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CHAPTER – IV

WOMEN'S PARTICIPATION IN AGRICULTURE

M.S. Swaminathan, the famous agricultural scientist says "some

historians believe that it was women who first domesticated crop plants and

thereby initiated the art and science of farming. While men went out hunting

in search of food, women started gathering seeds from the native flora and

began cultivating those of interest from the point of view of food, feed,

fodder, fibre and fuel".

Women have played and continue to play a key role in the

conservation of basic life supporting systems such as land, water, flora and

fauna. They have protected the health of the soil through organic recyclining

and promoted crop security through the maintenance of varietal diversity

and genetic resistance. There fore, without the total intellectual and physical

participation of women, it is not be possible to popularize alternative

systems of land menagement to shifting cultivation, arrest gene and soil

erosion, and promote the care of the soil and the health of economic plants

and farm animals. (Prasad & Singh 1992)1

1 Prasad & Singh “Participation of Women in Agriculture” Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol.XXXI, No.3, Year 1999, P.216.

100

That women play a significant and crucial role in agricultural

development and allied fields including the main crop production, livestock

production, horticulture, post harvest operations, agro/ social forestry,

fisheries, etc. It is a fact long taken for granted but also long ignored. The

nature and extent of women's involvement in agriculture, no doubt varies

greatly from region to region. Even within a region, their involvement varies

widely among different ecological sub-zones, farming systems, castes,

classes and stages in the family cycle. But regardless of these variations,

there is hardly any activity in agricultural production, except ploughing in

which women are not actively involved. In some of the farm activities like

processing and storage, women predominate so strongly that men workers

are numerically insignificant. (Aggarwal 2003)2 Studies on women in

agriculture conducted in India and other developing and underdeveloped

countries point to the conclusion that women contribute far more to

agricultural production than has generally been acknowledged. Recognition

of their crucial role in agriculture should not obscure the fact that farm

women continue to be concerned with their primary functions as wives,

mothers and homemakers.

2 Aggarwal and Singh “Women Involvement in Agricultural” Discovery Publishing House, New Delhi, 2003.

101

Despite their importance to agricultural production, women face

severe handicaps. They are in fact, the largest group of landless labourers

with little real security in case of break-up of the family owing to death or

divorce; inheritance laws and customs discriminate against them; land

reform and settlement programmes usually give sole title and hence the

security needed for obtaining production credits to the husband. Agricultural

development programmes are usually planned by men and aimed leaving

women's burdens unrelieved or even increased. The excess burden of work

on women ("the double day" of the farm work plus house work) also acts as

a stimulus to have meny children so that they can help out with chores from

an early age. Extension workers almost exclusively aim their advice at men's

activities and crops. In some regions, this bias may depress production of

subsistence food crops (often women's crops) in favour of increased

production of cash crops (often men's crops) in favour of increased

production of cash crops (often men's crops) so that family nutrition suffers.

It may not be out of place to mention here that considering their dual

responsibilities within and outside the home, it would be in the fitness of

things that more and more in the village training is organized for rural farm

women to suit their convenience with due realization that institutional

training is important in its own place.

102

In order that farm women get a fair deal at the hands of change agents,

one of the remedial measures that needs to be undertaken is to induct a

sizeable number of well trained women personnel in training and extension

programmes of agricultural development agencies at all levels and more so

at the grass-root level.

According to 1991 census the male cultivators have increased in the

country by 11.67 per cent from 76.7 in 1981 to 85.6 million in 1991.3 The

female cultivators however have increased at much faster rate of 45.23 per

cent from 14.8 million in 1981 to 21.5 million in 1991. The number of male

agricultural labourer increased by 31.48 per cent, but that of female by 36.45

per cent. 74 per cent of the entire female working force is engaged in

agriculture operations. About 60 per cent of agricultural operations like

sowing of seeds, transportation of sapling, winnowing, storage of grain etc

are handled exclusively by women, while in other jobs they share the work

with men. Apart from participation in actual cultivation, women participate

in various forms of processing and marketing of agricultural produce

(Aggarwal 2003).4

3 Govt. of India, Report Census, 1991. 4 Aggarwal and Singh “Women Involvement in Agricultural” Discovery Publishing House, New Delhi, 2003.

103

In rural India, the prosperity of the household depends on the

prosperity of agriculture and allied occupation in any particular point of time

vis-a-vis the role of women in innumerable activities connected with

farming, dairying, sericulture etc.

But the women hands are invisible even to this day, so it is not

surprising that the agricultural extension activities are mainly a male

oriented pursuit.

Multi-Dimensional Roles of Women

(i) Agriculture: Sowing, transplanting, weeding, irrigation, fertilizer

application, plant protection, harvesting, winnowing, storing etc.

(ii) Domestic: Cooking, child rearing, water collection, fuel wood

gathering, household maintenance etc.

Mainly rural women are engaged in agricultural activities in three

different ways depending on the socio-economic status of their families and

regional factors. They are working as:

(i) paid labourers

(ii) cultivators doing work in their own farms

(iii) menagers of certain aspects of agricultural production by way of

labour supervision and the participation in post harvest operations.

104

Table – 4.1 depicts the numbers of women workers engaged in agriculture as

per 1981 census and 1991 census.

Table - 4.1

Women Workers in Agriculture (Million)

No. of Workers Nature of work

1981 Census 1991 Census Cultivator 14.8 21.5

Agriculture Labourer 2005 28.2 Source : Govt. of India Report - 2010

The participation of rural women in agriculture is increasing in spite

of scientific and technological developments. The share of farmwomen in

agricultural operations is shown in Table 4.2.

Table - 4.2

Share of Farm Women in Agricultural Operations

Activity Involvement (Percentage) Land preparation 32

Seed cleaning and sowing 80 Inter cultivation activities 86

Harvesting-reaping, winnowing, drying, cleaning and storage

84

Source : Govt. of India Report - 2010

The Table 4.2 shows that the average times spent by farm women in

household and agricultural activities. In the peak season an active farm

women spends five to nine hours per day on the farm. Agriculture and allied

activities almost take equal time and energy at par with domestic work.

105

Table - 4.3

Time and Energy Distribution by Rural Women

Duration Energy Activity Hours kcal.

Percentage

Domestic activities 7.55 903 40.53 Agriculture and allied activities 7.00 283 39.69

Sleep 6.50 284 12.76 Rest and Recreation 2.15 155 6.97

Total 23.20 2255 100.00 Source : Govt. of India Report - 2010

According to Joshi (1999),5 the productivity of female labour is low.

It is also very low in agriculture sector. At the price level of 1980-81, in

1950- 51, the productivity per labour was Rs. 2305 which increased to Rs.

2794 and further increased to Rs. 3157 in 1990. The productivity has not

doubled in the last 40 years in agriculture sector whereas the mining and

mineral sector productivity per labour is Rs. 13417, in menufacturing sector

it is Rs. 11099, in power gas and water supply sector Rs. 14608,

construction sector Rs. 16210, commerce and business Rs. 13136 and in

other service sector, it is Rs. 14625. Thus productivity of agriculture labour

is very low compared to other sectors. It is also observed that the

productivity of female agriculture labour is really low compared to that of

male labour. Female agricultural labourers do not enjoy any maternity leave

and do not get proper rest after child birth. 5 P.S. Joshi “Productivity of Female Lal Force : Agricultural situation in India, Vol:XXI, No.1, January – March – 1999.

106

Table - 4.4

Percentage distribution of Indian workers (main + marginal) according

Categories of workers by sex and by sector during 2001

Rural Urban Combined Category of

Worker Female Male Total Female Male Total Female Male Total

Cultivators 36.46 42.19 40.14 4.26 2.99 3.21 32.51 31.34 31.71

Agricultural

labours 43.4 27.48 33.20 11.03 3.42 4.71 39.43 20.82 26.69

Household

Industry

workers

5.44 2.83 3.77 12.93 3.50 5.10 6.36 3.02 4.07

Other Workers 14.70 27.49 22.90 71.77 90.09 86.98 21.70 44.82 37.52

All workers 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00

Total workers

(main+marginal

In Millions)

111.46 199.20 310.66 15.59 76.26 91.86 127.05 275.46 402.51

Source : Govt. of India Report - 2010

Table 4.4 provides the percentage distribution of workers in different

categories in rural and urban areas during the year 2001.

According to Table 4.4 about 36.50 per cent women work as

cultivators and 43.4 per cent as agricultural labours in rural area. Table 4.5

provides statistics about women in India according to 2001 census and 1991

census.

107

Table – 4.5

Statistics about Women in India

1. Total Women Population (2001) 494.83 million

2. Total Women Workers (2001) 127.05 million

3. Total Women Main Workers (2001) 72.65 million

4. Total Women Marginal Workers (2001) 54.40 million

5. Total Women Owner Cultivators (2001) 41.30 million

6. Total Women Agriculture Wage Workers (2001) 50.09 million

7. Total Women Household Industry Workers (2001) 8.08 million

8. Total Women Other Workers (2001) 27.57 million

9. Total Women in Organized Sector (1999) 4.80 million

10. Total Women in Livestock, Forestry, Fshing, Hunting,

Plantation Orchards and other activities (1991)

1.32 million

Source: For serial numbers 1 to 8 see Census 2001 For serial number 9th see Tenth Five Year Plan For serial number 10 census 1991

Tables 4.6 and 4.7 give the average daily wage rates of male and

female workers in June 2001 and during 1999-2000 respectively.

108

Table – 4.6

Average daily wage rates for agricultural and non-agricultural

Occupations in India

Occupation Sex Wage Rate

in June 2010

Female 42.16 Ploughing

Male 66.10

Female 41.58 Sowing

Male 57.92

Female 43.26 Weeding

Male 51.23

Female 47.03 Transplanting

Male 58.28

Female 45.77 Harvesting

Male 55.67

Female 44.08 Winnowing

Male 51.94

Female 44.22 Threshing

Male 52.64

Female - Picking Cotton

Male -

Female 39.32 Cane Crushing

Male 56.98

Source : Men and Women in India.

Report of the Govt. of India – Ministry of Fab : 2010.

109

Table - 4.7

Average Wage Earnings Received per Day by Rural Casual Labourers

by Sex, Type of operation and Industry During 2009-2010

Wage Received (Rs.)

Type of Operation Female Male

(a)Menual Work in Cultivation 38.06 48.14

Ploughing 27.91 39.09

Sowing 32.73 41.81

Transplanting 28.37 38.78

Weeding 29.22 39.15

Harvesting 25.74 34.68

Other Cultivation activities 29.24 39.21

(b) Menual Work in other activities 27.65 39.27

Agricultural 30.65 44.84

Activities 33.34 46.45

Forestry 41.30 61.59

Plantation 21.88 28.14

Animal Husband 55.73 57.74

Fisheries 27.96 42.64

(c) Non-Menual work in cultivation

(d) Non menual work in activities other than

Cultivation.

34.98 56.49

All 29.01 44.84

Source: Govt. of India Ministry of Women and Children – 2010

110

Table – 4.8

Per Thousand Distribution of Female Headed Households by Household type for each Size Class of Land

Cultivated for Rural Areas in India During 2009-2010

No. of Female Headed Household

Self Employed in: Size

Class of Land

cultivated

(in hect.)

Agriculture Non-

Agriculture

Sub

Total

Agricultural

Labour

Other

Labour

Sub

Total Others Total

Per 1000

distribution

of households

0.00 16 105 121 391 88 480 397 1000 561

0.01 - 0.40 321 66 388 276 61 336 275 1000 245

0.41 - 1.00 614 41 656 160 26 187 156 1000 103

1.01 -2.00 720 16 736 114 9 123 141 1000 56

2.01 - 4.00 815 15 830 16 0 16 154 1000 23

4.01 and above 905 38 943 0 23 23 34 1000 11

All 221 81 302 310 68 378 318 1000 1000

Source : National Sample Survey Organization, 55th round (July 2009 - June 2010)

111

Table 4.8 shows that higher the land holding, smaller is the number of

women heading the households. In fact, out of 1000 households of women

cultivators 909 are headed by women having less than one hectare.

According to latest UNDP 2011 report, the gender related

development index of developed and developing countries where India has

the rank of 1 from the list.

As men migrate in search of better-paid work, women in rural India

are taking over agricultural work in the villages. They face meagre wages,

long hours of work, hazardous work and sexual harassment. Figures from

the census show that, amongst rural women, the percentage of "marginal

workers" (defined as working for less than 183 days per year) has increased

significantly from 8.1 per cent in 1991 to 14.2 percent in 2002. During the

same period, there 'was a sharp fall in the percentage of "main workers"

(more than 183 days a year), especially male workers, coming from rural

areas. The figures thus show a casualization and feminization of the

workforce in rural areas, with the number of marginal women workers

becoming larger and more significant, while male main workers in rural

areas becoming smaller.

112

These changes also coincide with the period of the 1990s, when India

really began to be a part of globalize economy. Some of the changes that

have ensured the huge displacement of labour from agriculture are given

below.

A shift from subsistence farming to marketable crops – irrespective of

regions, changes in crop patterns showed a common trend: all the

shifts resulted in a decrease in the labour required.

Greater use of labour-displacing machinery.

A change in land use patterns-from agriculture to urban, industrial

areas., or brick kilns; and in coastal areas, to export-oriented

aquaculture. All the new activities displace labour from agriculture,

but create fewer jobs than they destroy.

More Work, Less Pay

The estimates for changes in the last 5-7 years show declines in

employment ranging from 20 per cent to as much as 77 per cent.

Employment in agriculture is thus available for a fewer days per year. It is

therefore becoming essential for men to migrate in search of better-paid

work. Women are filling this vacuum. Women are forced to accept work in

agriculture in their own village under very bad conditions because they

cannot migrate as easily as men.

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The dependence of women's labour on family farms, especially during

the peak periods of sowing and harvesting, has become very common. About

15 years ago, agricultural work was considered acceptable for poor tribal

women, Even Muslim women today who were traditionally bound by rules

of purdah, go out to work for wages in the fields in certain areas.

Farmers, on the other hand, also seem to prefer women as agricultural

workers. The farmer is faced with the increasing costs of production

required for modern agriculture. He finds that he can squeeze his labour

costs by using lower-paid women workers. For instance, women are

preferred to men in North 24 Parganas (West Bengal) by the owners because

they are docile, require lower wages and are less lazy than men. Similarly,

the work of women within family-based agriculture is preferred because it is

cheaper than hiring labour.

Although women agricultural workers represent a big proportion of all

women workers, continue to receive lower wages than men. The Ministry of

Labour puts the difference at 60 per cent of men’s wages, while the Indian

Labour Journal showed that women received 75 per cent of men’s earnings.

The wage differentials prevailing in some States are given in Table – 4.9.

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While earnings from agricultural work have not improved for women,

modernization of agriculture has in some cases brought new kinds of

problems and demend.

The existence of patriarchy at all levels also intertwines with the

work-related problems of women. A study on the feminization of

agricultural labour in Andhra Pradesh shows that despite the increasing

involvement of women in paid work, women’s relative power within the

family had declined.

Table – 4.9

Male/female Wage Rates in Indian Agriculture

State Wage rate for adult

men (Rs.)

Wage rate for

women (Rs.)

Haryana 50-60 25-30

North 24 Parganas,

Saharanpur, Uttar Pradesh 60 35-40

West Bengal 40

(6 hours of work)

25

(6 hours of work)

Andhra Pradesh 40-50 25-30

The effects of increased commercialization of agriculture are

impacting on women labourers in certain more indirect ways. While

consumer goods, advertisements, video parlors, television, etc. have invaded

115

villages; increasing seasonal migration has also exposed rural workers to

more affluent areas and to cities. One of the noticeable impacts of this is an

increased desire for consumer goods. Spiraling demends for dowry are seen

as one of the easiest and fastest ways to meet this desire. Dowry is thus

spreading to communities where it did not exist before. In tribal families,

where a bride parice is in practice, the girl's family now has to buy the

groom all the goods that make a fat dowry. The bride price is only a token.

Mortgaging and selling of land to meet the dowry demends of the bride

groom's family has become an important mechanism by which poor and

marginalized farmers lose their land.

A study on land rights for women in West Bengal recently found that

39.9% of the households surveyed have had to part with land or raise loans

at high interest rates in order to pay dowry. In fact 79% of the families who

sold land to pay for dowry were Muslim families where dowry was not a

tradition. In addition, the people who were selling or mortgaging their lands

for dowry were agricultural labourers and marginal farmers.

Agro-chemicals have become an integral part of the development

process of agriculture and the use is expected to increase menifold in India.

Fertilizers too a large extent have not affected women's role adversily, but

116

the weedicides and herbicides have almost replaced the menual uprooting of

weeds and hoeing for destroying weeds. In important crops like rice and

wheat, weeding and hoeing used to employ a large number of female labour

days/acre. With the introduction of chemicals to destroy weeds, women's

participation has almost ceased. Thus, herbicides have affected women's

employment adversily as they were the principal labour for weeding.

Women from landless families do not get fodder for their animals

which they used to get from farmer's field in lieu of wages or on mutual

interest basis, keeping of animals on purchased fodder is difficult for poor

families, thereby depriving them of the animal products and byproducts in

their diet.

Due to the use of agro-chemicals women are exposed to several health

hazards such as gynecological infections, arthritis, intestinal and parasitic

infections.

Biological technologies in terms of high yielding and short duration

varieties have offered better remunerations and intensification of crop

production thereby increased labour absorption capacity in the agriculture

sector. With the development of biotechnology there is every possibility of

propagation of plant and animal species in the petridishes in laboratories

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(tissue culture technology). Under these circumstances, women folk

employed in raising nurseries would be left in large.

Agricultural growth has not alleviated female poverty; rather it

appears to have set in motion process, which in the long run could worsen

the situation in meny regions of the country.

Women in Decision Making in Agriculture

Women’s role in agricultural operations, animal husbandry and other

economically productive activities is very significant. They contribute about

60-70 per cent of the labour required for these activities thus playing a

pivotal role in sustaining economy. The decision making process is an

important segment of every household because it makes implementation of a

plan or programme quite easy.

In rural areas of the country, both husband and wife are jointly

responsible for making decisions on matters like family obligations, specific

housing charges and purchase of household articles. However, women’s

suggestions are not given due consideration in the decisions pertaining to

agricultural sector and important family matters. It is because the majority of

women are illiterate, have little time to know about the latest techniques of

farming and restricted mobility due to several cultural taboos.

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In an interview with female respondents, it was noticed that male

members only sought their consent whereas their suggestions/objections

were not taken into account. Thus it was evident that women had to play

second fiddle to men in decision-making. Another study conducted in

Haryana, revealed that farm women did not decide independently about any

farm operation but participated in almost all the decisions and dominated

only decisions more related to home sphere i.e. storage of farm produce,

purchase/sale of animal and credit. The shows the decision making process

of women in agriculture in Himachal Pradesh.

We generally talk of women’s empowerment, which can be said that

women should have powers to determine their own actions, power to have

an authority to make decisions and guide their destiny. This power in

decision making can be acquired and exercised only if they have a thorough

knowledge about the various porgrammes, plans and current issues, access

to the basic human development and social policies.

Generally, women have less access to information about technology

by virtue of their inferior educational status and relative isolation from

public life. Thus, there is a hesitation to come out and interact. At times,

even the suggestions of knowledgeable rural women are ignored or are not

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taken seriously because men consider it disgraceful to accept the decision of

women. This is because traditionally men have been major law makers of

society. Meny policies and decisions neglect women and undermine their

abilities and roles.

The undesired restrictions imposed by elderly people in the society on

their daughters and daughters-in-law should be relaxed to facilitate their

mobility in order to have easy access to the outer world.

Most importantly, the women should have a penchant for self-

empowerment through enhancing their knowledge and skills. Empowerment

without any change in men's attitude or without their willingness will only

aggravate family problems, increasing dissatisfaction and ensuring that

women will continue to be at the receiving end.

Government policies should be framed to provide legal support and

instil confidence in women. Porgrammes should be developed exclusively

for women; to build leadership skills for menaging agricultural community

based development activities. Access of technology, inputs and credit have

to be ensured predominantly through women extension workers. They

should be trained in farm menagement skills and made capable of taking

even complex decisions like shifting from subsistence farming to diversified

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agriculture, withstand competition form market forces, improvement in work

or farm efficiency etc.

The extent of participation in the decision-making activities in house

hold and agriculture related and other socio-culture affairs reflects the status

of women in the family as well as society. Table shows the activities by

decision makers in household related activities in Orissa. (Chaudhary 2004)

Table shows that major decisions regarding purchase of every

household items are taken by males. Decisions in matters of food and

clothing more or less have an equal participation rate between males and

females. But decisions regarding savings and investments and purchase of

household assets are taken by 83.5 per cent males and 81.3 per cent females

respectively. As the male members control the finance, this creates an

adverse impact on women's access to household assets and other household

activities.

The major decision makers in agricultural activities are men even

though women perform more in agricultural related activities than men.

Even they need not be consulted at the time of purchase of animals or

change of crop.

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On an average, a women spends 14 hours a day working in and

outside the home. During harvesting season she spends about 16 hours a

day. The question arises why women's role in the economy is not recognized

and is given such an inferior position?

Table – 4.10

Decision Making Patterns of Rural Families

Decision Making Pattern (Per cent)

Activity Male

Share

Female

Share

Joint by Male and

Female

Adoption of HYVs 83 - 17

Use of fertilizers/plant

protection measures 80 - 20

Purchase of farm machinery 72 - 28

Purchase and sale of animals 21 - 64

Sale of milk and milk products 11 - 78

Procurement of credit 50 - 50

Marketing farm produce 32 6 62

Investment of added profit 26 7 67

Source : Bala et al., Women’s Role in Decision Making “Indian journal of Agricultural Marketing”, Vol.XXI, No.1-3, 2003, p.19.

122

Table – 4.11

Men and Women Involved in Different Activities in Agricultural Sector

Type of Activities Activities by Women Activities by Men

Cooking (grinding, cutting preparing food etc -

Sweeping, washing Clothes& utensils -

Fetching water -

Collecting water -

Household

Activities

Making cow dung-cakes -

Child Care Feeding children, taking care of children -

Digging Ploughing, digging

- Irrigation of fields

Harvesting crops Harvesting crops

Sowing Sowing

Weeding -

Agricultural

Activities

Cutting grass from fields -

Husking/winnowing -

Vegetable plucking Vegetable plucking

- Fertilizing

Selling Vegetables, groundnuts, cereals,

sometimes selling fuel wood Occasionally

Feeding cattle, milking & Bathing the cattle

sometimes

Cattle feeding,

milking, bathing cattle

Selling

Allied Activities

Cleaning of cattle shed Cleaning of cattle shed

sometimes

Source: Sarmishtha Chaudhry, 2004

123

Table – 4.12

Involvement of Women in Decision Making

(Household Related Activities)

Percentage Involvement Decision-Making Items

Male Female Male + Female

Food 36.9 32.4 30.5

Clothing 38.4 28.3 33.2

Education of Children 55.2 22.0 22.7

Health 60.4 17.9 21.6

Marriage of Children 69.4 8.2 22.3

Savings & Investment 83.5 7.0 9.3

Purchase of Assets 81.4 4.1 14.5

Source : Sarmishta Chaudhary, seminar paper on “International conference

on Agriculture, Calcutta, West Bengal, 2004.

124

Table – 4.13

Decision - Making in Agricultural Activities

Percentage Involvement Decision-Making Items

Male Female Male + Female

Purchase of Fertilizer 90.2 2.9 6.8

Purchase of Animals 93.1 - 6.8

Purchase of Agricultural Equipments 92.1 1.9 5.8

Changing of Crops 96.0 - 3.9

Selling of Crops/Cereals/Vegetables 83.9 10.7 5.3

Source: Sarmishtha Chardhry - 2004

The poor participation of women in agriculture sector is also

confirmed in a study conducted by Senthil (1991) in Himachal Pradesh,

where women’s opinions are not normally considered and their opinions are

also not considered in the matters related to participation in developmental

activities. The social role as a decision maker in the production and the

distribution of products and their participation and representations in village

developmental activities has not changed over the time. In all such social

relations men continue to dominate the same and there exists no party of

decision making in gender relations.

Moreover, women’s exclusion from public life keep them out of the

decision making process related to various rural developmental activities

125

such as the utilization of loans and subsidies under the various Integrated

Rural Development Programme (IRDP) schemes. Women also fail to get

loans sanctioned for agricultural development or various schemes under

Rural Employment Programme (REP). Women have no representation in the

Agricultural Marketing Committees and other similar bodies. The

governmental and non-governmental organizations (NGO) also prefer men

for these purposes. Thus, the ideology of segregation and seclusion of

women helps in keeping them out of the various decision making processes

concerning the various facets of rural development. It is for this reason that

to find that whereas women’s labour is utilized for both productive as well

as non-productive work, the various sources of power lie in the hands of

men only.

Women in Plantation - Faulty Policy of Liberalization

In India, plantation sector occupies a unique position due to its agro

industrial features and large number of women in employment. Women are

more preferred by the plantation authority because they can be employed on

low wages and are more committed. Also they can be easily convinced for

the unauthorized deduction from wages, as well as delayed wages because of

their subservient nature and low level of education and awareness.

126

The special feature of plantation is that it not only employs the men

members, but also women and children above the age of 12 years and

women have an important role to play. The reasons for this are

(a) Plantation work is only a special kind of agriculture off work, familiar to

Indian women, the vast majority of them live in rural areas.

(b) Facilities have been given to make workers to settle down on or in the

vicinity of the plantation and to take their families and wives with them.

(c) Under the old system, labour contract was based on the principle of

utilizing every able bodied persons of the family and fixing the rates

accordingly.

(d) Meny women had to seek employment in order to balance the family

budget, although the contract system has been abolished.

(e) As the entire labour force is residential, the women can take up

employment without causing serious disruptions to the family.

The social and demographic profile of the workers in plantation sector

such as rubber indicates certain interesting patterns. The sex wise

segregation of the workers reveals stinking skewed distribution of work

force with lower participation of women. However a probing into the poor

participation of women in the occupation revealed the invisible participation

of women. More than two thirds of the cases quite often, the male tapers are

127

found supported by female members and even children of the family. The

male tapers who are the dejure workers get considerable assistance from

their family members for collecting the latex, transportation of latex and

preparation of rubber sheets. Usually the male tapers start tapping in the pre

early hours of the day and the women and children are found joining the

work with a lag of two-three hours. Here though the work is carried out

collectively, the contribution of women and children remain invisible as they

are neither recognized nor remunerated as assistants. The lower absorption

of women labour in rubber holdings has been cited as a major issue in the

development discourse of the State, with the commendable increase in the

area under the crop at the cost of female labour intensive crops such as

paddy. This argument was one of the factors that tempted the Rubber Board

to choose a logo that illustrated female tapers at work.

The lower participation of women during the initial hours of tapping

is mainly due to their engagement in domestic chores such as preparing

breakfast and lunch, sending the younger ones to schools, cattle care and so

on carried out by women members, before joining along with some food as

helpers during later hours in the morning.

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In the tea gardens the female permenent workers generally do the

plucking of leaves. The other works like maintenance of plantation, pruning

and spraying are done by male workers. During the peak season minor girls

from the labour families particularly women and children from neighbouring

villages are employed for plucking of leaves.

India is the fourth largest producer of natural rubber in the world after

Thailand, Indonesia and Malaysia and at the same time is the fourth largest

consumer after USA, Japan and South Korea. Rubber cultivation in India

had been traditionally confined to the narrow belt extending from

Kanyakumari District of Tamilnadu to West of Western Ghats. Within this

zone, Kerala assumes considerable significance with 86 per cent of the area

and about 95 per cent of rubber production. Within Kerala, Travancore -

Cochin region continues to be the dominant belt of rubber cultivation, with

72 per cent of total area under the crop and 75 per cent of the rubber tapped

area.

Today, rubber cultivation has expanded tremendously in Kerala taking

about 48 lakh hectares, which has the second position in terms of area after

coconut. Though there are no reliable estimates available, it is widely

understood that within the holding sector, the share of small and tiny

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holdings (less than 5 ha) is significant in terms of area, production and

employment. For instance, a recent study reports that the share of

smallholdings with an average size of less than 2 hectares in total area under

rubber has increased from 53 per cent in 1955-56 to more than 83 per cent in

2001, with an average holding size of less than 0.5 ha.

In any economy, women play a prominent role at various levels. They

are the backbone of the village economy in rural India. Women take up

different works to eke out their livelihood and the majority of the rural

women depend on agriculture which is the major, unorganised sector in

India. Meny of these labourers are landless, homeless and belong to the

socially depressed classes of the society. Despite the seasonal nature of

employment in the field of agriculture, enormous growth is witnessed in the

size of the agricultural labourers since the beginning of this century.

Ours is basically an agricultural country. It is a source of livelihood

for over 70 per cent of the population. Agriculture, therefore, has become a

family enterprise. The whole family of men, women and children work on it

and earn their livelihood. Men's role in agriculture is widely known, but

women's role is not that open, though they mostly work for more number of

hours, with less privilege, tedious activities and with painful postures. It is

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only in the recent times that their role is being recognised, though there is a

possibility that the women themselves are not aware of their contributions,

hardships, and, above all, over-burden of not only the household jobs but

jobs related to agriculture and allied fields. The condition is worse when

they work on fields not of their own but on others. On others’ field, they

work as labourers with no facilities for their selves or for their children.

Children are left on the fields under the umbrella of sun, dust, rain and cold.

Women do not know their rights and do not know how to fight for their

rights.

A profile of the women labourer explodes the myth that she belongs to

the so-called weaker sex. While a men does the ploughing and harrowing in

the hills, it is the women who breaks the clods with wooden hammers after

the first few turns of the soils, she levels the land ensuring a uniform

distribution of seeds and fertilizers and seeks to minimise the surface run-

off a difficult job indeed in the hill regions where the terraces are steeply

inclined. Then, she menures the land, one of the most labour intensive tasks.

Inter-cultivation is also the women's job, which demends light turning over

of this soil after the seeds have sprouted. This job is usually done with the

aid of a small hoe.

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Crops which grow tall like maize and do not have an extensive root

system require earthing up twice or more in a season, particularly in rainy

season, when the soil around the roots is washed away by heavy rains. The

soil is rigged up around the main stem of the plant to cover the root zone.

This job too is done by women. With the help of small hoes, women do

regular weeding of the crops in order to ensure better crop growth and yield.

India is a land of villages and agriculture is the mainstay of her

economic life. Women constitute about one half of the country's population.

Their place in the Indian society has been prominent. They play a pivotal

role in agriculture. They work in the fields alongside men, attend to off-farm

activities like processing, grading and marketing of produce, tend the cattle

and run the household. Nevertheless, certain basic inadequacies in terms of

comparatively lower literacy and skills among women, their inability to

engage in work consistently for various reasons, limited avenues for

participation etc. have handicapped the desired level of their contribution to

rural development. As a result, participation by women has largely been

confined to activities involving low wages and drudgery.

Despite these disadvantages, the economic pressures and the urge to

protect their levels of living from getting eroded fast have made them

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continue in the work stream. Removal of these inadequacies and constraints

is crucial to the growth of agriculture in all developing countries, including

India.

As agriculture is still a major activity in our country, very high

percentage of female population, as a whole, is directly or indirectly,

involved in farming as cultivators or labourers. Majority of women in the

villages participate in agriculture as agricultural labour. Women's

participation as cultivators is minimal.

Role of Agriculture in the Context of Developing Indian Economy

Agriculture means not only the production of crops by the cultivation

of the soil, but also the rearing of live-stock. Thus, milk, meat and wool are

agricultural products as wheat, rice and cotton. Agriculture is a basic and

important occupation as it provides not only food-stuff but also essential

raw-materials to the industry. It is the oldest business in the world. Two-

thirds of the population of the world is dependent on agriculture either

directly or indirectly for its livelihood.

Of the total arable land of the world, India's share is nearly 12 per

cent. The total agricultural population of India is 42.1 million which

constitutes 21.6 per cent of the world's agricultural population. Nearly 15 per

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cent of the total irrigated lands of the world lie in India. In the production of

jowar, pulses, oil-seeds, tea and jute, India's share accounts for more than 30

per cent of the world's production. Thus, India has become one of the

biggest agricultural countries of the world.

India is predominantly an agriculture country. Agriculture is the

largest and the most important industry in India. Nearly 70 per cent of the

people in India depend on agriculture for their livelihood.

Another important feature is the dependence of most of the Indian

industries on agriculture. All leading industries of India are agro-based

industries. Cotton, jute, sugar, plantation, vanaspathi and paper industries

depend on agriculture directly. Meny of the small industries too depend on

agriculture directly or indirectly. Handloom-weaving, rice milling, oil

crushing, jaggery making, beedi menufacture, coir making, sericulture etc.,

depend on agriculture for their raw-materials. Though with the advent of

planning and development, meny new industries have come up which do not

depend on agriculture, the basic feature remains the same.

The internal trade and transport system in India secure the bulk of

their business only from the movement of agricultural commodities.

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In the sphere of international trade and foreign exchange, the role of

agriculture is significant. We export mostly agricultural products like jute,

tea, oilseeds, spices, tobacco and millets. Nearly 70 per cent of India's export

accounts for agricultural goods or menufacturers of agricultural produce.

Besides, the agricultural sector supplies food to the teeming millions

of India. In short, almost all sectors of the economy of India depend on

agriculture. The prosperity of the country depends on the prosperity of the

farmer.

Share of Agriculture in National Income

Economic regeneration attempted in successive Five Year Plans has

made agriculture a pride of national economy. This sector, today, provides

livelihood to about 70 per cent of the labour force contributing nearly 32 per

cent of net national product and accounts for a sizeable share at total value

of the country's exports. It supplies bulk of wage goods required by non-

agricultural sector and raw-material for a large section of industry. It is

gratifying to note that per capita net availability of food-grains went upto a

level of 511 grams per day in 1991 as compared to that of 395 grams in early

fifties. In 1992, it had, however, been provisionally estimated lower at 476

grams per day. In terms of gross fertilizer consumption, India ranks fourth in

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the world after USA, the erstwhile USSR and China. The country has the

largest area in the world under pulse crops. In the field of cotton, India is the

first country to evolve a cotton hybrid. The country has made a major break-

through in prawn seed production and pest culture technology.

Compound growth rate in agricultural production during the period

1949-50 to 1991-92 is 2.7 per cent per annum. Production of food-grains

increased significantly from 549.2 lakh tones in 1949-50 to 1670.6 lakh

tones in 1991-92. Cropping pattern is more diversified and cultivation of

commercial crops has received new impetus in line with domestic demends

and export requirements. During post-green revolution period i.e., 1967-68

to 1991-92, growth rate in agricultural production was assessed at around

2.78 per cent per annum. Production of food-grains during this period

increased from 950.5 lakh tones to 1,670.6 lakh tones. Cropping pattern has

undergone perceptible changes and non-traditional crops like summer

moong, soyabean, summer groundnut, sun-flower etc., are gradually gaining

importance. In order to utilise scarce resources optimally, a short duration

third crop is also being raised in some areas utilising residual moisture

available from post-karif and post-rabi cultivation.

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The index of agricultural production, which registered an increase at

21 per cent in 1988-89 and 2.1 per cent in 1989-90 over the previous year

showed further increase of 2.7 per cent in 1990-91 due to primary increase

recorded in the production of rice, wheat, pulses, oilseeds, jute and mesta,

sugarcane and other commercial crops. The index of food-grains production

during 1991-92 showed a fall of 2.3 per cent due to fall in the production of

various food-grains. The index of food-grains production during 1991-92

showed a fall of 4.3 per cent over the previous year's production index of a

181.4. Food-grains production during 1991-92 declined by about 93 lakh

tonnes over previous year's production primarily due to adverse weather

conditions during the south-west monsoon season (June-September), 1991.

Availability of edible oils including vanaspathi has also increased

significantly and its production in 1987 was 9,47,153 metric tonnes. The

country has been able to sustain and improve availability of basic

consumption articles and has thus, raised the standard of living.

Women Population Engaged in Agriculture

In order to awaken the people, it is the women who have to be

awakened. Once she is on move, the family moves, the village moves, the

nation moves".

— Pandit jawaharlal Nehru

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Studies on women in agriculture conducted in India and other

developing and under-developed countries all point to the fact that women

contribute far more to agricultural production than has generally been

acknowledged. Recognition of their crucial role in agriculture should not

obscure the fact that farm women continue to be concerned with their

primary functions as wives, mothers and home makers. Traditionally,

women had no definite decision-making role in a majority of family affairs

because of dominance of male members in the joint family system. The

situation now seems to be changing considerably owing to the introduction

of new home and farm technologies and disintegration of the joint family

system. But, despite all this, the patriarchal system of family life which has

been in vogue since time immemorial has relegated women to the

background. There is no denying the fact that rural women have been

contributing largely to the country's economy which is mainly agriculture-

based. Their share of labour is particularly significant in the contest that they

actually perform the agricultural work, household maintenance, child

rearing, collection of cooking fuel/wood and fodder, fetching drinking water

etc. However, unfortunately, this is also the sector where women's role as

unpaid labour in productive activities is most prominent.

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The types and extent of agricultural activities in which women are

engaged vary in different States. For instance, in the States of Orissa, Tamil

Nadu, West Bengal, Kerala and Kashmir, women are engaged in

transplanting, weeding, harvesting and threshing of paddy; in Gujarat, they

tend, weed, harvest and thresh pulses; whereas, in Himachal Pradesh,

besides growing food for their families, women produce cash crops like

potatoes, apples, peas, mushrooms, gninger etc. In North, Eastern states,

they work in tea plantations.

Besides, community-wise, we find the participation of women in

farming operations highest among the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled

Tribes. Women's participation in farming declines as their position goes up

in social hierarchy.