CHAPTER EIGHT: MEMORYglencoe.mheducation.com/sites/dl/premium/0021440646/... · Web viewLO 8.3: Describe intelligence and its measurement and discuss influences on and types of intelligence

Chapter 8

CHAPTER EIGHT: THINKING, INTELLIGENCE, AND LANGUAGE

Learning Objectives

LO 8.1: Describe cognitive psychology and discuss the role of the computer in the development of the field.

LO 8.2: Explain the processes involved in thinking and describe capacities related to superior thinking.

LO 8.3: Describe intelligence and its measurement and discuss influences on and types of intelligence.

LO 8.4: Identify the possible connections between language and thought and summarize how language is acquired and develops.

LO 8.5: Discuss the importance of cognitive appraisal with respect to stress and describe various styles of coping.

I. Chapter OverviewII. Chapter FeaturesIII. ConnectionsIV. Teaching the Chapter

a. Lecture Outlines by Sectionb. Suggested Activities

V. Critical Thinking QuestionsVI. Polling QuestionsVII. Apply Your KnowledgeVIII. Suggested Readings and MediaIX. Activity HandoutsX. Answer Key to Activity Handouts

I. Chapter OverviewExperiencing Psychology: The Value of a Really Good Idea

The chapter begins with a discussion about good ideas and how inventions happen because someone noticed a problem and came up with a solution.

Good ideas can be costly. An innovative website Kickstarter.com is a site where people can apply to receive start-up funds to put their good ideas into action. Some investors giving up their money to fund potential inventions are everyday people, not the investor type you might think of. They simply value the creative force behind new inventions or the human capacity to solve problems.

Inventions are material expressions of critical thinking.

King, The Science of Psychology, 3e IM-8 | 1

Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

http://www.Kickstarter.com/

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I. The Cognitive Revolution in Psychology

A. Cognition refers to the way in which information is processed and manipulated in remembering, thinking, and knowing.

B. In the 1950s the age of behaviorism started to change. The invention of computers provided a new way to think about the human mind.

C. Researchers speculated that some mental processes might be modeled by computers, which could provide information about how the human mind works.

D. Computers provide a logical and concrete model of how information is processed in the mind.

E. There are differences, however. The information entered into a computer is done so by humans, who have coded the information and removed much of its ambiguity. In the human mind, each brain cell, or neuron, can respond to information, often ambiguous, transmitted through sensory receptors such as the eyes and ears.

F. Computers can do many things faster and better than the human mind. However, the human mind can learn new rules, relationships, concepts, and patterns that it can generalize to new situations. Computers are limited in their ability to perform these functions.

G. Artificial intelligence (AI) refers to the science of creating machines that are capable of performing activities that require intelligence when they are performed by people.

H. AI systems assist in diagnosing medical illnesses, advising students which courses to take, and evaluating loan applications. Computer scientists continue to develop computers that more closely approximate human thinking.

I. The field of cognitive psychology is broad and spans across other areas of psychology, such as consciousness, memory, and cognitive neuroscience.

II. Thinking

Thinking involves mentally manipulating information. Some such tasks are forming concepts, solving problems, making decisions, and reflecting in a critical or creative manner.

A. Concepts

1. Concepts are mental categories that are used to group objects, events, and characteristics.

2. There are four reasons that concepts are important. First, concepts allow us to generalize. Second, concepts allow us to associate experiences and objects. Third, concepts aid in memory. Fourth, they provide clues about how to react to a particular object or experience.

3. The prototype model is described as the way a person looks for a family resemblance when they are evaluating whether something belongs to a particular concept. The prototype is based on the average characteristic of a concept.

B. Problem Solving

Problem solving is an attempt to find the appropriate way of achieving a goal when the goal is not readily available.



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1. Following the Steps in Problem Solving

a. Find and Frame Problemsi. First, you must recognize a problem. You should ask questions in creative

ways and see what others may not see. b. Develop Good Problem-Solving Strategies

i. Subgoaling involves setting intermediate goals or defining intermediate problems that put you in a better position for reaching the final goal or solution.

ii. Algorithms are strategies that guarantee a solution to a problem. A recipe for cooking a dinner dish is an example of an algorithm. Using algorithms leads to getting a single answer to a problem.

iii. Heuristics are shortcut strategies that suggest a solution to a problem but do not guarantee an answer. Heuristics are fast ways to solve problems, but often lead to different answers to a given problem, which are not always the clearest correct answers.

c. Evaluate Solutionsi. A person will not know if their solution is the correct one until they try it and

see if it works. ii. A person should have a clear criterion or a standard against which to judge the

effectiveness of a solution.d. Rethink and Redefine Problems and Solutions Over Time

i. People should continually rethink and redefine problems. They should always be trying to improve on the last problem to come up with an even better way of finding a solution.

3. An Obstacle to Problem Solving: Becoming Fixated

a. Fixation means using a prior strategy and failing to look at the problem from a fresh, new perspective.

b. Functional fixedness occurs when an individual fails to solve a problem because they are fixated on the usual functions.

c. Solving a problem may involve trying something new that has never been tried before.

d. Successful problem solving means being cognitively flexible to consider options and alternatives when working through a situation or problem.

C. Reasoning and Decision Making

1. Reasoning

a. Reasoning is the mental activity of transforming information to reach conclusions. Reasoning involves using reason—weighing arguments, applying rules of logic, and coming up with sound conclusions. It is closely tied to critical thinking!

b. Inductive reasoning involves reasoning from the specific to the general or from the bottom up. It can be drawing conclusions about something very broad based on only a few of the characteristics. You can consider inductive reasoning as “bottom-up processing” which starts with incoming information and then drawing conclusions.



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c. Inductive reasoning is always involved when making generalizations. d. Deductive reasoning is reasoning from the general to the specific.

2. Decision Making

Decision making involves evaluating all the alternatives and then making a choice. Clear rules are not always well defined as in reasoning, and we might not know the consequences of the decisions we are making.

Decision making involves more uncertainty than reasoning.

a. Two Systems of Reasoning and Decision Makingi. Sometimes people make decisions without even thinking about it or

knowing it. These are automatic (System 1) decisions and are seen as intuitive or “following one’s hunches or gut feelings.” This system relies on heuristics and appears to function at a much quicker speed but can lead to mistakes.

ii. Comparably, the controlled system (System 2) is slower, effortful, and analytical.

iii. It involves conscious reflection of issues and is often used in solving problems perceived as difficult.

b. Biases and Heuristicsi. Confirmation bias (also known as myside bias) refers to the tendency to

search for and use information that supports our ideas rather than refutes them. Confirmation bias is even stronger when a person seeks out others who share their beliefs.

ii. Hindsight bias (also known as I Knew It All Along effect) is the tendency for a person to report falsely that they predicted an outcome.

iii. The availability heuristic refers to a prediction about the probability of an event that is based on the ease of recalling or imagining similar events. We think that events that are more cognitively available are more likely to happen.

iv. The representativeness heuristic refers to the tendency to make judgments about group membership based on physical appearances or a match between a person and one’s stereotype of a group. This heuristic is damaging in the context of social judgments.

v. Intelligence, interest in thinking complex problems through carefully, and maintaining an open mind are associated with less susceptibility to the biases promoted by heuristics. Even very smart, deep thinkers may not avoid one type of cognitive bias, bias blind spot.

D. Thinking Critically and Creatively

1. Critical Thinking

a. People who are critical thinkers grasp the deeper meaning of things. They keep an open mind about different approaches and perspectives and they also decide for themselves what to believe and what not to believe.

b. Critical thinkers should see past the obvious and question long-held assumptions.



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c. Mindfulness means being alert and mentally present for everyday activities. It is key to critical thinking. A person who is mindful continues to create new ideas, is open to new information, and is aware of more than one perspective.

d. Open-mindedness means being receptive to the possibility of other ways of looking at things. Manytimes people are not aware that there is another side to an issue or evidence which goes against what they believe.

e. Actively open-minded thinking refers to a type of thinking that is flexible, open to questioning, not dogmatic or categorical, and leads to less susceptibility of biased thinking.

2. Creative Thinkinga. When someone is considered creative they have the ability to think about

something in novel and unusual ways and to come up with unconventional solutions to problems.

b. Divergent thinking produces many answers to the same question.c. Convergent thinking means there is only one answer to a question.d. Creative thinkers have the following characteristics: flexibility, playful thinking,

inner motivation, willingness to face risk, and objective evaluation of work.e. Some researchers debate on whether there is a link between creativity and

psychological disorders. Consider historical examples of creative geniuses who suffered from mental health–related issues.

III.Intelligence

Intelligence refers to an all-purpose ability to do well on cognitive tasks, to solve problems, and to learn from experience. Intelligence is how well a person can perform these cognitive tasks, not whether they can simply do them.

Different cultures perceive intelligence differently. The idea that intelligence captures a common general ability is known as Spearman’s g

and assumes that the intelligent person is a “jack of all cognitive trades.”

A. Measuring Intelligence

In psychology, a person’s intelligence is generally measured by an IQ test. The validity of a test is the extent to which a test measures what it intends to measure.

An important measure of validity is the degree to which it predicts an individual’s performance when assessed by other measures.

The reliability of a test is the extent to which the test yields a consistent measure that can be reproduced.

If a test is valid, then it must also be reliable, but not vice versa. Standardization refers to developing uniform procedures for administering and

scoring a test. The testing environment should be as similar as possible for all individuals.

1. IQ Testsa. Alfred Binet developed the first intelligence test. He developed this test to

determine which students would not benefit from regular classroom instruction.



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b. Binet developed what is known as a person’s mental age (MA), meaning their level of mental development relative to that of others.

c. A person’s chronological age (CA) is the actual age of the individual.d. Intelligence quotient (IQ) was developed by William Stern. It is determined by a

person’s mental age divided by their chronological age and then multiplied by 100. If a person’s mental age is the same as their chronological age, then their IQ is 100, which is average.

e. IQ = (MA/CA) x 100f. The regularly used intelligence test is now called the Stanford-Binet intelligence

test. It is administered to individuals from age 2 through adulthood. g. A normal distribution is a normal, bell-shaped curve with the majority of the

scores falling in the middle of the distribution. 2. Cultural Bias in Testing

a. Many of the early intelligence tests were culturally biased because they favored individuals from urban environments rather than rural environments. They were also biased toward people of middle socioeconomic status rather than low socioeconomic status, and toward White Americans rather than African Americans.

b. Culture-fair tests are intelligence tests that are intended to be culturally unbiased. It is difficult to develop a culturally unbiased test because intelligence is viewed differently by different cultures. The Raven Progressive Matrices Test is one example of a culture-fair test.

B. Genetic and Environmental Influences on Intelligence1. No one argues that intelligence is genetically influenced, but understanding how and

how much is challenging. Psychologists have come to recognize that we may not know as much as we thought we did about the influence of genes on intelligence as a result of our growing understanding of genes themselves.

2. Heritability refers to the proportion of the differences in IQs in a population that is attributed to genetic differences. The highest degree of heritability is 1.00, and any score above .70 suggests a strong genetic influence. Heritability of intelligence increases from childhood to adulthood.

3. Recent conclusions on heritability estimates have been called into question, suggesting that after conception, or genes changes, the human genome possesses some degree of plasticity.

4. Genetics definitely plays a part in intelligence, but researchers have also found that the environment can change IQ scores considerably. This has been especially true in cases of adoption where children who were adopted into a new and better environment increased their IQ scores by an average of 12 to 18 points.

5. The Flynn effect demonstrates how education has a positive effect on intelligence tests. People tested at the turn of the century, who were regarded as having average intelligence, would now be regarded as having below-average intelligence.

6. The word intelligent does not only apply to people; it can also be applied to behaviors. Mastering skills, actively thinking about life, and thoughtfully making life decisions are intelligent behaviors.

C. Extremes of Intelligence



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1. Giftednessa. People who are considered gifted have an IQ score of 130 or higher and/or have a

superior talent for something.b. Terman ran extensive studies on children who were classified as gifted and found

that the children were not only academically gifted but were also socially well adjusted.

c. The Flynn Effect also applies to even those with very high IQs. Studies show that individuals at the highest level of intelligence are scoring evening higher than expected.

d. Giftedness is a product of both heredity and environment.

2. Intellectual Disability

a. Intellectual disability, previously termed mental retardation, is a condition of limited mental ability in which a person has an IQ score below 70 and has difficulty adapting to everyday life. He or she first exhibited these characteristics during the so-called developmental period—before age 18. The inclusion of the developmental period in the definition is crucial.

b. Organic retardation is caused by a genetic disorder or brain damage. Down syndrome is a form of organic retardation.

c. Cultural-familial retardation is a mental deficit in which no evidence of organic brain damage can be found. Psychologists believe these individuals’ type of retardation is the result of growing up in a below-average intellectual environment.

d. There are different classifications of mental retardation ranging from mild, to moderate, to severe or profound. The majority of people with mental retardation fall in the mild range.

e. The American Association of Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities developed an assessment that examines a person’s level of adaptive behavior in three domains (conceptual, social, and practical skills) as a more functional assessment of intellectual disability.

D. Theories of Multiple Intelligences

1. Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory

a. Robert J. Sternberg developed the triarchic theory of intelligence, which is composed of analytical intelligence, creative intelligence, and practical intelligence.

2. Gardner’s Nine Frames of Mind

a. Howard Gardner suggests that there are nine different types of intelligence that everyone has to varying degrees. They are: i. verbal

ii. mathematical iii. spatialiv. bodily-kinesthetic v. musical

vi. interpersonal



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vii. intrapersonalviii. naturalistic

ix. existentialist

3. Evaluating the Approaches of Multiple Intelligences

a. Sternberg’s and Gardner’s approaches have stimulated teachers to think more broadly about what makes up children’s competencies and how to develop programs of education that instruct students in multiple domains.

b. Critics of the theory of multiple intelligences argue that a research base for both Sternberg’s and Gardner’s multiple intelligences does not exist. These critics believe that if an individual excels in one area they will most likely excel in other areas as well.

IV. Language

Language is a form of communication that is based on a system of symbols. It can be spoken, signed, or written.

A. The Structure of Language

1. Infinite generativity is the ability to produce an endless number of meaningful sentences.

a. Phonology is a language’s sound system. Language is made up of phonemes. b. Morphology is a language’s rules for word formation. Every word in the English

language is made up of morphemes, which are the smallest units of a language that mean something.

c. Syntax is a language’s rules for combining words into acceptable phrases and sentences.

d. Semantics is the meaning of the words and sentences in a language. e. Pragmatics is the useful character of language and the ability of language to

communicate even more meaning than is said.

B. Language and Cognition

Language is the vehicle with which we communicate most of our thoughts.

1. The Role of Language in Cognition

a. Language helps people think, make inferences, handle difficult decisions, and solve problems.

b. Some researchers believe that language determines the way a person thinks, the linguistic relativity hypothesis.

c. Research does not support Whorf’s view with regard to gender difference in vocabulary, but it continues to be an area of investigation as to the influence language has on how we think and even on our personalities.

2. The Role of Cognition in Language

a. Although thought influences language, and language influences thought, there is increasing evidence that language and thought are not part of a single system.



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b. One feature of human language that separates it from animal communication is the capacity to talk about objects that are not currently present.

C. Biological and Environmental Influences on Language

1. Biological Influences

a. The brain, nervous system, and vocal apparatus of our ancestors changed over hundreds of thousands of years.

b. This sophisticated language ability gave humans a great advantage over other animals and increased their chances of survival.

2. Language Universals

a. According to Noam Chomsky, humans are prewired to learn language at a certain time in life and in a certain way. Children all over the world reach language milestones at around the same time in life and in about the same order.

3. Language and the Brain

a. Research has shown that the brain has regions that are predisposed to be used for language. Language processing, such as speech and grammar, mainly occurs in the left hemisphere.

4. Environmental Influences

a. According to behaviorists, language is a complex learned skill. b. The behavioral view of language learning has several problems. First, it does not

explain how people create novel sentences. Second, children learn the syntax of their native language even if they are not reinforced for doing so.

c. The behavioral view is no longer considered a viable explanation of how children acquire language.

d. The research findings complicate the influences of environment and learning on language development and indicate that children are biologically prepared to learn language and benefit significantly from being immersed in a competent language environment from very early on.

D. Language Development Over the Life Span

1. Most individuals develop a clear understanding of their language’s structure and a large vocabulary during childhood.

2. Before babies begin speaking, they start to babble. This begins around 4 to 6 months of age. Infants begin to detect word boundaries (when one word stops and another begins) by 8 months of age.

3. Around 10 to 13 months of age, children speak their first words. 4. By the time a child reaches 18 to 24 months of age, they are speaking in two-word

statements and illustrate a clear grasp of the language’s pragmatics.5. Childhood is an important time for learning language and for learning second

languages. Sensitive periods for learning language are found early in childhood and allow children to develop the language to native fluency if practiced continually.

6. For adults, learning a new language requires an understanding of importance of certain sounds and overriding unimportant sounds that have been previously learned in the first language.



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V. Thinking, Problem Solving, and Health and Wellness

A. Cognitive Appraisal and Stress

1. Cognitive appraisal is an individual’s interpretation of events in their lives as harmful, threatening, or challenging and their determination of whether they have the resources to cope effectively with the events.

2. Coping is a kind of problem solving.3. In the case of primary appraisal, individuals interpret whether an event involves

harm or loss that has already occurred, a threat of some future danger, or a challenge to overcome.

4. The initial appraisal of an event as threatening or challenging can have profound impacts on health and wellness.

5. In the case of secondary appraisal, individuals evaluate their resources and determine how effectively they can be used to cope with the event. It is considered secondary because it both comes after primary appraisal and depends on the degree to which an event is appraised as harmful, threatening, or challenging.

B. Cognitive Reappraisal

1. To reinterpret an experience or to think about it in a different way means that we are cognitively reappraising the situation.

2. Research has shown that reappraising an event can change the way we feel about the situation and can also change the brain activity linked to the experience.

3. Benefit finding means looking at a stressful event and focusing on the good that has arisen in one’s life as a result of that event.

II. Chapter Features

Psychological Inquiry: Thinking Outside the Box Intersection: Cognitive Psychology and Personality: Do Sophisticated Thinkers Avoid

the Bias Blind Spot? Critical Controversy: Is there a Link Between Creative Genius and Psychopathology? Psychological Inquiry: The Normal Curve

III. ConnectionsAssignable Through Connect

Assignable Within the Chapter

Instructor Resources

The Cognitive Revolution in Psychology

LO 8.1: Describe

Reading Quiz

LearnSmart ModuleCritical Thinking Question: #4

Polling Question: 8.1

Activity Suggestions: Artificial Intelligence Analyze a Website Winning Games:

The Perfect Tic-Tac-Toe Player



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cognitive psychology and discuss the role of the computer in the development of the field.

PowerPoints

Apply Your Knowledge: #1

Thinking

LO 8.2: Explain the processes involved in thinking and describe capacities related to superior thinking.

Reading Quiz

Heuristics (Interactive Learning Activity)

NewsFlash: Mega Millions Lottery

Problem Solving (Learning Exercise)

Biases and Heuristics (Learning Exercise)

Critical Thinking and Metacognition (Concept Clip)

NewsFlash: Self-Affirmation Can Improve Problem Solving

NewsFlash: Body Movement Helps Problem Sovling

LearnSmart Module

Psychological Inquiry: Thinking Outside the Box

Intersection: Cognitive Psychology and Personality: Do Sophisticated Thinkers Avoid the Bias Blind Spot?

Critical Controversy: Is There a Link Between Creative Genius and Psychopathology?

Critical Thinking Question: #1


Handouts: 8.1, 8.2

Activity Suggestions: Problem-Solving Decision Making Creative Thinking

PowerPoints

Apply Your Knowledge: #1

Intelligence

LO 8.3: Describe intelligence and its measurement and discuss influences on and types of intelligence.

Reading Quiz

Genes and Intelligence (Video)

Savant Syndrome (Video)

NewsFlash: Genes and Intelligence

Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences (Interactive

Psychological Inquiry: The Normal Curve

Critical Thinking Questions: #1, #3


Handout: 8.3

Activity Suggestions: Cultural Bias in IQ

Testing Nature vs. Nurture Theories of

Intelligence Design Your Own

Theory of Intelligence

Emotionally Intelligent!

PowerPoints



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Learning Activity)

NewsFlash: Mind Over Mass Media

NewsFlash: Using Social Networking to Tap Intelligence

LearnSmart Module

Apply Your Knowledge: #2, #3

Language

LO 8.4: Identify the possible connections between language and thought and summarize how language is acquired and develops.

Reading Quiz

Milestones: Language Acquisition, Esme, 16–20 mos.

Baby Sign Language (Video)

Word Decoder (Interactive Learning Activity)

Language Acquisition (Learning Exercise)

NewsFlash: Gabi Gifford’s Outpatient Therapy

NewsFlash: Bilingualism

LearnSmart Module

Critical Thinking Questions: #1, #2

Handout: 8.4

Activity Suggestions: Structure of

Language Biological and

Environmental Influences on Language

Learning a Second Language

PowerPoints

Thinking, Problem Solving and Health and Wellness

LO 8.5: Discuss the importance of cognitive appraisal with respect to stress and describe various styles of coping.

Reading Quiz

LearnSmart Module

Activity Suggestion: Types of Coping

PowerPoints



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IV.Teaching the Chapter

LO 8.1: Describe cognitive psychology and discuss the role of the computer in the development of the field.Lecture Outline

Experiencing Psychology: The Value of a Really Good Idea

Inventions began as someone’s idea of a solution to a problem. Many resources are used to help support individuals trying to make their good ideas

into the newest invention. Money is an important consideration and some have invested purely for the sake of promoting human creativity and problem-solving strategy.

I. The Cognitive Revolution in Psychology

The study of cognition began less than a half-century ago.

A. The invention of the computer started the study of human cognition. Some researchers believed that some mental operations could be modeled by computers.

B. Artificial intelligence is the science of creating machines that are capable of performing activities that require intelligence when they are performed by people.

C. Cognition is a boad field encompassing other areas of psychology.

Suggested Activities

Artificial Intelligence: Show the film Artificial Intelligence in class. After watching the movie, discuss the concept of artificial intelligence. Break the class into groups and have them discuss whether computers could really replace all human intelligence.

Analyze a Website: Have students go to http://www.a-i.com/ and in groups analyze the information found on that site. Students should write a one- to two-page summary of the information found on the website and compare it to the information presented in the text.

Winning Games: The Perfect Tic-Tac-Toe Player: The groups work in teams to create sets of instructions (a “program”) to play the game of noughts and crosses/tac-tac-toe. This is followed by a tournament between the different teams’ programs to see which plays best. This activity introduces programming and explores how a computer is able to win at board games like chess. The emphasis is on programming being about solving the problem rather than about being able to write in a programming language. Go to: http://csunplugged.org/intelligent-paper and download the pdf document of the activity.

LO 8.2: Explain the processes involved in thinking and describe capacities related to superior thinking.Lecture Outline

II. Thinking (stet)



http://csunplugged.org/intelligent-paper

http://www.a-i.com/

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A. Concepts

1. Concepts2. Prototype Model

B. Problem Solving

1. Following the Steps in Problem Solving

a. Find and Frame the Problemb. Develop Good Problem-Solving Strategies

i. Subgoalingii. Algorithms

iii. Heuristicsc. Evaluate Solutionsd. Rethink and Redefine Problems and Solutions Over Time

2. An Obstacle to Problem-Solving: Becoming Fixated

a. Cognitively Flexible

C. Reasoning and Decision Making

1. Reasoning

a. Inductive Reasoningb. Deductive Reasoning

2. Decision Making

a. Two Systems of Reasoning and Decision Makingb. Biases and Heuristics

i. Confirmation Biasii. Hindsight Bias

iii. Availability Heuristiciv. Representativeness Heuristicv. Bias Blind Spot

D. Thinking Critically and Creatively

1. Critical Thinking

a. Mindfulnessb. Open-mindednessc. Actively open minded

2. Creative Thinking

a. Divergent Thinkingb. Convergent Thinkingc. Link between creativity and psychological disorders


Problem Solving: Use Activity Handout 8.1: Solve This Problem as a way for students to understand and experience the steps involved in problem solving. Students will choose from a list of problems and then use the steps discussed in the chapter to find a solution to the problem.



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Decision Making: Discuss decision making, especially the areas of decision making without awareness, confirmation bias, and hindsight bias. Have the students come up with an example from their own lives where these three concepts have played a part. Have them write down and explain the example. Next, break the class into groups and have them discuss and share their examples with the other students in the group. The students will get a better understanding of decision making when they come up with their own examples, and they will gain knowledge from the other students in their group by hearing their examples.

Creative Thinking: Use Activity Handout 8.2: Making Your Own Invention This activity has students create an invention and then explain how the invention might have come about. Finally, students should evaluate their own invention or their classmate’s invention for creativity. What “standards” will they use and why?

LO 8.3: Describe intelligence and its measurement and discuss influences on and types of intelligence.Lecture Outline

III. Intelligence

A. Measuring Intelligence

1. Validity2. Reliability3. Standardization4. IQ Tests

a. Mental Ageb. Chronological Agec. IQd. Normal Distribution

5. Cultural Bias in Testing

a. Culture-Fair Tests

B. Genetic and Environmental Influences on Intelligence

1. Heritability2. Flynn Effect

C. Extremes of Intelligence

1. Giftedness2. Intellectual Disability3. Cultural-Familial Intellectual Disability

D. Theories of Multiple Intelligences

1. Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory

a. Analytical Intelligenceb. Creative Intelligencec. Practical Intelligence



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2. Gardner’s Nine Frames of Mind

a. Verbalb. Mathematicalc. Spatiald. Bodily-Kinesthetice. Musicalf. Interpersonalg. Intrapersonalh. Naturalistici. Existentialist

3. Evaluating the Approaches of Multiple-Intelligences


Cultural Bias in IQ Testing: Have students do a search on the Internet for cultural bias in intelligence testing and have them write a short paper on the information they find. The students should discuss the pros (if any) and cons of cultural bias in intelligence testing. The next day break the class into groups and have them develop a 10-question quiz using what they think would be culturally biased questions.

Nature vs. Nurture: Discuss with the class the differences between nature and nurture and how these ideas are very controversial in the area of intelligence. Break the students into groups and have them randomly draw pieces of paper with the words nature or nurture on them. Each group must then develop a debate strategy for arguing either for a nature influence or a nurture influence on intelligence. The following week have the groups debate both sides as a presentation.

Theories of Intelligence: Use Activity Handout 8.3: Which Type of Intelligence Is It? In this activity, students will read through examples of various types of intelligences and properly categorize them. The students will gain an understanding of the various types of intelligence an individual may have.

Design Your Own Theory of Intelligence: After considering how researchers and psychologists define intelligence, have student reflect on their own view of what intelligence is. Individually, have students design their own theory of intelligence. Then, either as a group or individually, pick one or two designed theories and draft a way to measure that concept of intelligence.

Emotionally Intelligent!: Have students complete a self-assessment of their own emotional intelligence. One site that provides a short and free EQ Quiz: http://www.ihhp.com/?page=freeEQquiz Upon getting their results, have students identify what emotional intelligence is and its relationship to academic achievement and/or work productivity.

LO 8.4: Identify the possible connections between language and thought and summarize how language is acquired and develops.Lecture Outline

IV. Language



http://www.ihhp.com/?page=freeEQquiz

http://www.ihhp.com/?page=freeEQquiz

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A. The Structure of Language

1. Infinite Generativity2. Phonology3. Morphology4. Syntax5. Semantics6. Pragmatics

B. Links Between Language and Cognition

1. The Role of Language in Cognition2. The Role of Cognition in Language

C. Biological and Environmental Influences on Language

1. Biological Influences

a. Language Universalsb. Language and the Brain

2. Environmental Influences

a. Good Strategies for Talking to Babiesi. Be an Active Conversational Partner

ii. Talk As If the Infant Understood What You Are Sayingiii. Use a Language Style With Which You Feel Comfortable

D. Language Development over the Life Span


Structure of Language: Use Activity Handout 8.4: The Structure of Language as a way for the students to come up with their own examples of the various structures of language that are discussed in the chapter. The students will gain more knowledge of the various structures that make up a language.

Biological and Environmental Influences on Language: Discuss with the class the differences between nature and nurture and how these ideas are very controversial in the area of the development of language. Break the students into groups and have them randomly draw pieces of paper with the words “biological” or “environmental” on them. Each group must then develop a debate strategy for arguing either for a biological influence or an environmental influence on the development of language. The following week have the groups debate both sides as a presentation.

Learning a Second Language: Have students write a two- to four-page reflective paper on their experience with learning a second language. Students should include when they learned that language, their perceived difficulty with learning that language, and what they had to change (behaviorally) to help them learn the language better. Finally, students should be able to make connections between the research illustrated in the book on language over the life span and their personal experiences.



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LO 8.5: Discuss the importance of cognitive appraisal with respect to stress and describe various styles of coping.Lecture Outline

V. Thinking, Problem Solving, and Health and Wellness

A. Cognitive Appraisal and Coping

1. Cognitive Appraisal2. Coping3. Primary Appraisal4. Secondary Appraisal

B. Cognitive Reappraisal


Types of Coping: Write two to three examples on the board of a stressful situation. Break the class into groups and ask each to come up with their own example of how each type of coping discussed in the chapter would be used to handle the stressful situation. The students will become more familiar with the various types of coping with a stressful situation and will also learn from each other by working on the assignment with their group.

V. Critical Thinking Questions

1. Compare and contrast the biological and environmental influences when it comes to areas such as intelligence and language or is a combination of both more feasible?

2. Explore your own culture and identify how it played a role in your language development.

3. How do you view intelligence? What do you think has influenced your way of understanding an individual’s capabilities?

4. With the advancement in technology, the way we understand cognitive psychology has changed. In your experiences, how have you see your classrooms or educational settings change as a result of what psychologists know about intelligence, thinking, problem-solving, and language?

VI. Polling Questions

Polling 8.1: Super Human ComputerOn a blog site, http://curiosity.discovery.com/question/superhuman-computing-intelligence, there is some debate whether or not a computer will ever be created that exceeds the capacity of the human mind. How many of you think that in your lifetime you will see computers exceed the capacity of human cognition? Who thinks there are limitations to what computers can do? (Discuss those limitations in terms of cognitive



http://curiosity.discovery.com/question/superhuman-computing-intelligence

http://curiosity.discovery.com/question/superhuman-computing-intelligence

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abilities.) How many of you think that artificial intelligence has removed the human connection and replaced technology with true interaction?

Polling 8.2: I’m Not Blind! I See Exactly What I Want to See! Let’s talk about the bias blind spot, a concept that suggests even the smartest, deepest thinkers—the ones who are open minded and considerate of others—harbor a level of bias against others and even themselves. What do you think? Who thinks we are hard-wired (biologically) to create groups and show favoritism towards a certain set of individuals? Let’s take an implicit association test, by Project Implicit: https://implicit.harvard.edu/implicit/./ How many of you were surprised at your results?

Polling 8.3: Calling All Geniuses—Your Psychotherapist Is Ready to See You Now“Genius and insanity may actually go together, according to scientists who found that mental illnesses like schizophrenia and bipolar disorder are often found in highly creative and intelligent people.” Let’s critically evaluate this statement. There is research that indicates a link between creativity and mental health; however, there is also research that suggests the opposite. So, what do you think? Given the numerous examples of creative geniuses and their reported mental health status, who thinks that those who are superintelligent are more likely to possess a psychological disorder? List four psychological disorders and have students vote on the disorder most likely to be associated with creative genius. Collectively discuss why the disorder with the highest votes is perceived to be related to being a genius.

VII. Apply Your Knowledge (Also found at the end of each chapter.)

1. To get a sense of the roles of divergent and convergent thinking in creativity, try the following exercise. First take 10 minutes and jot down all of the uses that you can think of for a cardboard box. Don't hold back—include every possibility that comes to mind. That list represents divergent thinking. Now look the list over. Which of the possible uses are most unusual or most likely to be worthwhile? That is convergent thinking.

2. Ask a few friends to define the term intelligent. Do they mostly describe intelligent people or intelligent behaviors? Do their definitions focus on cognitive ability or other abilities?

3 Many different intelligence tests are available online, such as at http://www.iqtest.com/.Give this one a try and then do a web search for intelligence tests and see if you get the same results when you take a different test. Do the websites tell you how reliable the tests are? Do they provide information on standardization or validity? If your scores on the two tests are very different, what might account for this difference?

VIII. Suggested Readings and Media



http://www.iqtest.com/

https://implicit.harvard.edu/implicit/

Chapter 8

Suggested Articles from Annual Editions, Psychology, 2013/2014 Publications

Article 24: Wargo, E. (2013). Talk to the Hand: New Insights into the Evolution of Language and Gesture. Observer. Association of Psychological Science.

Suggested Readings

Cheng, C., Cheung, S. F., Chio, J. H. M., & Chan, M. P. S. (2013). Cultural meaning of perceived control: A meta-analysis of locus of control and psychological symptoms across 18 cultural regions. Psychological Bulletin, 139(1), 152.

Goleman, D. (2006). Emotional intelligence: Why it can matter more than IQ. Random House Digital, Inc.

Herrnstien, R. J., & Murray, C. (1994). The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life. New York: Free Press.

Hofmann, W., & Friese, M. (2011). Control Yourself! Scientific American Mind, 22(2), 42–47.

Russell, S., & Norvig, P. (2003). Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach (2nd Edition). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Schank, R. C., & Abelson, R. P. (2013). Scripts, plans, goals, and understanding: An inquiry into human knowledge structures. Psychology Press.

Simonton, D. (2012). The Science of Genius. Scientific American Mind, 23(5), 34–41.

Sternberg, R. J. (1986). The Triarchic Mind: A New Theory of Human Intelligence. New York: Penguin.

Weigmann, K. (2012). Does intelligence require a body? EMBO reports.

Westly, E. (2011). The Bilingual Advantage. Scientific American Mind, 22(3), 38–41.

Wexler, K. (2013). Lenneberg’s dream: Learning, normal language development, and specific language impairment. Language competence across populations: Toward a definition of specific language impairment, 11.

Suggested Media

The Mind: Language (Insight Media, 58 minutes). This video takes a look at various theories of the evolution of language. It also demonstrates the innate, universal drive to communicate through studies with babies, and it investigates historical records for clues to the development of modern speech.

Artificial Intelligence (AI) (2001, Spielberg).



Chapter 8

This video illustrates the connection between being human and being a robot, depicting the impact of AI on human existence.

http://www.learningstrategies.com/forum/postlist.php?Cat=0&Board=UBB1This website is under the Learning Strategies homepage. It is a discussion forum looking at the genius code.

http://www.sjdm.org/This is the main homepage for The Society for Judgment and Decision Making.

http://wilderdom.com/personality/L2-2SternbergTriarchicTheory.htmlThis is a website that discusses Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence.

http://www.childdevelopmentinfo.com/development/language_development.shtml This website provides the various stages that individuals go through in language development. There are a variety of links to other websites discussing language development in children.

http://www.a-i.com/This website offers a great opportunity for students to evaluate the content and provide discussion about the impact that AI has on today’s society.

http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-18560_162-4560940.htmlThis website links to a video segment which aired on 60 Minutes in 2009 “Harnessing the Power of the Brain.” A number of laboratories and astounding technology is developing that directly connects the human brain to a computer. It's like a sudden leap in human evolution—a leap that could one day help paralyzed people to walk again and amputees to move bionic limbs.

http://www.simplypsychology.org/cognitive.htmlWebsite for students that houses article on cognition psychology along with other psychological perspectives.

http://www.aaai.org/home.html Home site for the American Association of Artificial Intelligence.



http://www.aaai.org/home.html

http://www.simplypsychology.org/cognitive.html

http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-18560_162-4560940.html

http://www.a-i.com/

http://www.childdevelopmentinfo.com/development/language_development.shtml

http://wilderdom.com/personality/L2-2SternbergTriarchicTheory.html

http://www.sjdm.org/

http://www.learningstrategies.com/forum/postlist.php?Cat=0&Board=UBB1

Chapter 8

IX. Activity Handouts

Activity Handout 8.1

Solve This Problem

Choose from the list of problem scenarios below. Using the steps involved in problem solving that were discussed in the chapter, describe how you would go about solving this problem.

1. Mrs. Smith’s daycare provider is closing in four weeks. Both Mr. and Mrs. Smith work full-time during the day and need childcare for their child. They only have a short period of time to find a new, safe, and reliable daycare provider.

2. Tim is planning a summer vacation for his family of five to Disney World in Florida. He lives in Pennsylvania and is trying to figure out whether it would be more cost effective to drive or to fly to Florida.

3. Sarah has a 20-page paper due in 6 weeks, and she has not yet started to work on the paper. She is feeling very overwhelmed because she works a full-time job during the day and has three children at home in the evening. She knows she should get started soon, but is not sure where to begin.

4. Mr. and Mrs. Jones’ parents are getting older and are finding out they can no longer live on their own in a big, three-bedroom house. They want to sell their home and either move to a smaller house, a retirement community, or an assisted-living community. Mr. and Mrs. Jones said they would help their parents find the appropriate place to live, but they are not sure where to begin.

5. Sally found out through a friend that her current boyfriend has been cheating on her with another woman. She is very distraught and is not sure what to do about the situation.



Chapter 8


Make Your Own Invention

Think of a new idea of an invention that you want to create. How did this invention come about? What will it be used for? Be as specific as possible and include drawings or mappings of your new invention. Finally, evaluate your invention or a classmate’s invention for creativity. What criteria will you use?



Chapter 8


Which Type of Intelligence Is It?

Read through the scenarios below and then identify what type of intelligence (analytical, creative, practical, verbal, mathematical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, musical, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalist, or existentialist) you think the individual has.

1. John spent years trying to come up with a solution to how to water a Christmas tree without having to water it himself everyday.TYPE OF INTELLIGENCE:

2. Susan has always been interested in building things. At a young age, she built model airplanes with great enthusiasm. She went to college and graduate school and earned a degree in architecture. She is now the CEO of her own architectural firm.TYPE OF INTELLIGENCE:

3. Jim started taking ballroom dancing classes as a child. He became the Younger U.S. Champion at age 12, has continued dancing, and is now competing for the World Champion title.TYPE OF INTELLIGENCE:

4. Lee Ann Rimes earned her first Academy of Country Music Award at the young age of 12. She has sold millions of albums and continues to hit the charts with top-selling records.TYPE OF INTELLIGENCE:

5. Cecil wrote his first novel at the age of 16 and, just recently, his third novel made the New York Times best-seller list.TYPE OF INTELLIGENCE:

6. Jane has always loved working through math problems and excelled in school in her math classes. She can work through Sudoku puzzles in little time and finds math very challenging. She is the senior accountant at her accounting firm.TYPE OF INTELLIGENCE:

7. Jeremy has always had a green thumb. He grew up on a tree farm and learned at a young age about plants and flowers. He went on to earn a graduate degree in agricultural sciences and recently found a way to cross-pollinate watermelons with cantaloupes to make a delicious new fruit.TYPE OF INTELLIGENCE:

8. Professor Wooddro teaches an Introduction to Philosophy course at the college. He loves to talk with students about the meaning of life and death and enjoys struggling with life’s most challenging questions. TYPE OF INTELLIGENCE:



Chapter 8


The Structure of Language

List five examples of structures of language. Make sure you use the various language structures that were discussed in the chapter.



Chapter 8

X. Answer Key to Activity Handouts

Activity Handout 8.1 Answer Key

Solve This Problem

Choose from the list of problem scenarios below. Using the steps involved in problem solving that were discussed in the chapter, describe how you would go about solving this problem.

6. Mrs. Smith’s daycare provider is closing in four weeks. Both Mr. and Mrs. Smith work full-time during the day and need childcare for their child. They only have a short period of time to find a new, safe, and reliable daycare provider.

Subgoaling; break down the task into small pieces.

7. Tim is planning a summer vacation for his family of five to Disney World in Florida. He lives in Pennsylvania and is trying to figure out whether it would be more cost effective to drive or to fly to Florida.

Algorithm; crunch the numbers.

8. Sarah has a 20-page paper due in 6 weeks, and she has not yet started to work on the paper. She is feeling very overwhelmed because she works a full-time job during the day and has three children at home in the evening. She knows she should get started soon, but is not sure where to begin.

Subgoaling; break it down.

9. Mr. and Mrs. Jones’ parents are getting older and are finding out they can no longer live on their own in a big, three-bedroom house. They want to sell their home and either move to a smaller house, a retirement community, or an assisted-living community. Mr. and Mrs. Jones said they would help their parents find the appropriate place to live, but they are not sure where to begin.

Apply heuristics to develop a short list, then apply an algorithm to determine best solution.

10. Sally found out through a friend that her current boyfriend has been cheating on her with another woman. She is very distraught and is not sure what to do about the situation.

Decision making; evaluate alternatives.



Chapter 8


Make Your Own Invention

Think of a new idea of an invention that you want to create. How did this invention come about? What will it be used for? Be as specific as possible and include drawings or mappings of your new invention. Finally, evaluate your invention or a classmate’s invention for creativity. What criteria will you use?

Correct answers should include some of the following key terms/concepts:divergent thinkingflexible and playful thinkingbrainstorminginspirationrisk taking



Chapter 8


Which Type of Intelligence Is It?

Read through the scenarios below and then identify what type of intelligence (analytical, creative, practical, verbal, mathematical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, musical, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalist, or existentialist) you think the individual has.

9. John spent years trying to come up with a solution to how to water a Christmas tree without having to water it himself everyday.TYPE OF INTELLIGENCE: creative

10. Susan has always been interested in building things. At a young age, she built model airplanes with great enthusiasm. She went to college and graduate school and earned a degree in architecture. She is now the CEO of her own architectural firm.TYPE OF INTELLIGENCE: creative, spatial, analytical, and/or practical

11. Jim started taking ballroom dancing classes as a child. He became the Younger U.S. Champion at age 12, has continued dancing, and is now competing for the World Champion title.TYPE OF INTELLIGENCE: bodily-kinesthetic

12. Lee Ann Rimes earned her first Academy of Country Music Award at the young age of 12. She has sold millions of albums and continues to hit the charts with top-selling records.TYPE OF INTELLIGENCE: musical

13. Cecil wrote his first novel at the age of 16 and, just recently, his third novel made the New York Times best-seller list.TYPE OF INTELLIGENCE: verbal and/or creative

14. Jane has always loved working through math problems and excelled in school in her math classes. She can work through Sudoku puzzles in little time and finds math very challenging. She is the senior accountant at her accounting firm.TYPE OF INTELLIGENCE: analytical and/or mathematical

15. Jeremy has always had a green thumb. He grew up on a tree farm and learned at a young age about plants and flowers. He went on to earn a graduate degree in agricultural sciences and recently found a way to cross-pollinate watermelons with cantaloupes to make a delicious new fruit.TYPE OF INTELLIGENCE: naturalist, creative, and/or analytical

16. Professor Wooddro teaches an Introduction to Philosophy course at the college. He loves to talk with students about the meaning of life and death and enjoys struggling with life’s most challenging questions. TYPE OF INTELLIGENCE: existentialist



Chapter 8


The Structure of Language

List five examples of structures of language. Make sure you use the various language structures that were discussed in the chapter.

Correct answers should include some of the following concepts:Phonology: basic sounds or phonemesMorphology: rules for word formation; morphemesSyntax: rules for combining wordsSemantics: meaning of words.



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