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Chapter Four: Chapter Four:
Organizational Organizational TheoryTheory
As a citizen interested in governmentand as a former legislator, I had longbelieved that too many governmentalprograms are botched because theyare started in haste without adequateplanning or establishment of goals.Too often they never really attack thetargeted problems.
Jimmy Carter2002 Nobel Peace Prize recipient,then governor of Georgia, National Governors Conference, June 1974
Formal Theories of OrganizationWeber’s Bureaucratic Model
Division of labor/functional specializationHierarchyFormal framework of rules and proceduresMaintenance of filesProfessionalization
Formal Theories of OrganizationWeber’s model based on legal and
political authorityReaction to patronage systemControlBroad frameworkFocus on uniformity (not diversity)
Formal Theories of OrganizationContemporary American public
administration differs from WeberResponsive to those outside hierarchyFunctional overlapMerit system plus other personnel
systemsBureaucratic professionalsOnly recent career emphasis
Formal Theories of OrganizationTaylor’s Scientific Management
Managerial focusAdapts production practices and values
EfficiencyRationalityProductivityProfit
“One best way”
Formal Theories of OrganizationScientific Management tools
Time-and-motion studiesStandardizationTask-related capabilities
Formal Theories of OrganizationScientific Management shortcomings
Workers just “cogs in the machine”Profit only motivationDoes not account for supply and demand
But significant impact on private industry and public administration
Formal Theories of OrganizationImpact of Taylor
White’s Introduction to the Study of Public Administration
Principles of administration approach
The Human Relations SchoolHuman relations approach:
worker’s noneconomic needs and motivations
Hawthorne studies (1927-1932)Hawthorne/halo effectImportance of noneconomic incentives
The Human Relations SchoolBarnard’s zone of acceptanceLewin’s leadership styles
AuthoritarianLaissez-faireDemocratic
Emphasizes role of leadership in productivity
The Human Relations SchoolHuman relations shortcomings
Does not account for worker/manager conflict
Discounts effects of formal structureIgnores role of technologyWhat is worker’s relationship to work itself?
Organizational HumanismNew assumptions about workers:
Work intrinsically motivatesWork satisfies many needsWork is a central life interestWorkers can be self-motivating
Theory X and Theory Y Summary
Source: Reproduced by permission of the publisher, F. E. Peacock Publishers, Inc., Itasca, Ill. From Robert T. Golembiewski and Michael Cohen, eds., People in Public Service: A Reader in Public Personnel Administration, 1970 copyright, p. 380.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Source: Abraham Maslow, Motivation and Personality, 2nd ed., Harper & Row, 1970, accessed http://www.union. umd.edu/GH/basic needs/index.html.
Organizational HumanismOrganizational humanism criticisms:
Workers have widely varying needsDoes everyone self-actualize?Money primary motivation for manyType of work affects motivation/satisfaction
Modern Organization TheorySeparates facts from valuesUses new empirical research
methodsInterdisciplinaryBroader generalizations
Modern Organization TheorySystems theory approach
Inputs (and responses)OutputsFeedbackFurther inputs
Simplified Model of a Political System
Source: From David Easton, A Framework for Political Analysis. Copyright © 1979, 1965 by David Easton, reprinted with permission of the University of Chicago Press.
Modern Organization TheoryClosed systems
Few internal variables/relationshipsLittle vulnerability to external environments
Open systemsHighly complex, interdependentExpectation of change and uncertaintySeeks homeostasis
Modern Organization TheoryInformation theory: organizations
require information to prevent chaosGame theory: competitionTheory Z: greater communication,
feedback and worker involvement
Values/Characteristics of Theory Z
Source: Adapted from Clyde McKee, “An Analysis of ‘Theory Z’: How It Is Used in Japan’s Public Sector,” paper delivered at the 1983 annual meeting of the American Political Science Association, Chicago, September 1983. Reprinted by permission of Clyde McKee, Trinity College, Hartford, Conn.
Modern Organization TheoryTotal Quality Management
Empowered employees more committed to organizational goals
Statistical process control techniquesAppropriate for public sector?Learning organizations
Organizational Dynamics and Behavior
Process issuesCommunicationCoordination
Design issuesLine and staff activitiesCentralization vs. decentralizationTall vs. flat hierarchiesAlternative forms of organization
Organizational Dynamics and Behavior
Formal communications (official, directed, proper channels)
Informal communications (many sources, many audiences, broader)
Lateral or cross-functional communication (relatively formal, but cuts across hierarchy)
Organizational Dynamics and Behavior
Feedback can be formal or informalGood news travels easilyBad news often suppressed or rewrittenUpward communication becoming
increasingly important to organizations
Organizational Dynamics and Behavior
Dimensions of communicationPurposeObstaclesConsequences
Organizational Dynamics and Behavior
Bargaining or conflict modelConsensual or consensus-
building modelCommunication style influences
content, purpose, effectiveness and consequences of message
Organizational Dynamics and Behavior
CoordinationChannels and mechanisms must be
carefully established and maintainedDesigned to reduce difficultiesRarely neutralObstacles include differing goals,
preferences, uneven fiscal resources, political pressures, poor organization or leadership, communication breakdowns
Organizational Dynamics and Behavior
Improving coordinationRole of leadershipCentral coordinationMutual adjustmentMore difficult to achieve in complex
organizations
Organizational Dynamics and Behavior
Line functions vs. Staff functionsInteraction important in public
administrationSome conflicts inevitableTraditional distinctions becoming
blurred
Centralization and DecentralizationCentralization is traditional approach
Control, internal program consistencyOrderly operationsLack of flexibility and adaptability
Decentralization becoming more acceptableAdaptive and responsiveIncreases meaningful participationDecreases accountability
Flattening Organizational HierarchiesTall HierarchyDiversity of tasksNarrow span of
control (efficient)Higher level
employees seen as more professional
Growing complexity of tasks
Flat HierarchyTop management is
collegial; lower levels seen as equal
Work groups may not have designated leader
Decision-making shared
Tall and Flat Hierarchies
Alternative Forms of OrganizationEnd to hierarchy and competitionBennis’ participative managementReverse pyramid
Organization Theory and Behavior in Perspective
Organizations continually changingMost not fully closed or openIncreasing interdependenceShift from formal hierarchy to more worker
participation/team direction
New values = new challenges