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CHAPTER EIGHT

8 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

In the undergoing chapter, the major findings of the research are summarized

and presented briefly. Likewise, the conclusions that have been drawn from the

research findings are presented. Finally, the chapter presents possible

implications that are proposed based on the findings to facilitate the full capacity

utilization of irrigation scheme and future irrigation development.

8.1 Summary

This study paid special attention on overall socio-economic impact of small –

scale irrigation and its contribution to household food security in Berbere district

of Bale Zone, Oromiya Region. In this study attention was given to the role of

irrigation in increasing agricultural production, gross income and asset

possession of households in the study area. The aim of this study is, therefore, to

investigate the role that small scale irrigation and its management plays on

household food security and income level of the case study area.

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The research objectives were realized through conducting household survey in

two administrative PAs of the study area. Household demographics, educational

status, income and other data deemed to be relevant were collected, organized,

analyzed and interpreted to come with possible results.

This study employed both quantitative and qualitative approaches to

appropriately address the issues raised in relation to food security and small

scale irrigation intervention. Thus, both qualitative and quantitative data were

collected from primary and secondary data sources. To generate the required

primary data from different primary sources, research tools such as household

survey, key informant interview, focus group discussions and field observations

were employed. For the quantitative data, both descriptive and inferential

statistics techniques of data analysis were employed. The descriptive statistical

methods employed for analyzing the data gathered through household survey

frequency, percentage, mean, standard deviation, X2-test, T-test and ANOVA/F-

test.

Descriptive statistics were employed to describe households Socio-economic

and demographic characteristics, such as age, sex, and education of household

head, family size, land holding, access and sources of credit, extension and

market services. Descriptive statistics were also used to describe difference in

food security status and income level between irrigation and non-irrigation

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households. The existence of any systematic relationship between asset

ownership, household‘s income and food security/insecurity situation of the

irrigating and non-irrigating sample households has been analyzed. The Logistic

Regression model was used and estimated to identify determinants of food

insecurity. Moreover, the overall adequacy of food supply in the study area was

analyzed by using household food balance model (HFBM).

The survey result confirmed that, access to irrigation is a powerful factor that

provides a greater opportunity for multiple cropping, cropping intensity, and crop

diversification. Households who have access to small-scale irrigation can

cultivate twice a year and thus, irrigation increases the intensity of cropping.

Small scale irrigation schemes increase agricultural productivity. Irrigators were

seen to perform better than non-irrigators. This is attributed to the fact that

irrigators were better factor endowed, had more draught power, as a result of

which the irrigators practiced timely agricultural activities, which in turn resulted in

increasing agricultural productivity. Irrigators also have better access to

extension services through DAs who constantly disseminate information to them,

unlike non-irrigators who were seen to meet after long period of time. The

irrigators were also seen to have more cultivated land on average as compared

to non-irrigators data. As a result, they had more crop output compared to the

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non-irrigators which ensures the availability of more food for irrigating

households. Thus, it supports the hypothesis that irrigators are better agricultural

performers than non-irrigators. The t-test performed for the mean annual crop

production comparison between the two groups also shows that the difference is

statistically significant.

From the gross income analysis, it was seen that irrigators had more crop

income, and coupled with livestock and non-farm income, they have more

reliable income which help them to fulfill food requirements and other material

needs for their family. More income implies a much better food security position

for irrigators giving them the opportunity to purchase more foods. The irrigation

scheme has also seen as a source of food where non-irrigators would buy the

produce like cabbage, Sweet potato, tomatoes, onions and others.

The study has shown that access to irrigation increases the incomes of the small

scale irrigation farmers through crop incomes. The larger contribution of income

from irrigation has evidenced that the irrigation scheme increased the incomes of

irrigators substantially, and was largely responsible for the significant difference

between income levels of both groups. Higher incomes improve the standard of

living; hence irrigation improves the welfare of the irrigators. This evidence

supports the hypothesis that irrigators have more income as compared to non-

irrigators.

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Accordingly, the total mean annual household‘s income in the study area was

ETB 15,889.8 which is the sum of average income generated from the three

major sources in the study area: cropping, livestock and off farm activities. The

survey find out that from the total mean annual income of a household, cropping

contributes the highest income share (73.30%) followed by livestock (17.57%)

and off-farm (9.13%), respectively. The survey result revealed that the annual

mean income of sample irrigator households was ETB 20,394.91, whereas for

non-irrigator a household was ETB 11,548.65. Furthermore, the t- test indicates

that the annual mean income of the two groups of sample households shows

significant difference with respect to mean annual income.

The t-test shows that there is a significant difference in income obtained from

cropping between irrigating and non-irrigating households. The mean annual

income of a household from cropping income in the sample households was ETB

11,647.19. While the mean annual cropping incomes for irrigating and non-

irrigating households were found to be ETB 16,071.04 and 7,223.34,

respectively. This is an important implication of the role of small-scale irrigation

development to improve the income level of rural households and hence, to

enhance their food security status.

The result of the study also reveals that the mean per capita kilocalorie available

to the household per adult equivalent per day for the study area is 3,362.56 Kcal,

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which is better than the MRA (2100kcal). The mean per capita for irrigating

households was estimated to be 4,064.49Kcal which is better relative to MRA,

whereas, the corresponding figure for that of non-irrigating households was 2,

660.63Kcal which is also better relative to MRA of 2,100 kilocalories. The t- test

verified that there is a significant mean difference in mean food energy

acquisition between Irrigating and non-irrigating households at 1% significance

level.

The analysis of food security status made using HFBM shows that, out of the 300

sample households 67.67 percent of them were food secure; able to cover the

per capita kilocalorie available equal to or above the Minimum Recommended

Allowance (MRA). Whereas, 32.33 percent of the households in the study sites

were food insecure having per capita kilocalorie below MRA (<2100 Kcal). The

survey result also shows that 89.34 percent of the irrigators and 46.00 percent of

non- irrigators were found to be food secure. In contrary, 10.67 percent of

irrigators and 54.00 percent of the irrigators are found to be food insecure. This

analysis clearly indicates that those households who had access to irrigation are

by far better in securing their food need than non-irrigators.

The descriptive statistics revealed that households with access to irrigation face

food shortage in only few months of the year while who were find non-irrigators

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who suffering from critical food shortage almost throughout the year. The survey

also revealed that households in the study area have various coping strategies

during months of food shortage. Sales of small animals, sales of cattle, off farm

employment and credit are the main of such strategies.

With regard to households‘ food shortage coping strategy the study identified that

the majority of the food insecure households had overcome the problem through

the purchase of grain using money gained from various sources, such as sale of

livestock, sale ruminants, sale of fire wood and charcoal/fire wood, engage in

petty trade and working as a daily laborers by migrating to other areas were

common ways of overcoming the problem of food shortage in the study area to

pass the bad time.

From the regression result the most important determinants of food security were

identified. The analysis proved that the relationships between the per capita food

availability in calories and various independent variables mainly household family

size, cultivated land size, livestock ownership, draught animals/number of Oxen,

and access to extension and credit service were significantly important and these

variables were found to be the major determinants of household food security

status in the study area. Accordingly, the study confirmed that factors such as

access to irrigation, total cultivable land size, Household size, livestock

ownership, draught power ownership, access to extension service, access to

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credit and non-farming activities were found to influence the food security status

of households in the study area positively. They had significant implications on

households‘ income and food security difference.

The study attempted to assess the management activities of small scale irrigation

which include the components of water use, control structure and organizational

activities, such as allocation and distribution of water, operation and

maintenance. Because of these components were not functioning healthy in the

study area, the irrigation schemes were found to be poorly managed. The study

identified that location plays a key role in water distribution; head end framers

benefit more from irrigation water than tail end users.

In the study area water users in both irrigation systems have established their

own management structures and constructed internal bylaws as one of the social

requirements for better management. In the entire scheme considered by this

survey, there was no standardized irrigation (watering) interval to each crop

cultivated. Thus, poor distribution system and inefficient use of irrigation water

resource were the commonly observed problems of small-scale irrigation

schemes in the study area.

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The study also identified that absence of sanction on water theft and illegal water

users (those diverting the water course to one‘s farm land out of turn) was

complained as the main administrative problem in relation to water distribution

and blamed to be the major reason for the poor performance of the irrigation

systems in the study site.

The survey disclosed that maintenance is carried out twice a year but most of the

time very irregularly in both schemes. In both irrigation schemes it was observed

that the canal networks were deteriorated or damaged at their some parts, is

another problem that was observed during the survey period.

The survey identified major problems accounting for low performance of irrigation

development. The most challenging problems were lack of agricultural land near

irrigation water source, problem of irrigation water distribution, lack of spare parts

for water pumps, high cost of fuel for water pumps, lack of market transparency

and marketing facilities, crop disease, lack of seeds and the perceived high cost

of inputs.

The survey result shows the farmers across the study site were found to be not

satisfied in using modern farm inputs, mainly due to unavailability(limited supply)

and unaffordability(high price) to farmers. Lack of vegetable seeds and fruit

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seedlings has been identified to be another problem for small scale irrigators in

the study area.

8.2 Conclusions

Taking into cognizance the significance of ensuring food security at household

level through irrigation development in Ethiopia, the in-depth study on the role of

small scale irrigation on household food security and gross income must get due

emphasis and considerations in Governmental and non-governmental

organizations, policy, research and development works. This sub section

presents what has been concluded from the study and forwards possible

implications for concerned stakeholders to encourage the development of

irrigation and to address the problem of food insecurity. The study was

conducted in Berbere district of Bale Zone, Ethiopia, where the vast majority of

smallholders living in a situation for food gap of 3 to 6 months of period annually

to meet their minimum food requirements due to erratic rainfall patterns in the

area.

From the findings of the study it can be concluded that irrigation development

intervention could bring positive socio- economic benefits in the study areas.

Irrigation development contributes to agriculture production and productivity

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improvement. Access to irrigation increases the opportunity for crop

diversification which could have an immense potential that enables irrigators to

feed their family throughout the year thereby it can helps to tackle the existing

food security problems and became source of employment and income

generation for the people in the study area. Moreover, small scale Irrigations

development enables to bring uncultivated land under cultivation and which in

turn enable multiple cropping within a year time (cropping intensity).

Therefore, from crop farming point of view, it can be concluded that there is

promising potential resource, such as irrigation water source, land and labour

that are suitable for intensive and diversified agriculture in the study area. In the

study area, it was observed that irrigation water contributed significantly to

enhance food security status at household level. The study proved that irrigation

has positive consequences on food security; has a tremendous effect on average

calorie supplement at the household. The result of the survey compared the two

groups with respect to their mean per capita kilocalorie available and the result

shows that there are about 1,403.86 kcal differences between them. And the test

statistics confirmed that the higher amount of food sources by irrigation user

households is mainly produced by the marginal differences in food crops

cultivated from irrigated agriculture.

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From income point of view, it was observed that irrigation is increasingly

becoming an important practice that contributes to increase gross annual income

for many irrigating households in the study area. This is due to the reason that, in

addition to their rainfed cultivation, irrigating households could produce various

types of cash crops. Increased in agricultural production through diversification

and intensification of crops grown using small scale irrigation, boosts the growth

of irrigators‘ gross income.

The main income sources of rural household in the study area were cropping,

livestock and off-farm activities. The total mean annual income of a household

obtained from cropping contributes the highest income share. Irrigating

households have significantly larger mean annual income than non-irrigating

households. The analysis in this study indicates the mean annual cropping

income difference between irrigating and non-irrigating households is found to be

8,847.7 ETB. The significant difference in total mean annual income between the

two groups was caused by cropping income.

The result of the study also revealed that the mean per capita kilocalorie

available to the household per adult equivalent per day for the study area is

3,362.56 Kcal, which is better than the MRA (2100kcal). On the contrary, the

food insecurity problem prevalence is about 32.33 % of sample households,

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having per capita kilocalorie below the MRA (2100Kcal). The study proves that

the household‘s food energy acquisition for those households having irrigated

agriculture is found to be higher than the rain-fed dependent households.

In the study area great variation is observed in food security situation that ranges

from highly food insecure to generally food secure status among the sample

households. And it is observed that Small scale irrigation is one of the viable

solutions to secure household food needs in the study area. The difference in

household‘s food security status was not attributed to differences in irrigation

access alone. In addition to this, the study result disclosed the determinants of

household‘s food security are characterized by distinctive socio-economic and

biophysical features of sampled households. In other words ,the relationships

between the per capita food availability in calories and various independent

variables mainly household family size, cultivated land size, livestock ownership,

draught animals/number of Oxen, and access to extension and credit service

were significantly important. These variables were found to be determinants of

household food security status in the study area.

Above all, access to irrigation was found to be a significant determinant of

household food security and is positively associated to household food security.

Extension workers could play a key role in transferring knowledge to the rural

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people easily and thereby improving production and consumption. Therefore,

capacity building of the existing ones and training more new extension workers

might help to address the food insecurity problem.

Household family size was seen to negatively determine household food security.

Households with larger family size were unable to meet the minimum daily

requirement. On contrary, households with small number of family size were

found to be better in terms of food energy availability per day. Large household

size which is resulted from rapid population growth and the resultant increase in

consumption, accentuated the problem of food insecurity. Therefore, the

introduction of appropriate family planning strategy would help vitally to have

healthy and productive family and to ensure food security.

Access to fair cultivated land size is one of the critical factors that determine

food security. The study proved that the size of cultivated land and household

food security are positively associated, indicating larger farm size improves

household food security. Since the per capita kilocalories increased with

cultivated land size, households with large farm size are found to be food

secure. However, since there may not be a possibility of expanding cultivated

land size anymore because of increasing family size and farm land scarcity,

household must be trained how to increase production per unit area

(productivity).

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Similarly, livestock holding is positively related to food security status.

Households that have a large number of livestock have better food security

status. It was found to be one among the major food insecurity coping

strategies in the study area. This could be through sales of livestock to generate

income for any possible spending on food item purchasing. Therefore, giving

continuous trainings to household on modern livestock management system

households could generate more income and improve their food security status.

Accesses to extension and credit service were found to be other major factors

that determined food security situation of the farm households. Hence, it is

viable to due attention to improved supply of institutional credit service, assured

irrigation facilities and better extension support services in the study area. On

top of this Microfinance institutions are better to provide credit, at reasonable

interest rate, and at the right time credit be demanded at places where farm

households can access easily. Moreover, farmers of the study area need to get

adequate awareness on how to use extension and credit services properly to

improve their agricultural activity continuously.

Regarding irrigation management, the study revealed that implementing small

scale irrigation schemes through proper management leads to sustainable

production that could have an immense potential to change the livelihood of

poor rural peoples. However, the study has shown that the irrigation schemes in

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the study area were poorly managed. That is, the components of water use,

control structure and organizational activities, such as allocation and distribution

of water, operation and maintenance were not functioning well. This may be due

to lack of adequate finance, improper application of bylaws that could adversely

affect the proper functioning of the various activities.

Moreover, absence of training, especially to water users‘ association

committees on different aspects related to irrigation practices and management

activities was identified to be another factor that affect irrigation management

activities. This is because, through provision of proper training to water users‘

association committees it is possible to strengthen the capacity of the members

regarding how to lead the user‘s community and issuing of bylaws and thereby

ensure proper management and sustainable use of the schemes.

To this end, the study identified major problems that are challenging the sample

households in irrigation development and performance of irrigation agriculture.

The most common problems identified to account for low performance of

irrigation development are lack of agricultural land near irrigation water source,

problem of irrigation water distribution, lack of spare parts for water pumps, high

cost of fuel for water pumps, lack of market transparency and marketing

facilities, crop diseases, lack of seeds and the perceived high cost of inputs.

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Absence of canal maintenance and cleaning on a regular basis were also

commonly observed problems in the study area. Therefore, these problems on

irrigation development and irrigation agriculture indicated have to be given

attention well and addressed in order to use the irrigation schemes efficiently,

and improve the lives of small holders in and around the study area.

In general, it can be concluded that, if effectively implemented and various cash

crops are adopted, small-scale irrigation development will be a promising and

viable intervention to tackle the vicious circle of rural poverty and food insecurity.

In line with this IWMI (2010) argued that if successful, irrigation in Ethiopia

could represent a cornerstone of the agricultural development of the country,

contributing up to ETB 140 billion to the economy and potentially moving up to 6

million households into food security.

8.3 Policy Implication

This study has some possible policy implications that emanate from the results

of the research and are useful for policy making and thereby improving the

status of household food security through improved irrigation farming system.

Hence, the important insights that should be taken in to consideration are

suggested below.

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It is fact that the more household head educated, the higher will be the

probability of educating family members and acquainting with modern

agricultural technologies. However, it was observed that in the study area

literacy level is very low; almost all sample households were found to be

illiterate. Thus, government has to give due attention for educating and training

farmers by strengthening and establishing both formal and informal type of

education, farmers' training centers, technical and vocational schools.

It is imperative that development strategies should due attention to livestock

sector in availing of oxen farming through credit and overall management of

livestock production that aimed at improving food security status of the people

living in study area.

The results of the study showed that the household‘s cultivated land holding

size is concentrated at 0.50 hectare. These results also revealed that the

distribution of land size is equitable and very small and it seems that there is

may not be a possibility of expanding cultivated land size anymore because of

increasing family size and farm land scarcity. Therefore, other alternatives

should be considered in order to improve food security status of the

households. This could be realized through improving the productivity of land

through improved soil and nutrient management, promotion of effective

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utilization of the constructed irrigation schemes and creation of rural

employment opportunities.

On the other hand, it needs to intensify small holder farming system. In order to

intensify the farm, farmers should be supported in the provision of modern

agricultural technologies and inputs focusing to boost the production status on

their piece of cultivated land to helps them to increase productivity per unit

area.

Likewise, the study results disclosed that it is important to stress on alternative

income generating activities. This is because non-farming activities could

supplement the agricultural sector in developing sustainable way of livelihood

system in the study area. Above all, it might stabilize the problem of food

shortage gap that faced households in the area.

The findings of the study proved that irrigation and food security are positively

and significantly related in the study area. Therefore, development strategies

and programs that are related to ensuring food security through agricultural

production should think about the importance and effective utilization of

irrigation.

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Moreover, there is a need to formulate a comprehensive strategy to promote

small scale irrigation, including the accessibility of appropriate and affordable

technologies. In low land areas where rainfall is erratic and insufficient, the

investment and development of small scale irrigation scheme should be given

prior consideration. This will help to ensure food security, increased incomes,

improved standards of living and employment creation for the rural population.

However, in the irrigated agriculture the following points have to be considered

to utilize the full capacity of the irrigation scheme and to facilitate future

irrigation development:

The local rural district councils should make sure that they get in touch with

NGOs, like the donor community willing to take part in the establishment and

development of small scale irrigation schemes, leading to self-sufficiency and

food security.

Efforts should be geared towards controlling population growth through

promotion and expansion of appropriate family planning programs/services in

order to balance the carrying capacity of land and to mitigate the negative impact

of large family size on households‘ food security situation.

Attention should be given to complementary rural infrastructural development

and related sectors‘ like rural road, so as to encourage expansion of small scale

irrigation project, especially in lowlands, and densely populated parts of the Zone.

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More importantly, attention should be given to strengthen education and

training. Relevant, adequate and timely training should be given to users as well

as implementers and rural extension agents to tackle problems related to the

lagging technical skills, lack of awareness about benefits, and short and long-term

effects of irrigation. Moreover, education and training facilitates the effective

communication between farmers and agricultural information providers like

extension workers.

The motor Water pumps were used in the study area for irrigation. However, it

has been observed that there was a problem related to adequately supplying of

the pumps and their spare parts. Therefore, concerned governmental as well as

non-governmental organizations in the study area should give special attentions

to the supply of motor water pumps and its spare part in an adequate manner and

affordable price.

Special emphasis need to be put on effective marketing system. The provision

of marketing facilities and information plays significant role in facilitating irrigation

adoption. Hence, all concerned bodies like governmental extension services,

farmers‘ cooperatives; and non-governmental organizations should support the

development of efficient marketing systems in the study area.

In the study area important agricultural inputs like chemical fertilizers, herbicides

and pesticides are used below the recommended level mainly due to their high

cost and shortage of supply. Therefore, the government, cooperative and private

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organizations should give proper attention on the supply of these inputs on time

and in adequate amount.

Market has direct influence to the expansion of irrigation agriculture. Therefore,

In the future it seems that there is a considerable need to make further scientific

studies on cropping pattern and selection, market development strategies and

opportunities.