Chapter Four: Nonexperimental Methods I: Descriptive Methods, Qualitative Research, and Correlational Studies Chapter Four: Nonexperimental Methods I:

Chapter Four: Nonexperimental Methods I:

Descriptive Methods,

Qualitative Research, and Correlational

Studies

Descriptive Methods Descriptive methods do not involve manipulation of an independent

variable. When we use descriptive methods, we can only speculate about

causation that may be involved.

Descriptive Methods Archival and Previously Recorded Sources of Data

Refers to use of data recorded by other individuals for other purposes

• public health and census data The General Social Survey is an archival source that can be

accessed online• http://www.icpsr.umich.edu/gss/home.htm

Descriptive Methods

Potential Problems With Archival and Previously Recorded Sources of Data

You will not know exactly who left the data you are investigating. The participants may have been selective in what they chose to write.

This problem is also known as selective deposit. Archival and previously recorded sources of data may not survive long

enough for you to make use of them.

Descriptive Methods Comparisons with the Experimental Method

We are not able to exercise any control with regard to gathering these data and cannot make any statements regarding cause-and-effect.

Descriptive Methods Observational Techniques

Case Studies Naturalistic Observation

Descriptive Methods

Case studies Involves intense observation and recording of behavior of a single

(perhaps two) participant(s) over an extended period of time. There are no guidelines for conducting a case study and the

procedures employed, behaviors observed, and reports produced may vary substantially.

Frequently used in clinical settings to help formulate ideas and hypotheses for further research.

Descriptive Methods

Naturalistic Observation Involves seeking answers to research questions by observing behavior

in the real world. The first goal of naturalistic observation is to describe behavior as it

occurs in the natural setting without the artificiality of the laboratory. The second goal of naturalistic observation is to describe the variables

that are present and the relations among them.

Psychological Detective Why should the researcher be concealed or unobtrusive in a study

using naturalistic observation? The reactance or reactivity effect

• Refers to biasing of the participants’ responses because they know they are being observed.

• The reactivity effect is also known as the Hawthorne effect because of the location of the original study.

Descriptive Methods

Participant Observation The researcher becomes part of the group being studied.

• Often used when the goal of the research project is to learn something about a specific culture or socioeconomic group.

Ethnography is a form of participant observation based on the anthropological tradition of research.

• “Observer as participant” refers to a researcher who primarily observes a situation but who interacts with the others (Glesne, 1999).

• “Participant as observer” refers to the researcher who becomes a part of the culture by working and interacting extensively with the others (Glesne, 1999).

Psychological Detective What are the drawbacks and weaknesses of the participant

observer technique? An extended period of time may be necessary before the participant

observer is accepted as a member of the group that is under study. Cannot make cause-and-effect statements.

Descriptive Methods

Clinical perspective Schein (1987) argued convincingly that the clinical perspective or

model is not a subcategory of participant observation because:

Descriptive Methods A client typically chooses the clinician, whereas the participant

observer chooses the others to be studied. Unlike participant observers, clinicians cannot be unobtrusive

because they have been asked to participate in the situation. Although the participant observer can remain passive, clinicians

must intervene in the situation. The participant observer’s goal is understanding, whereas the

clinician’s goal is helping. Participant observers validate their findings by replication while

clinicians validate their findings by being able to predict the results of a given intervention.

Descriptive Methods

Choosing Behaviors and Recording Techniques Time sampling Situation sampling

Descriptive Methods

Time sampling Involves making observations at different time periods in order to obtain

a more representative sampling of the behavior of interest.• Selection of time periods may be determined randomly or in a more

systematic manner. The use of time sampling may apply to the same or different

participants.

Descriptive Methods

Situation sampling Involves observing the same behavior in several

different situations. This techniques offers the researcher two advantages:

• By sampling behavior in several different situations, you are able to determine whether the behavior in question changes as a function of the context in which you observed it.

• You are likely to observe different participants in the different situations and because different individuals are observed, your ability to generalize any behavioral consistencies across the various situations is increased.

Descriptive Methods

Deciding how to present the results of your research project.

Qualitative presentation of results:• Report consists of a description of the behavior in question (a

narrative record) and the conclusions prompted by this description. Quantitative or numerical presentation of results:

• Need to know how behavior under investigation is going to be measured and how these measurements will be analyzed.

Descriptive Methods

Using More than One Observer There are two main reasons for using more than one observer:

• One observer may miss or overlook a bit of behavior.• There may be some disagreement concerning exactly what was

seen and how it should be rated or categorized.

Descriptive Methods

Using More than One Observer When two individuals observe the same behavior, it is possible

to see how well their observations agree. The extent to which the observers agree is called interobserver

reliability.• Low interobserver reliability indicates that the observers disagree

about the behavior(s) they observed.• High interobserver reliability indicates agreement.

Descriptive Methods Here is the formula for calculating interobserver reliability:

# of times observers agree

______________________ X 100 = percent of agreement

# of opportunities to agree

85% agreement is generally considered to be an acceptable minimum level for interobserver reliability.

Qualitative Research “is defined as an inquiry process of understanding a social or

human problem, based on building a complex, holistic picture, formed with words, reporting detailed views of informants, and conducted in a natural setting” (Creswell, 1994, p. 2).

The qualitative researcher believes that a full description of human behavior includes people’s feelings in addition to what they are doing and how they are doing it.

The qualitative research style is much less formal and impersonal, and the reader of a qualitative research report can expect to find such additions as “definitions that evolved during a study” (Creswell, 1994, p. 7).

Qualitative Research The qualitative researcher is committed to studying particular people

in specific settings. Qualitative researchers prefer to use inductive logic. Qualitative research begins with guiding hypotheses reflecting a

global issue of interest (Marshall & Rossman, 1989). Qualitative researchers typically analyze their data “simultaneously

with data collection, data interpretation, and narrative reporting writing” (Creswell, 1994, p. 153).

Grounded theory is one of the most popular forms of contemporary qualitative research.

Qualitative Research

Grounded Theory (Strauss & Corbin, 1990) The ultimate goal of this approach is to derive theories that are

grounded in (based on) reality. Grounded theory is not advocated for all types of research

questions. Knowing the literature too well can hamper the creativity

necessary to doing grounded theory research. The heart of the grounded theory approach occurs in its use of

coding, which is analogous to data analysis in quantitative approaches.

Qualitative Research

Types of coding in grounded theory research (Strauss & Corbin, 1990):

Open coding:• The researcher labels and categorizes the phenomena being

studied. Axial coding:

• Involves finding links between categories and subcategories from open coding.

Selective coding:• Entails identifying a core category and relating the subsidiary

categories to this core.

Qualitative Research Participatory Action Research (Fine et al, 2003)


Goal of a PAR project is usually to evaluate and understand the impact of some social program on the community.

Qualitative Research Participatory Action Research (Fine et al,2003)


• Typically involves the participants as equal researchers in the study.



• Typically involves the participants as equal researchers in the study.• PAR approach can use one or more specific methods to gather

information. These may be both quantitative and qualitative.

Correlational Studies A correlational study involves the measurement and determination

of the relation between two variables.


of the relation between two variables. Used when data on two variables are available, but variables only

able to be measured, not manipulated.


of the relation between two variables. Used when data on two variables are available, but variables only

able to be measured, not manipulated. Cannot determine cause-and-effect.

Correlational Studies The Nature of Correlations


Three basic patterns may emerge:• Positive correlation



As one variable increases, scores on the other variable also increase.

• A perfect positive correlation has a correlation coefficient of 1.




• Negative correlation




• Negative correlation Indicates that an increase in one variable is accompanied by a

decrease in the second variable.• A perfect negative correlation has a correlation coefficient

of –1.





decrease in the second variable.• Zero correlation





decrease in the second variable.• Zero correlation

Indicates a lack of relation between the two variables.• The correlation coefficient for a “zero correlation” is zero

(or close to zero).

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Chapter Four: Nonexperimental Methods I: Descriptive Methods, Qualitative Research, and Correlational Studies Chapter Four: Nonexperimental Methods I: