died at Kamrupa, where the Hayagriva
Madhava temple existed. They believed that the main idol of the temple was
Buddha's image. Regarding this matter, Choudhury mentioned that some relics of
Buddha were brought to Assam and enshrined in a place, which was supposed to
be Kamakhya temple, where a casket of stone had discovered containing some
relics probably ashes of Buddha. Over these ashes, Stupa or Caitya was
constructed (1987).
Moreover, emperor, Bhaskaravarman himself was not a Buddhist, but he
showed deep respect to Buddhist pilgrimages. During his time, Buddhist scholars
visited Kamrupa. During the period of Pala rulers of Assam, Kamrupa was an
important place during the Tantric- Buddhist period. Some ancient inscriptions
said about prevalence of Buddhism in Kamrupa. Some small images of Buddha
exhibited the Abhaya mudra and the Bhumisparasa mudra. In this context,
Bahadur mentioned that these types of miniature images of Buddha might easily
have been imported by the pilgrimages from the outside (1933). It can be said that
there was a great impact of Buddhism on the sculptural art of Assam.
2.7 Conclusion
The chapter concludes with the following analysis.
The emperors of Assam perform the major role to develop the temple
architectures of Assam. Since, abundant temple ruins as well as numerous
inscriptions recorded about the development of the temple architectures of Assam.
By constructing the temple architectures, actually, the emperors showed their
great responsibilities towards the development of the cultural background of the
country.
The three dynasties such as Varman dynasty, Salastambha dynasty and
Pala dynasty play major role to develop the architectural activities as well as
sculptural activities in Assam. Each dynasty carries the distinctive characteristic
features of the temple sculptures in their executions. Evidences reveal that the
51
Pala dynasty plays a major role for the construction of temple architectural
activities.
Though a very small number of sculptures was found as the earliest
evidences, but the practices of art work were actively started from the Gupta
period in Assam because numbers of evidences reveal the influence of Gupta art.
The ancient emperors provided great contributions towards the art and
architectures like other parts of India. In fact, sculptural art were developed
through the building activities. The temple ruin at Daparbatiya was the earliest
example of the Gupta art.
In the sculptures of Assam, the regional variations are amalgamated with
the foreign influences. The temple ruin of Deoparbat revealed the Javanese art.
Besides, numbers of sculptural ruins revealed that the sculptures of Assam closely
associated with the art of other part of countries like South Indian art. North
Indian art, art of Orissa, art of Bengal etc. With these influences as well as
regional variations, the sculptures are displayed with a new style.
Impact of the religions is the major matter to depict the sculptures on the
temple architectures. In Assam, sculptures are influenced by the different religions
like Saivism, Vaishnavism, Saktism and Tantricism etc. Most of the temples
reflect the influence of Saivism. The temple of Vaishnavism is found in limited
numbers. On the other hand, Saktism and Tantricism are prominent in most of the
temple architectures. Due to the influence of Tantricism, the divine images show
the terrific aspect. Influence of Buddhism is also found in most of the temples.
52
References
Agrawala, V. S. Evolution of the Hindu Temple and Other Essay, Prithivi
Prakashan, Varanasi, 1979, P.5
Bahadur, R. K. L. B. Early History ofKamrupa, Shillong, 1933, P. 156
Banerji, R. D. Annual Report of Archaeological Survey of India 1924-25, Central
Publication Branch, Calcutta, 1927, P.99
Banerji, R. D. Eastern Indian School of Mediaeval Sculpture, Ramananad Vidya
Bhawan, New Delhi, 1981, P. 3
Banerji, R.D. Annual Report of Archaeological Survey of India 1924-25, Central
Publication Branch, Calcutta, 1927, P. 97
Barua, B. K. A Cultural History of Assam (Early Period) Vol. I, Bina Library,
Guwahati, 1986, P. 169
Barua, B. The Journal of The Assam Research Society, Vol. XXVIII, Nos. 1&2
2001-2002, Kamrupa Anusandhana Samiti, Guwahati, 2007, P. 181
Barua, B.K, A Cultural History of Assam (Early Period), Vol. I, Bina Library,
Guwahati, 1986, P. 10
Baruah, S. L. A Comprehensive History of Assam, Munshiram Manoharlal
Publishers Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 1997, P. 122
Borpujari, H. K. The Comprehensive History of Assam, Vol. I, Publication Board,
Assam, 1990, P.328
Chattopadhyaya, D. (Edt.), Taranatha's Hisstory of Buddhism in India, Matilal
Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited, Delhi: 1970, P. 47
Choudhury, N. D. Historical Archaeology of Central Assam, B. R. Publishing
Corporation, Delhi, 1985, P. 216
Choudhury, N. D. Lord Siva and Siva Icons in Assam, The .Journal of The Assam
Research Society, Vol. XXXIV, Nos 1&2 1995, P.67
53
Choudhury, P. C. Assam-Bengal Relations, Spectrum Publications, Delhi, 1988,
P. 329
Choudhury. P. C. The History of Civilisation of The People of Assam To The
Twelfth Century A D, Spectrum Publications Delhi, 1987, P. 131
Choudhury, R. D. Archaeology of The Brahmaputra Valley of Assam, Agam Kala
Prakashan, Delhi, 1985, P. 217
Dikshit, K. N. Annual Report of Archaeological Survey of India 1927-28, Pp. 112-
113
Dutta, M. Sculpture of Assam, Agam Kala Prakashan, Delhi, 1990, Pp. 54-55
Dutta, M.R. A Note on the Deopani School of Art, Journal of Assam Research
Society, Vol. XXXVIII, Nos. 1&2, 2001-2003, Published 2007, P. 242
Ibid
Ibid
Ibid, 1927,?.94
Ibid, I933,P.151
Ibid, \933,?A65
Ibid, 1933, Pp. 135-136
Ibid, 1933, Pp. 157-158
Ibid 1936-37, P. 54
Ibid,?. 100
Ibid,?. 107
Ibid,?. 109
Ibid,?. 12
Ibid.?. 144
54
Ibid,?. 149
Ibid,?. 167
Ibid,?. 17
Ibid, P. 259
Ibid, P. 327
Ibid, ?. 332
Ibid, P. 4
76/J, P. 401
Ibid, P. 408
/6/W,P. 416
Ibid, ?. 47
//7/J, P. 477
Ibid, ?. 75
/6/W,P.10
Ibid,?.\64
Ibid, ?.\69
Ibid,?.\l
Ibid, ?.\95
Ibid, P.34
Ibid,?.413
Ibid,?.4\5
Ibid, P.94
Ibid,?p. 11-12
55
Ibid,?p. 156-157
Ibid, Pp. 32-33
Ibid, ?p. 372-406
Ibid, ?p.4\-42
Ibid, ?p.4\6-4\7
Ibid, ?p.\06-\07
Ibid, Pp.l5\-154
Ibid, PpA7-20
Ibid, ?p.2]6-4\7
/6/af, Shillong, 1933,P.85
Ibid, Vol. XXXVI, Nos. 1&2 1997, 2003, Pp. 24-25
Kakati, B. The Mother Goddess Kamakhya, Publication board Assam, Guwahati,
1989, P. 6
Kakati, S. The Kamrupa School of Sculpture, The Journal of The Assam Research
Society, Vol.VIII, No. 2, Kamrupa Anusandhana Samiti, Gauhati,1941, Pp. 38-43
Nath, R. Background of Assamese Culture, Shillong, 1948, P. 45
Ramachandran, T. N. Annual Report of Archaeological Survey of India 1936-37,
P. 54
Rao, T. A. G. Elements of Hindu Iconography, Vol. I, Part. I, The Law Printing
House, Madras, 1914, Pp.36-37
Sahai, B. & French, J.C. The Art of the Pal Empire of Bengal, Ramanand Vidya
Bhawan, New Delhi, 1983, P. 13
Sharma, M. Inscriptions of Ancient Assam, Department of Publication, Gauhati
University, Assam: 1978, Pp. 1-3
Sharma, P. C. Souvenir, I.C.H.R., 1985, P. 33
56