Chapter Five Learning. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5-2 Did You Know That… Déjà-vu may be a learned response? In an early

Chapter Five

Learning

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5-2

Did You Know That…

• Déjà-vu may be a learned response?

• In an early study, a young boy learned to fear a white rat after experimenters repeatedly made loud noises by banging steel bars behind his head while the rat was present?


Did You Know That… (Cont’d)

• Phobias may be acquired through the same learning principles that Pavlov discovered, based on his studies of digestion in dogs?

• Salivating to the sound of a tone may not be harmful, but salivating at the sight of a Scotch bottle may well be dangerous to people battling alcoholism?


• Scheduling tests on specific days may inadvertently reinforce students to cram just before exams and to slack off afterwards?

• Many people develop fears of various creatures even though they have had no direct negative experiences with them?

Did You Know That… (Cont’d)


What is Learning?

• A relatively permanent change in behavior that results from experience

• Learning is adaptive

• Three major types of learning:• Classical conditioning• Operant conditioning• Cognitive learning

Module 5.1

Classical Conditioning: Learning Through Association


Module 5.1 Preview Questions

• What is learning?

• What is classical conditioning?

• What roles do extinction, spontaneous recovery, stimulus generalization, and discrimination play in classical conditioning?

• What stimulus characteristics strengthen conditioned responses?


Module 5.1 Preview Questions (Cont’d)

• What is the cognitive perspective on classical conditioning?

• What are some examples of classical conditioning in daily life?


Classical Conditioning

• Discovered by a Russian physiologist, Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)

• Learning by association


Figure 5.1: Apparatus Similar to One Used in Pavlov’s Experiments


Figure 5.2: Diagramming Classical Conditioning


Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery

• Extinction: The gradual weakening and eventual disappearance of a CR

• Spontaneous Recovery: The spontaneous return of a CR following extinction

• Reconditioning: The process of relearning a CR after extinction


Generalization and Discrimination

• Stimulus Generalization: Tendency of stimuli similar to the CS to elicit the CR• One explanation for feelings of déjà-vu

• Stimulus Discrimination: The ability to differentiate among related stimuli


Figure 5.3: Stimulus Generalization and Discrimination


Stimulus Characteristics that Strengthen Conditioned Responses

• Frequency of pairings

• Timing

• Intensity of US


Cognitive Perspective

• Robert Rescorla: Conditioning depends on the informational value of the CS• CS must reliably predict the occurrence of the

US.• Cognitive perspective on classical

conditioning

• Has important survival implications


Examples of Classical Conditioning

• Conditioned emotional reactions (CER)• Watson and Rayner’s Little Albert experiment

• Phobias

• Positive emotions

• Drug cravings

• Conditioned taste aversions

• Immune system changes

Continue


Figure 5.4: The Conditioning of “Little Albert”

Return

Module 5.2

Operant Conditioning: Learning Through Consequences



• What is Thorndike’s Law of Effect?

• What is operant conditioning?

• What are the different types of reinforcers?

• What are schedules of reinforcement, and how do they differ?


Module 5.2 Preview Questions (Cont’d)

• How are schedules of reinforcement related to learning?

• Why are psychologists concerned about the use of punishment?

• What are some applications of operant conditioning?


Classical vs. Operant Conditioning

• Classical Conditioning: Learning results from the association between stimuli before a response occurs

• Operant Conditioning: Learning results from the association of a response with its consequences


Figure 5.5: Thorndike’s Puzzle Box


Thorndike’s Law of Effect

• The tendency of a response to occur depends on the effects it has on the environment.

• Responses that have satisfying effects are strengthened and more likely to occur again.• Reinforcement

• Responses that lead to discomfort are weakened and less likely to occur again.• Punishment


B. F. Skinner and Operant Conditioning

• Skinner believed in radical behaviorism.• Behavior is completely determined by

environment and genetics.• Free will is an illusion or a myth.

• Organisms learn responses that operate on the environment to produce consequences.• “Operant conditioning” or “instrumental

learning”


Operant Conditioning

• Consequences of a response determines the likelihood that the response will occur again.• The response is called an operant response.

• A reinforcer is the stimulus or event that increases the likelihood that the behavior it follows will be repeated.• The longer the reinforcement is delayed, the weaker

its effects will be.

• Operant conditioning can be used to explain some forms of superstitious behavior.


Principles of Operant Conditioning

• Discriminative Stimulus: A cue that signals reinforcement is available if a particular response is made

• Types of Reinforcement:• Positive: Reinforce by adding something

pleasant• Negative: Reinforce by removing something

unpleasant


Figure 5.6: Types of Reinforcers


Primary vs. Secondary Reinforcers

• Primary Reinforcers: Reinforcers that are intrinsically rewarding because they satisfy basic biological needs or drives

• Secondary Reinforcers: Reinforcers that develop their reinforcing properties because of their association with primary reinforcers


Shaping

• Application of the method of successive approximations

• Reinforce responses that are closer and closer to correct response


Extinction

• Process by which responses are weakened and eventually eliminated

• Occurs when the response is repeatedly performed but is no longer reinforced


Schedules of Reinforcement

• When is reinforcement delivered?

• Continuous Reinforcement: Every response is reinforced.

• Partial Reinforcement: Only a portion of the responses is reinforced.• Ratio schedules: fixed or variable• Interval schedules: fixed or variable


Figure 5.7: Rates of Response Under Different Schedules of Partial Reinforcement

Source: Adapted from Skinner, B. F. (1961). Cumulative Record (3rd ed.) Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.


Escape and Avoidance Learning

• Escape Learning: Escape an aversive stimulus by performing an operant response

• Avoidance Learning: Avoid an aversive stimulus by performing an operant response


Punishment

• Consequence that weakens or suppresses a response• Removal of a reinforcing stimulus• Introduction of an aversive stimulus


Figure 5.8: Types of Punishment


Punishment vs. Negative Reinforcement

• Punishment • Introduces an aversive stimulus• Weakens a behavior

• Negative reinforcement• Removes an aversive stimulus• Strengthens a behavior


Drawbacks of Punishment

• May suppress undesirable behavior, but does not eliminate it

• Does not teach new behaviors

• Can have undesirable consequences

• May become abusive

• May represent a form of inappropriate modeling


Table 5.1: Comparing Reinforcement and Punishment


Applications of Operant Conditioning

• Biofeedback training

• Behavior modification• Token economy program

• Programmed instruction• Computer-assisted instruction

Module 5.3

Cognitive Learning



• What is cognitive learning?

• What is insight learning?

• What is latent learning?

• What is observational learning?


Cognitive Learning

• Involves mental processes that cannot be directly observed

• Premise is that we are capable of new behaviors without actually having had the chance to perform them or being reinforced for them


Insight Learning

• Wolfgang Köhler’s (1927) experiment with Sultan the chimp

• Insight Learning: Process of mentally working through a problem until the sudden realization of a solution occurs• The “Aha!” phenomenon

• Requires restructuring or reorganizing the problem on one’s mind to form a solution


Figure 5.9: Tolman and Honzik’s Study of Latent Learning


Latent Learning

• “Hidden” learning occurs without reinforcement.• Learned behavior displayed only when

reinforced

• Tolman: The rats had developed a cognitive map of the maze.• Mental representation of maze


Observational Learning

• Acquire new behaviors by imitating behaviors observed in others• Also called vicarious learning or modeling

• Allows us to become capable of behaviors even before have chance to do the behaviors ourselves


Observational Learning (Cont’d)

• Albert Bandura: Children learn to imitate aggressive behavior.• “Bobo doll” studies

• Influence of modeling generally stronger when:• Model is similar to the learner• Positive reinforcement for performing the

behavior is evident

Application: Module 5.4

Putting Reinforcement into Practice


Module 5.4 Preview Question

• What steps are involved in applying reinforcement principles?


Modifying Behavior

• Important to establish a clear contingency between the desired behavior and the reinforcement

• Contingency contracting involves an exchange of desirable reinforcers.


Applying Reinforcement

• Be specific.

• Use specific language.

• Select a reinforcer.

• Explain the contingency.

• Apply the reinforcer.

• Track frequency of the desired behavior.

• Wean the child from the reinforcer.


Giving Praise

• Make eye contact with the child and smile while giving praise.

• Use hugs.• Be specific.• Avoid empty flattery.• Reward the effort, not the outcome.• Avoid repeating yourself.• Don’t end on a sour note.

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Chapter Five Learning. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5-2 Did You Know That… Déjà-vu may be a learned response? In an early