CHAPTER – II - Keralaforest.kerala.gov.in/images/02flf.pdf · 2016-09-06 · phenology of the stand are governed by the locality factors. The existence of different types of forests

CHAPTER – 2 31 PART - 1

CHAPTER – II .

FLORA AND FAUNA .

2.1. INTRODUCTION.

Kerala State, which encompasses the windward side of the southern Western Ghats, represents a bio‐geographically important zone. The State represents 95 % of the flowering plants and 90 % of the vertebrate fauna of the Western Ghats, with high rate of endemism. Diverse topography and micro climate are the main reasons for this rich biodiversity. This Division also forms part of the Agasthya Mala Biosphere Reserve, which is one of the main three centres of endemism identified within the state. The plant community and faunal community exhibit perceptible variedness and diversity in form, size, shape, structure and density. Plant community, right from the imperceptible protophytes to the most developed colossal tree forms and the animal community, starting from the simplest protozoan to the largest mammals, exist in nature in a dynamic equilibrium – referred to as the balance of nature – involving complexly intermingled, inter‐acting and interdependent floral and faunal chains. These communities, jointly referred to as eco‐complex, vary in composition and in mass, both in space and time, depending on the locality or habitat factors that include climatic edaphic, geographic and biotic conditions and also on the interaction among themselves and extraneous influences. However, it is evident that the most dynamic components in this perplexing eco‐complex are the flora and fauna. The various aspects regarding these elements are to be considered in detail while attempting to manage and conserve this vital dynamic entity.


CHAPTER – IIA

FOREST FLORA

VIEW FROM THE TOP OF PAMBINKAYAM.

2A.1. TREES Forest is indeed a very striking feature of the land surface, sprawling across varied geographical terrains that composed of precipitous ridges, placid foothills, ravines, dales and plains ramified by a myriad of rills and rivulets, and forming safe and pleasant abode for the wildlife. The most conspicuous and bewildering element in this complex heterogeneous bio‐system is the plant community comprised of a multitude of plants of varied ages, sizes, shapes and characters. As elsewhere in the Western Ghats, the natural forests of this tract form a rich repository of biological diversity, endowed with luxuriant vegetation, rich in number of species and their density, due to the heterogeneous environmental conditions in the tract. Almost all the plant species common to this part of Western Ghats are represented in this tract too. As the compartmental system was not at all adopted or practiced in this locality for managing forestry operations during the past, this tract is not divisible in to smaller units called compartments, sub‐compartments, or blocks. The division of the tract affected so far is only for the administrative and protection purposes and it was carried out considering only the extent of the unit, its vulnerability to illegal activities by miscreants and the convenience to fix the natural features such as ridges, streams, and roads etc as boundaries. Hence, each unit, ‐ whether a Beat, Section, or Range – is a replica of the other in respect of the terrain and vegetation. All units comprise natural forests of almost all the types met with in the tract, reed belts, man made plantations etc. As such, it will be better and proper to enumerate the tree species met with and to discuss the floristic composition while dealing with the forest types in detail. 2A.2. GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE GROWING STOCK 2A.2. 1. ‐ GENERAL. The type of vegetation that may develop or found on a particular locality is the product of the locality factors operating there. The climatic factors such as the variations in temperature, the amount of precipitation and its distribution, moisture condition during the growing season, and the edaphic features such as the nature and type of soil, its depth, fertility, chemical nature, moisture retaining capacity, etc influence and determine the type of vegetation and its growth and development. The


geographical features such as the altitude, aspect, and slope cause differences in the climatic and edaphic factors and give rise to varied types of vegetation. The presence or absence of biotic interferences will also help or retard the progress of the vegetation largely. In other words, the physiognomy, species diversity, floristic composition and stratification, biomass production and phenology of the stand are governed by the locality factors. The existence of different types of forests in this tract is the result of the influence exerted by the varied locality factors existing in various locales within the tract. 2A.2. 2. ‐ FOREST TYPES. This Division is blessed with vast expanse of natural forests. It is estimated that the extent of the natural forests will be about 210 Sq: Kms, comprising evergreen, semi‐evergreen, and deciduous type of forests. The type of a forest is the resultant reconciliation of the floristic inheritance of the locality with the habitat. A forest type can be defined as a unit of vegetation that possesses broad characteristics in physiognomy and structure, sufficiently pronounced to permit its differentiation from other such units. Usually, a forest type will be described with reference to its geographical location, climatic and edaphic features, composition, and condition. For ascertaining the type of forest, the vegetation present at the time being only is considered, without taking in to account the influence of physiographic, edaphic, and biotic factors up on it. As per the “Revised Classification of the Forest Types of India” by Harry. G. Champion and S. K. Seth (1968), the main forest types met with in this tract are: (1) ‐ West Coast Tropical Evergreen Forests – (1A/C4) (2) ‐ Southern Hilltop Tropical Evergreen Forests – (1A/C3) (3) ‐ West Coast Semi evergreen Forests ‐ (2A/C2) (4) ‐ Southern Moist Mixed Deciduous Forests – (3A/C2) (5) ‐ Wet Reed Brakes, Bamboo Brakes, Cane Brakes and Grass Lands. 2A.2. 3. WEST COAST TROPICAL EVERGREEN FORESTS 2A. 2.3 (a). ‐ GENERAL. This is a climatic climax type of vegetation, characterized by lofty trees, dense growth, and closed multi‐storeyed canopy, having a very complex floristic composition, mainly of broad‐leaved evergreen species of different ages, sizes, and shapes arranged in distinct tiers. It is one of the most complex and complicated ecosystems. This dynamic entity, which utilizes the solar energy at a higher rate than any other ecological units and produces the maximum biomass, can be described as the most productive, successful and self‐sufficient ecosystem in the nature. It is always in a state of dynamic equilibrium that influences the habitat to be in a most productive state. In species diversity it is the richest habitat. All the tree species found in this type of forests are of evergreen nature. Few species of the top storey may be briefly deciduous without affecting the evergreen nature of the forest as a whole. The canopy will be dense and will remain closed always. This helps to retain the soil moisture, which induces incessant microbial activity in the upper layers of the soil and accumulation of the nutrient rich humus. Trees belonging to all age groups can be seen here arranged in different tiers. The trees in the upper canopy will grow up to 45 M in height; with about 30 M tall straight clear boles. Many of the trees develop plank buttresses. The bark is thin and smooth. The crowns proportionally small. The autumnal and vernal tinges of the juvenile leaves in vivid contrast with the general dark green background are the characteristic feature of these forests. The juvenile leaves will be exhibiting varying and varied hues due to the presence of a protective covering of certain colouring pigments, formed to prevent the destruction of chlorophyll of the juvenile leaves by the radiant solar energy. Small inconspicuous flowers and cauliflory are other salient features of the stand. Woody climbers and epiphytes are very common. The general absence of grasses and bamboos is another striking feature of this type of forests.


2A. 2.3 (b) FLORISTIC COMPOSITION Tree species belonging to about 50 families are usually found in these forests. Dipterocarpaceae, Moraceae, Meliaceae, Ebenaceae, Guttiferae, Euphorbiaceae, etc are the prominent families represented. The important species found in these forests are given below. Top Canopy: Dipterocarpus bourdillonii, Dysoxylum malabaricum, Cullenia exarillata, Vateria indica, Artocarpus hirsutus, Palaquim ellipticum, Poeciloneuron indicum, Mesua ferrea, Tetrameles nudiflora, Myristica attenuata, Kingiodendron pinnatum, Persea macrantha, Hopea parviflora, Anacolosa densiflora, Polyalthia fragrans, Calophyllum elatum, etc. Middle Canopy: This tier consists of the younger members of the top canopy and other species like Canarium strictum, Aporusa lindleyana, Vitex altissima, Hydnocarpus pentandra, Holigarna arnottiana, Bischofia javanica, Garcinia gummi‐gutta, Toona ciliata, Buccaurea courtallensis, Aranga wightii, Antiaris toxicaria, etc. Lower Canopy: It comprises the pole crop of species found in the upper canopies and other shade‐tolerant or shade‐loving species like Canthium dicoccum, Atlantia racemosa, Antidesma diandrum, Murraya paniculata, etc. Palms like Pinanga dicksonii, Aranga wightii, and Calamus species are also seen. In certain localities canes are found growing gregariously Ground Vegetation: The forest floor is covered by dense growth of many shade‐loving species, specific to this type of forests. They include many medicinal plants widely used in the indigenous system of treatments. Curcuma amada, Curcuma aromatica, Curcuma zedoaria, Elettaria cardamomum, Nilgirianthus ciliatus, Piper longum, Thottea siliquosa, Symplocos cochinchinensis, Zingiber zerumbet, Costus speciosus, Alpinia galanga, etc along with a variety of ferns, orchids, aroids and mosses. Climbers: Entada rheedii, Embelia ribes, Coscinium fenestratum, Raphidophora pertusa, Bauhinia vahilii, Dioscorea species, Butea superba, Piper longum, Smilax zeylanica, Gnetum scandens, Tinospora cordifolia etc are the important climbers found. Epiphytes: Epiphytes are seen in plenty on most of the trees. Vanda species, Bulbophyllum tremulum, Drynaria species, Cymbidium aloifolium, Hoya nauciflora, Pilea trineria, Polystachea flevescens, Pothos scandens, Remusatia vivipara, etc Endemic Species: Tetrameles nudiflora Hopea parviflora, Vateria indica, Anacolosa densiflora, Palaquim ellipticum, Diospyros candolleana, Diptercarpus bourdilloni, Buccaurea courtallensis etc are the endemic evergreen species met with in this tract. Evergreen Forest – Priya Estate Side

Woody Climbers – Lianas


2A. 2. 3. (c). ASSOCIATIONS AND CONSOCIATIONS In general, no definite associations of species occur in these forests. Yet, some species show local preponderance or gregariousness but does not form definite associations. This higher percentage of incidence of certain species is chiefly the result of local climatic and edaphic factors. Kingiodendron pinnatum, Diospyros candolleana, and Myristica malabarica occur in groups in certain localities. But the consociation of Poeciloneuron indicum can be seen with its entire splendor at the locality referred to as “Anjakkaer”, within the Konni Reserved Forests, near to the eastern boarder of Kanayar Range. Over an area of about 300 Ha this species occur gregariously, contributing about 75 to 80 % of the tree growth in the locality. The ground flora of this locality consists mainly of the seedlings of Hopea and some other evergreen species. It is also noteworthy that this species is confined to this locality within this tract. In other parts this species can be found very rarely. The reason for this extraordinary gregariousness of the species may be the locality factors. However, it is suggested to demarcate the area, collect the geo coordinates of the tract, and prepare a sketch of the site. The floristic composition of this demarcated site need to be recorded. This can be utilized in future to study about the developments taking place in this site. 2A. 2.3 (d). REGENERATION STATUS In the evergreen forests, the natural regeneration appears to be a complex process. Most of the species do not exhibit the same type of liking to all the localities within the forest. They favour certain type of areas to regenerate profusely. The dominant species regenerate under their own shade. At the dawn of the favorable season, the natural regeneration of the important species can be found to be prolific. Along the banks of the streams, where the light conditions are more favorable good regeneration of species like Hopea parviflora, Vateria indica, Calophyllum elatum, Palaquim ellipticum, Anacolosa densiflora, etc can be seen. However, their establishment is seldom achieved due to the drought conditions caused by the breaks in monsoon, suppression by fast growing ground vegetation and damage caused by squirrels, porcupines, etc. Generally speaking, the natural regeneration in these tracts cannot be termed as unsatisfactory. The details of regeneration are given in Annexure: 10 As per the regeneration survey results, seedlings, saplings and poles are available in the Natural Forests in the proportion 25:10:4. This again shows that only less than 1/5 of the seedlings survives and grows as poles. This leads to the conclusion that site improvement measures and protection from biotic pressure are essential to bring the natural forests tracts to its original glory. 2A. 2. 3 (e) ECOLOGICAL ASPECTS Ecologically these forests form the climatic climax vegetation in the tropical region, as they represent the final stage of plant succession in the locality. There is great diversity in the life forms it harbours. It is the perfect example of co‐existence with inter‐dependence. Due to this complex web of interactions and interdependence, loss of one species may result in the loss of many other forms. Therefore, it can be said that this biological citadel rests on the weakest foundation. They help in cutting down the run off drastically, augmenting the seepage of water, increasing the water collection capacity of the soil, thereby providing perennial springs to foster the streamlets. It also helps to improve the soil conditions. The rate of evapo‐transpiration is higher and the atmosphere will be humid always. It cools the atmosphere and encourages condensation of water vapour. In this tract, these forests in the lower reaches were overexploited in the past under the Selection Felling System and these areas now support a much degraded type with secondary growth. It is heard in this locality that, in the past, a stretch of these forests was worked under Selection Felling System by a contractor. Most of the dominant trees of immense sizes were removed during the process. As a result the canopy was opened very much, thereby exposing the growth in the lower storey. Due to this sudden exposure to the radiant solar energy, all the developing pole crop of Dysoxylum species in the lower storeys were perished and dried completely.


And they were also removed in the guise of dead and dying trees. Due to these biotic interferences and mismanagement, these types of forests have retreated to small pockets in the hill folds and stream banks at higher elevations. The perennial nature of the Kallar River and its main tributaries can be attributed to these forests in the uplands. 2A. 2. 3 (f) DISTRIBUTION AND EXTENT Large stretches of evergreen forests can be seen in the protected valleys, hill folds and along the banks of streams at higher elevations. Small patches of evergreen forests are found in certain localities, which may be the remnants of this type of forest existed in the past. So much so, it is very difficult to delimit the evergreens correctly. On the slopes of Kalanga Mala, Karingoli Mala and along the banks of Mangala River and Kanayar River, large patches of evergreen forests are found. Extensive patches in a little degraded state can be seen near Kumbavurutty, Manalar, Priya and Ambanar Estates. The total extent of the area of evergreen forests will be about 50 Sq.Kms 2A.2.4. SOUTHERN HILL TOP TROPICAL EVERGREEN FORESTS 2A. 2. 4 (a). ‐ GENERAL. This type forests are characterized by the stunted and heavily branched evergreen trees, festooned with mosses and epiphytes. Both tropical and temperate floral elements are represented in this crop. They occur in the well protected hill folds and hill tops with an elevation of more than 1000 M above MSL. No canopy differentiation is met with. The height of the trees will be generally 10 to 15 M, with shorter, irregular boles and somewhat round, dense and thick crowns to resist the wind effect. The boles and the branches are heavily infested with mosses, lichens and epiphytic orchids. 2A. 2.4 (b) FLORISTIC COMPOSITION. Many of the tree species found in the evergreen forests of tropical as well as the temperate zones occur in this type of forests. However, the height growth will be less and there will be a stunted appearance Top Canopy. Mesua ferrea, Calophyllum elatum, Cullenia exarillata, Lophopetallum wightianum, Cinnamomum sulphuratum, Holigarna beddomei, Syzygium species, Elaeocarpus species, Dimocarpus longam, Litsea olioides, Garcinia species, etc. Middle Canopy. Syzygium cumini, Cinnamomum zeylanicum, Elaeocarpus serratus, etc. Lower Canopy. Calamus travancoricus, C. rotang, Ochlandra rheedii, Oxytenanthra monadelpha, etc. Ground Vegetation. There will be very dense undergrowth of shrubs that may grow up to a height of 5 M. The main species will be Strobilanthus species. Other species found are Asparagus, Lasianthus etc. Climbers. Entada reedii, Discorea species, Butea species etc form the prominent woody climbers. Degraded Evergreen Forest Patch

Shola Forests in the Hill Folds – Thuval Mala


2A. 2. 4(c). REGENERATION STATUS. Natural regeneration as a whole is very poor. Seedlings of Garcinia, Mesua and Calophyllum are seen. But the establishment and advance growth is very poor. The exact reason for this failure is not decipherable. 2a.2.4 (d). ECOLOGICAL ASPECTS. Ecologically it is a stable type of forest, representing the climatic climax possible in the locality where they are now found. The stunted nature of the forest can be attributed to the high wind velocity the trees have to face in the upper reaches and also to the shallow soil cover. As these forests are situated in remote and inaccessible high lands, they are less disturbed and remain in the same status without any regression. They have got much significance as they retain the ground water and release as springs even during the dry period and protect the shallow soil effectively preventing soil erosion. 2A. 2.4 (e). DISTRIBUTION AND EXTENT. These types of forests occur in patches in the hill folds of ridges near Thuval Mala, Eramuchady, Aramba and Kanayar. The total extent of this type of forests within this tract will not be more than 500 Ha. 2A.2.5. WEST COAST SEMI‐EVERGREEN FORESTS 2A. 2.5 (a). GENERAL. These closed high forests with a fair mixture of evergreen and deciduous species represents a transitional stage between the evergreen and deciduous type of vegetation. This type is very variable and difficult to define except in comparative terms, being in an intermediate stage, comprising patches typical to both evergreen and deciduous forests. Usually they are seen adjoining the evergreen belt on the banks of rivers and on the hill slopes. They occur in localities where the annual rain fall is between 2000 2500 mm. The number and diversity of species is high, but lower when compared to the evergreen stands. Both the evergreen and deciduous species are intimately mixed in varying proportions. In the upper reaches where this type merges with the Evergreens, the proportion of Evergreen species will be higher. The higher canopies will be occupied by both evergreen and deciduous species. Both the evergreen and deciduous species are intimately mixed in varying proportions. In the upper reaches where the type merges with the evergreens, the proportion of evergreen species will be higher. The higher canopies will be occupied by both evergreen and deciduous species. But the lower canopies will be of mostly evergreen species. Generally, the deciduous species forms nearly 40% of the growing stock in the upper canopy. Canopy is also less dense than that of evergreen. The trees of top canopy will acquire a height of 40 M, with clear boles of about 30M. The crown will be small. Buttresses occur both in evergreen and deciduous species. The bark of the trees tends to be thicker and rougher. Cauliflory is less marked. Bamboos as well as species belonging to leguminous family, which are rare in evergreens, occur abundantly. Large woody climbers, epiphytes, ferns, and mosses are also found. Undergrowth is mostly evergreen and quite dense 2.5 (b) FLORISTIC COMPOSITION. Top Canopy: The Evergreens met with are Hopea parviflora, Vateria indica, Palaquim ellipticum, Cinnamomum zeylanicum, Polyalthia fragrans, Hydnocarpus pentandra, Tetrameles nudiflora, Holigarna arnottiana, Persea macrantha, Elaeocarpus serratus, Dysoxylum malabaricum, Toona ciliate species, Mangifera indica, Evodia lunu‐ankenda etc. The deciduous species include Terminalia paniculata, Dalbergia latifolia Grewia tiliaefolia, Artocarpus hirsutus, Bombax ceiba, Pterocarpus marsupium Stereospermum chelonoides, etc. Middle Canopy: Cinnamomum zeylanicum, Aporusa lindleyana, Spondias indica, Canarium strictum, Carallia candel, Dillenia pentagyna, Bridelia retusa, Mitragyna parvifolia, Grewia tiliaefolia, Albizzia ordoratissima, etc.


Lower Canopy: Antidesma zeylanicum, Aporusa lindleyana, Trema orientalis, Olea dioica, Gmelina arborea, etc Dendrocalamus strictus, Bambusa arundinacea, Ochlandra rheedii, Calamus rotang etc also occur under open canopy. Ground Vegetation: Strobilanthus species, Curcuma species, Glycosmis pentaphylla, Callicarpa tomentosa, Ipomoea sp etc are the commonly found undergrowth. Climbers: Large climbers as well as thorny climbers are seen. Entada scandens, Smilax macrophylla, Bauhinia species, Dioscorea sp, Calycopterix floribunda species, etc are the climbers usually met with. 2A. 2.5(c). REGENERATION STATUS. Natural regeneration of the evergreen species as a whole is prolific. But they seldom get established, probably due to the not so dense canopy and resultant exposure to the radiant solar energy. The natural regeneration of deciduous species is not at all satisfactory, except in the areas near to the banks of rivers and streams. 2A. 2.5 (d). ECOLOGICAL ASPECTS. These forests represent a transitional stage between evergreen and deciduous stands. In this tract, they are not the product of plant succession. On the other hand they were formed by the retrogression of the Evergreen forests due to biotic influences. If these forests, which are on a serial stage, are provided ample protection, its progression to wet evergreen is certain under the existing favorable conditions. If they are maintained in the same state, without allowing further deterioration, they will form a store house of economically valuable timbers and bamboos, very many species that yield NWFP and certain rare medicinal plants. 2A. 2.5 (e). DISTRIBUTION AND EXTENT. These types of forests occur on the gentle slopes of many hillocks and also along the banks of water courses of the high lands. They are found at interior localities such as Panamthoppu, Eramuchady, Ezhukoppam Chittar, , Amarakkathodu, Manalar, etc. The slopes of hillocks like Thuval Mala, Rishi Mala, Motira Mala, etc support this type of forests. The total extent of this type of forests comes to about 30 Sq: Kms. 2A.2.6. SOUTHERN MOIST MIXED DECIDUOUS FORESTS 2A. 2.6 (a). GENERAL. These forests occur generally in the areas with a rainfall ranging from 1500 mm to 2000 mm. They are characterized by the predominance of deciduous trees that will become totally leafless with the advent of the dry season, when the vegetative activities almost come to a stand still, in order to reduce the water loss through transpiration. Semi Ever Green Forests (Decides Species in Top Canopy)

Moist Decides Forests With Grass as Under Growth


The trees of top canopy, rarely even in size, may grow up to a height of about 35 M or more. The bole will be straight or slightly crooked depending on the inherent characters and habitat conditions. The crown will be in proportion to the bole. The bark of the trees will be very thick, rough and fissured and shed off in flakes. Some of the trees bear thorns and spikes. Plank buttresses and Cauliflory will be almost absent, but fluting is common. In contrast to the Evergreen forests, the juvenile leaves do not exhibit any colour pattern. There will be a definite second storey comprising Evergreen and deciduous species. Few species may exhibit gregariousness in certain localities, but no definite associations are met with. Canes and epiphytes are restricted to wet hollows. Climbers occur and are often large. Abundant growth of bamboos and grass is another striking feature and it makes these forests an abode for wildlife. At places, bamboos grow in pure patches. Dried leaf litter will cover the forest floor during summer and it increases the fire hazard. Annual fires destroy this soil cover and expose the soil to all adverse factors to act upon. The run off will be strong and the top soil will be washed off. It ultimately causes the spread of grass and invasion of weeds. 2A. 2.6 (b) FLORISTIC COMPOSITION. From the economical point of view these forests have immense value and in this respect they are in the forefront when compared to other types of forests. This forest is the source of many important timber species like Rosewood, Teak, Terminalia, Grewia, Xylia etc. They also form store house of species that yield important NWFP, and several medicinal species. The timber required for construction works, furniture, pulp, packing cases, etc are procured from these forests or from the plantations raised after clear felling these forests. Compared to the Evergreen forests, the number of species is less and they do not attain very large dimensions. Tree species of about 40 families are well represented in these forests. Verbenaceae, Tiliaceae, Lythraceae, Rubiaceae, Leguminoseae, Combretaceae, Bignoniaceae, etc are the families well represented. Most of the trees will be mesophytes. The important species met with in different storeys are listed below. Top Canopy‐ Dalbergia latifolia, Tectona grandis, Lagerstroemia microcarpa, Xylia xylocarpa, Terminalia paniculata, Terminalia crenulata, Grewia tiliaefolia, Stereospermum chelonoides, Artocarpus hirsutus, Evodia lunu‐ankenda, Toona ciliate species, Pterocarpus marsupium, Schleichera oleosa, Terminalia bellerica, Bombax ceiba, Adina cordifolia, Albizzia ordoratissima, Anogeissus latifolia, etc. Middle Canopy: Dillenia pentagyna, Cassia fistula, Macaranga peltata, Careya arborea, Erythrina stricta, Bauhinia racemosa, Strychnos nux‐vomica, Croton malabaricus Trema orientalis, Emblica officinalis, Wrightia tinctoria, etc. Lower Canopy: Antidesma diandrum, Lea indica, Holarrhena antidysentrica, Randia dumetorum, Helecteres isora species, etc are found in the lower canopy. Dendrocalamus strictus, Bambusa arundinacea, Ochlandra rheedii, etc also available in these forests. Ground Vegetation: Thick growth of weeds like Eupatorium odoratum, Lantana camara, Acacia torta, etc occur in open areas and plantations. Dense growth of Helecteres isora species is found in this tract. gycosmis pentaphylla, Clerodendrum infortunatum Gloriosa superba and many types of grass also occur as ground vegetation. Climbers: Calycopterix floribunda, Bauhinia vahlii, Acacia torta, Acacia pennata, Butea parviflora, Ipomoea companulata, Mucuna pruriens, Zizyphus species, Abrus precatorius, Desmodium gangeticum, Sarcostemma acidum, etc. 2A. 2.6(c). REGENERATION STATUS. Natural regeneration of certain species like Terminalia paniculata, Terminalia bellerica, Grewia tiliaefolia, Pterocarpus marsupium, Xylia xylocarpa, Tectona grandis etc is seen. However most of them are struggling hard to get established as the obnoxious weeds and vigorously growing seedlings of low valued species smother and suppress them. The regular annual fires also cause considerable damage. Root‐suckers of Dalbergia latifolia are common, but due to the repeated fires they are also not in a


promising condition. Regeneration of Xylia, Trema orientalis, Macaranga peltata, Emblica officinalis, Careya arborea are found in profusion in certain patches. Natural regeneration of the valuable species is not at all satisfactory, except in the areas near to the banks of streams. If adequate protection is afforded against the annual fires, the state of affairs is likely to improve. 2a. 2.6 (d). ECOLOGICAL ASPECTS. These forests are mostly situated in the easily accessible localities and near to human habitations. In the past, these forests were subjected to over exploitation. Indiscriminate fellings for firewood and small timber, unrestricted grazing, regular annual ground fires, and other biotic interferences caused depletion of these forests. Sudden environmental changes brought in by the clearing of extensive forest stretches for raising plantations of economically valuable species, adversely affected plant succession. The soil conditions were altered and water regime was affected badly. Moreover, the fire that sweeps the areas regularly year after year, killing all the regeneration and retarding the growth, also helped to encourage soil erosion. The natural causes and biotic factors prevented the forests from progressing to the climax. It can be now described as a biotic sub‐climax or a secondary type of vegetation held at this stage by biotic factors. In any way, it is not a stable climax type of vegetation. If they are provided with ample protection by preventing all the biotic interferences and the regeneration is assisted to get established, they will become a true asset to the Forest Department. At present, they have very little role in the soil and moisture conservation. 2A. 2.6 (e). DISTRIBUTION AND EXTENT. Major portion of the natural forests of this tract come under this category. It occurs throughout the tract on the slopes of hillocks, in the valleys and plains. Extensive patches of this type of forests can be seen at Alappady, Panamthoppu, Mlanthadom etc and on the slopes of many hillocks. They have been extensively worked in the past. The teak plantations and softwood plantations of this tract were raised after clear felling this type of forests. At present the extent of this type of forest in this tract will be about 13 Sq: Kms, excluding the already converted area. 2A.2.7. WET REED BRAKES Reed brakes occur in the slopes of higher hills at about 800 M above MSL and along the stream banks, and roadsides, where the moisture and light conditions favour the growth. They grow in natural forests as well as in plantations. They also occur in clearings made in the past as seen along the interstate boundary near Kottavasal Forest Checking Station. Here they occur in dense impenetrable linear patches. Evidently these are of secondary origin. The effect of the severe winds that blow through this gap almost throughout the year have got an adverse influence on the growth of this patch. Reeds are also found growing profusely on the sides of the roads passing through the plantations and natural forests on hill slopes. In localities such as Ezhukoppam, Pallikondan, Pasukkadatheri extensive patches can be seen. The main reed species found are Ochlandra travancorica, Ochlandra wightii, Ochlandra rheedii, etc. Reeds growing on Road-cuttings

Linear Reed patch near Kottavasal


2A.2. 8. BAMBOOS Bamboos, the renewable natural resources, often referred to as ‘Green Gold’, ‘Poor man’s Timber, etc has got many uses. It is widely used by the pulp, paper, and rayon industries and in cottage industry sector. In the past bamboos in large quantities were extracted from this tract for industrial use. All the clumps in the approachable areas were exploited and it has resulted in the depletion of the stock. Bamboos occur in dense gregarious patches in the natural forests as well as in plantations of this tract in varying intensities. The main species found are Bamboosa arundinacea, Bambusa spinosa and Dendrocalamus strictus. The localities like Manalar, Pallikondan, Ezhukoppam, Koorampara, Usmankunnu etc support dense thickets of bamboo growth. These areas form the main feeding ground for the elephants. 2A.2.9. CANE BRAKES Cane or Rattan is widely used for manufacture of a wide range of furniture, handicraft items, and utensils. It is as strong as medium density wood, but lighter in weight. It is also extremely pliable. Due to these desirable qualities canes are in much demand and widely used in the manufacture of a wide range of furniture, baskets and handicrafts items. Cottage industries using canes as raw material are numerous. The wide range of uses, result in demands from domestic as well as out side markets. Due to over exploitation to meet the increased demands as well as clearing and alienations of the natural forests, cane resources depleted much faster. In many areas the canes became scarce. But the demand for this species is on the increase. There is a wide gap between the demand and supply. Assuch it is essential to protect and augment the areas under cane. In this tract cane brakes do not occur as extensive pure patches. They occur gregariously along the hill slopes and stream banks where damp conditions exist. Scattered clumps of cane can be found inside the plantations too. In areas where attempts were made to augment the growth by artificially planting canes, they occur in abundance. The prominent species found are the following. (1). Calamus gamblei – (Pacha Chooral)‐It is a spiny clustering medium sized climbing cane, with stems up to 30 M in length and about 2.5 cm in diameter including sheath. Used for making furniture and umbrella handles A Bamboo Brake – Achenkovil

A Cane Brake - Manalar


(2) Calamus hookerianus – (Veli Chooral)‐ It is a spiny, clustering, medium sized climbing rattan with stems of 8 to 10 M height and up to 4cm in diameter. Used for basket weaving and furniture making. (3) Calamus rotang – (Chooral) ‐ It is an armed, clustering slender climbing cane with stem of 6 to 10 M length and 1‐2 cm diameter. Used for furniture making and basket weaving. (4) Calamus thawitesii –( Thadiyan Chooral)‐It is armed, robust, clustering climbing cane with stems of 10 to 20 M height and 6cm diameter. Used mainly for making furniture. (5) Calamus travancoricus –(Ari Chooral) An armed, climbing, slender cane, with stems, up to 15 M height and 0.8cm diameter. Though they are slender they are stronger and used in handicrafts work and also in furniture making. (6) Calamus vattayila renuka – (Vattayila Chooral) armed climbing canes that do not form clumps. Stems of these canes grow up to 15 M length and up to 2.5 cm diameter, including the sheath. In addition to the above some other canes are also found in this tract. They are C. brandisii (Kutti Chooral), Calamus delessertianus (Ottamoodan Chooral), etc, found at the higher reaches of this tract. Calamus thwaitesii

Calamus travancoricus

Sheath of Calamus thwaitesii

Sheath of Calamus travancoricus


2A.2.10. GRASS LANDS Grass lands varying in extent from 0.5 Ha to more than 30 Ha can be seen in this tract. Extensive grassy patches are mainly confined to the hill tops near Thuval Mala. These uplands near to the Kottavasal gap are exposed to dry winds blowing from the east and the precipitation is also comparatively less. The tops of the ridges of the main ghats are capped with grassy and herbaceous growth. This sub‐climax vegetation is in the primary serial stage, mostly due to the edaphic conditions. In addition to these prominent grassy lands, small grassy patches with scattered tree growth occur in the deciduous forests and plantations, where the area is little swampy. The main grass species found here are the following. (1) ‐ Cymbopogon polyneuros,(2) ‐ Saccharum spontaneum,(3) ‐ Oplismanus composites,(4) ‐ Themeda triandra,(5) ‐ Pennisetum polystachyum,(6) ‐ Heteropogon contortus,(7) ‐ Cynodon dactylon,(8) ‐ Arundinella purpurea,(9) ‐ Cymbopogon citratus,(10) ‐ Eleusine indica,(11) ‐ Panicum javanicum,(12) ‐ Ischaemum indicum,(13) ‐ Typha elephantiana. Etc. Grass land – Climax stage

Grass land – Primary Seral stage

2A.2.11. RARE AND INTERESTING PLANT SPECIES Diospyros ebenum and Gluta travancorica, are conspicuously absent in this tract But certain other species, described below, make their presence visible in many localities. A. Cycas circinalis.( Eentha Pana‐ Kalanga) This is a small branchless tree growing to a height of about 5 to 7 M, with a tuft of leaves at its apex. Some times the pillar like cylindrical main stem exhibits dichotomous branching and each branch will stand for the main bole. It resembles a large fern. It belongs to a lower group of plants referred to as Gymnosperms or plants with naked seeds. This plant is the representative of the single genera – Cycadales – available at present. Hence it is often described as a ‘living fossil’. Male plants bear male cones (microsporophyll) and female plants bear female cones (megasporophyll). The seeds are usually used as a food item. This plant can be seen in the lower hills of this tract.


B. Pinanga dicksonii. (Kana Kamuku) This a palm that resembles areca nut tree in almost every respect. It is found growing in evergreen forests of hilly tracts with an elevation up to 1000 M. This species growing in the crevices in the rocks from where the springs ooze out continuously. The fruits are used by the tribal people for chewing. In this tract this species is in an endangered condition. C. Phoenix sylvestris.( Nilan Thengu) These plants belonging to the family Palmae are seen in the areas near to the grassy patches in Thuval Mala. This plant is with a small cylindrical unbranched stem with a tuft of leaves at the apex. The leaflets near to the base are modified in to thorns. Here also the female and male flowers are born by different plants. Toddy can be extracted by tapping the inflorescence. D. Arenga wightii. (Kattu Thengu) This is also a member of the family Palmae. The leaves are similar to that of the coconut tree. They occur in groups in damp areas within the Evergreen forests up to an elevation of 1000 M. The leaves are having a length of 5 to 8 M. Male and female flowers are born by separate plants. When tapped, the pedicel of the inflorescence will yield sweet toddy that can be fermented and used as intoxicating drink. When the fruits attain maturity the plant will die and perish. Elephants relish the foliage as fodder. They are found in the natural forests near Kottavasal and Ambanar. Cycas circinalis

Pinanga dicksonii Arenga wightii

Oxytenanthera bourdillonii


E. Wrightia tinctoria. (Dhanta Pala) In almost all books describing the forest trees, this species is described as ‘a small tree’. But within this tract, Wrightia tinctoria trees of large sizes in groups can be seen along the banks of the Chittar River that flows along the eastern boarder of the tract. Similar growth is observed at the locality called Panamthoppu also. The exact reason for this type of growth is not at all discernible. However, this phenomenon seems to be a special feature of this tract. F. Oxytenanthera bourdillonii.(Arambu) This highly endemic bamboo species of Kerala occurs in the hilly tracts with altitudes ranging from 900 to 1500 M. It is a rare straggling bamboo that forms open clumps. The culms are glabrous and hollow with very long internodes. It is said that the flowering of this species is at very long intervals. This species can be seen in the natural forest tracts in and around Vazhaperiyar. G. Gloriossa superba.(Menthonni) It is a beautiful herb commonly found in this tract, along the stream banks and among the thickets in the moist deciduous forests. The herb with the thin fleshy stem may grow up to 6 M long and will bear numerous branches. Here the leaf tip is modified in to tendrils. Using this device the plant climbs on hedges or nearby plants. The special feature of this plant is its peculiar showy flowers. The scarlet or crimson coloured flowers easily catch the attention. This plant has got medicinal value. The tubers are the plant part used in certain medicines used to treat chronic ulcers and piles. The drug property is attributed to the alkaloid Colchicine. But in large doses the drug is poisonous. In biotechnology, Colchicine is a highly reputed chemical for inducing polyploidy in plants and it is also much desired for genetic manipulations H. Podocarpus wallichianus.(Nirambali) This is a rare and endangered tree that belongs to the family Coniferae. The tree is found growing in the forest tracts at the North‐eastern boundary of the tract. It is a slow growing tree that may attain a height of about 30M. Trunk is narrow, browny and is with tiny projections giving the young stem a rough appearance. Taproots are profusely branched. But the taproot of the seedlings lacks any such branching. Branching is opposite in the younger stage while the adult tree shows an alternate branching. The trunk is devoid of branches up to a certain height. Leaves resemble phylloclade, coriaceous, lanceolate and multi nerved; leaf arrangement being opposite/ sub opposite. Length of the leaves varies from 13 to 18 cm. Calamus delessertianus(Ottamoodan Chooral

BACCAUREA COURTALLENSIS


I. Schizostachyum beddomei. (Reed Climber). This is a rare endangered species found in this tract. It is similar to the other reeds in appearance and general characters. The character which is distinctive from ordinary reeds is its climbing habit. After attaining a height of about 4 m it climbs on adjacent trees for support. As the stem is erect up to a height of about 4 M, reed workers often collect it mistaking it for ordinary reeds KALLU VAZHA

PLANTAIN - WILD VARIETY

WILD PEPPER


2A.2. 12. MANMADE FORESTS..

(PLANTATIONS)..

2A. 2.12A. FOREST PLANTATIONS The basic principle of all scientific forest management is procuring a high sustained yield periodically from the forests and for achieving this, economically valuable forests are to be created and managed. With this view, plantations of Teak, Bombax etc were raised in the past after clear felling the irregular, mixed and less valuable moist deciduous forests existed in this tract. The earlier plantations were mostly Teak. As the capability of natural forests to supply the softwood required by the industrial sector dwindled drastically, the demand as well as the cost of softwood began soaring. To cope up with the situation and to meet the increasing demand, soft wood plantations were raised in various parts of the state. With the financial assistance from the Central Government large scale plantations of quick growing species were raised in this tract too. It is a glaring fact that, though these tracts were declared and notified to be Reserved Forests by the end of the nineteenth century, planting operations in this area had to wait till the middle of the twentieth century. As this tract was far beyond easy access, it was almost in a neglected condition, even when it formed part of certain old Forest Divisions, which were famous for their intensive scientific forestry operations, under the able guidance of eminent foresters. Regular planting works in the adjacent Arienkavu Reserved Forests were commenced from 1890 onwards and the famous ‘Bourdillon’s Plot’ was raised in 1891. But in this tract the first plantation came in to existence only in 1942. 2A.2. 12B. TEAK PLANTATIONS Planting of Teak started in Achenkovil area during 1117 Malayalam Era (1942 AD) on the banks of Achenkovil River. This pioneer effort didn’t fare well and the rate of growth was not good as expected. Lack of attention in the earlier period due to the desolated nature of the tract might have resulted in the suppression of the teak seedlings by vigorously growing weeds. However, the planting operations were continued during the succeeding years. Plantations were raised in a regular manner during each year till 1960.Then the Kallar Valley Teak Plantation (Special) Division was formed and this functional unit was entrusted with the planting of teak in this area by clear felling the less valuable mixed deciduous forests of Kallar Valley. They commenced the planting operations from 1967 onwards, and went on with their mission till 1983, when clear felling the natural forests for raising monoculture crops was banned by the State Government. By that time, they had brought an extent of 1934.505 Ha of land under teak and another 57.960 Ha of land under plantations of other species. All suitable areas along the banks of the major streams were converted in to Teak Plantations. At present the Division possesses 34 Teak


Plantations with total extent of 2407.029 Ha. The details of teak plantations existed in the erstwhile KVTP (Special) Division and Achenkovil Range and their present status, as well as the Range wise details of the teak plantations now available in the Division are furnished in Table No: 18

TABLE No: 18. TEAK PLANTATIONS OF KVTP DIVISION AS PER THE PREVIOUS WORKING PLAN

Present Status

Kallar Range Kanayar Range Sl: No:

Year

Locality

Area (Ha)

Name Extent Name Extent

1. 1967 Range No: 1 58.900 1967‐ T P Alappady

20.000

2. 1968 Range No: 1 229.680

67‐68 –T P Alappady

178.580 1968 –T P

Alappady 90.000

3. 1970 Range No: 1 245.800 1970 –T P Alappady Meth

245.000

4. 1971 Range No: 1 173.470 1971‐ T P Kanayar

174.700

5. 1972 Chittar Range No: IV. 207.610

1972 –T P Chittar Moozhi

129.000 1972‐T P Chittar

78.610

6. 1973 Chittar Range No: IV. 81.860

1973 –T P Chittar Moozhi

81.860

7. 1974 Kanayar Range No: IV 239.710

1974‐T P Kanayar 239.710

8. 1975 Chittar Valley No: IV

222.650 1975‐ T P Chittar Valley

222.650

9. 1976 Range No: 23.000 1976 T P‐ Chittar Moozhi

23.000

10. 1980‐82

Range No: 1 127.420 1980‐82 –T P PanamThoppu 127.420

11. 81‐82‐83

Range No: 1V, Panamthoppu

210.800 1981‐82‐83 – TP Panam Thoppu

276.875

12. 81‐82‐83

Valayam Range No: IV

83.620 1981‐82‐83‐ T P Valayam 83.730

13. 1987 Range No: 1 18.280 1987 T P Alinjamon – (Achenkovil Range) ‐ 18.280

14. 1987 Range No: IV 11.705 1987 T P Chittar –( Achenkovil Range) ‐ 11.705

TOTAL 1934.505


TABLE No: 19. TEAK PLANTATIONS OF OLD ACHENKOVIL RANGE AS PER THE PREVIOUS WORKING PLAN

No Year Locality Area

(Ha)

Remarks in previous

Present Status

1. 1942 South Series 14.445 Not identified

This plantation was prematurely clear felled and planted MW during 1961. The 1961 MW

plantation was again clear felled and replanted with teak during 1993 (1993 TP,

Pallivasal – 14.771 Ha)

2. 1942 Muthala Thodu 24.240

Under Kulathu‐

Puzha Research Range

It is divided between Achencovil range and Kallar range after the formation of new Achencovil division on 29..06.. 1993. This plantation was clear felled during 2002 and

regenerated with Teak during 2003. (Achencovil range part is 7 ha and Kallar

range part 12.64 ha . The balance area is left as river bank and road)

3. 1943 Pallimundan 21.614 do The actual area of this plantation is 9.308 ha

4. 1944 Muthala Thodu 9.308 Not identified The actual extent of the plantation is 21.614 ha. This plantation is clear felled during 2007

5. 1947 Muthala Thodu 21.853 do Prematurely clear felled and regenerated during 1987

6. 1948 South Series 11.736 do .. do ..

7. 1953 Muthala Thodu 23.937 do Now existing in Achenkovil Range.

8. 1954 Muthala Thodu 12.392 Now existing in Achenkovil Range.

9. 1954 Pallimundan 16.071 Now existing in Achenkovil Range in Achencovil north section, east of 1944 TP

10. 1957 Muthala Thodu 11.478 Now existing in Achenkovil Range.

11. 1960 Pallimundan 31.925 Now existing in Achenkovil Range.

12. 1960 Mlanthadom 43.302 Now existing in Kallar Range

TOTAL 242.301

It is interesting to note that though in the previous Working Plan, the Teak Plantations raised in 1944, 1947, 1948 and 1953 were described as “unidentified” in the list of ‘Teak Plantations of Achenkovil Range’, Quality Class Stock Mapping was carried out in all these plantations, while Revising the Second Working Plan. The 1944 TP, 1947TP and 1953 T P are found to be existing now, but 1948 TP was clear‐felled prematurely and regenerated in 1987.


TABLE No: 20 TEAK PLANTATIONS IN ACHENKOVIL RANGE

Sl: No:

YEAR LOCALITY EXTENT (Ha)

REMARKS

1. 1943 Pallimundan 9.308

This plantation is under SRO, Thiruvananthapuram. The extent of this plantation was mentioned as 21.614 ha by mistake in the previous working plan. This plantation is situated on the northern side of Achencovil river at

Muthalathodu

2. 1944 Muthala Thodu

21.614

This plantation situated, east of 1943 TP on the northern side of Achencovil river is clear felled during 2007. In the previous working plan the extent of this plantation was mentioned as 9.308 ha by mistake.

3. 1953 Muthala Thodu 23.937 South series


5. 1954 Pallimundan 16.071 North Series. This plantation is situated on the eastern side of 1944 TP clear felled area.


7. 1960 Pallimundan 31.925 South series

8. 1981

Alinjamon

Bit – I = 24.500

Bit –II = 32.500

57.000

The area earmarked and clear felled for assignment under Arable Land Scheme was regenerated with Teak.

Bit I is situated on the southern side of 1965 MW plantation Muthalathodu. Bit II is situated on the western side of 4 – cent colony at Alinjamon

9. 1987 Chittar 11.705 Re planted area of prematurely clear felled 1948 TP (Ar: 11.736 ha)

10. 1987 Koda Mala 7.000

11. 1987 Koda Mala 37.100

12. 1987 Alinjamon

Bit. I‐ 11.160 Ha

18.280

All these plantations are second rotation plantations. Plantation journals or connected records of these plantations are not available. 1947 TP (21.853 ha), and 1962 MW (2 bits 37.410 ha) were prematurely felled and those areas were replanted during 1987 with teak. In an extent of 7 ha, re

planting was not done. And the coppices were allowed to grow. 1987 Kodamala (7 ha) is Coppice plantation.

13. 1993 Pallivasal 14.771 1961 M/W Pln: (14.783 Ha) converted

14. 1993 Chuttippara 15.700 1963 M/W Pln: (15.551 Ha) converted

15. 2000 Muthala Thodu

0.658

This area is 2000 teak nursery site on the southern bank of Achencovil river and at the northern side of 1965 MW Plantation Muthalathodu. This area can be treated as

2000 teak plantation

16. 2003 Muthala Thodu 7.000 Part of 1942 TP (Extent 24.240 Ha) clear felled & regenerated. Balance area in Kallar Range.

17. 2003 Manalar 10.250 Part of 1963 M/W plantation, clear felled and regenerated with Teak.

TOTAL 306.189


TABLE No: 21 TEAK PLANTATIONS IN KALLAR RANGE

Sl: No:

YEAR LOCALITY EXTENT (Ha) REMARKS

1. 1960 Mlanthadam 43.330 Old Achenkovil Plantation.

2. 1967‐68 Alappady 178.580 KVTP Division Plantation (Part)

3. 1970 Alappady Meth 245.000 KVTP Division Plantation

4. 1972 Chittar Moozhy 129.000 KVTP Division Plantation (Part)

5. 1973 Chittar Moozhy 81.860 KVTP Division Plantation

6. 1980‐82 Panamthoppu 127.420 KVTP Division Plantation

7. 81‐82‐83 Panamthoppu 276.875 KVTP Division Plantation

8. 81‐82‐83 Valayam 83.730 KVTP Division Plantation

9. 1995 Mlanthadam 50.000 1963M/W plantation: (49.474 Ha) converted in to Teak Plantation

11. 2003 Muthala Thodu 12.640 I942 TP felled & replanted(Part)

TOTAL 1228.435

TABLE No: 22

TEAK PLANTATIONS IN KANAYAR RANGE

Sl: No:

YEAR LOCALITY EXTENT (Ha) REMARKS

1. 1967 Alappady 20.000 KVTP Division Pln: (Part)

2. 1968 Alappady 90.000 KVTP Division Pln: (Part)

3. 1971 Kanayar 174.700 KVTP Division plantation

4. 1972 Chittar 78.610 KVTP Division Pln: (Part)

5. 1974 Kanayar 239.710 KVTP Division plantation

6. 1975 Chittar Valley 222.650 KVTP Division plantation

7. 1976 Chittar Moozhi 23.000 KVTP Division plantation

TOTAL 848.67

Even though the earlier plantations could not attain the expected growth, the plantations raised there after are promising ones in respect of growth, when considered with reference to the site conditions. Except for the 1995 Teak Plantation, Mlanthadom in Kallar Range, which is having poor stock due to damage by wildlife, all Teak Plantations have fairly good stock and growth. In most of the old plantations secondary growth of miscellaneous species has come up. Terminalia paniculata, Grewia tiliaefolia, Dalbergia latifolia, Bombax ceiba, Careya arborea, Cassia fistula, Macaranga peltata, Dillenia


pentagyna, Emblica officinalis etc are the prominent miscellaneous species in the older plantations. In damp areas clumps of reeds and canes can also be seen. Dense under growth of Helecteres isora, Eupatorium odoratum, Glycosmis pentaphylla, etc also thrive, providing good soil cover, preventing soil deterioration and enriching the soil by adding their leaf litter. Climbers like Calycopterix floribunda, Acacia torta, Butea superba, Acacia torta, etc are also found in older plantations. It seems that all the teak plantations were subjected to heavy thinning and it might have caused large gaps in the canopy and utilizing this opportunity the miscellaneous growth has come up. This could be the only reason for the preponderance of miscellaneous growth in the Teak plantations of this tract. 2A.2.12C. MATCH WOOD PLANTATIONS Initial attempts to raise softwood plantations in the parent Division, with the intention to ensure and enhance supply of adequate raw materials to the wood based industries, commenced during 1952. The species tried was Elavu (Bombax ceiba). Efforts were continued to evolve a method to ensure the successful establishment and development of the softwood plantations. As a method to ensure success of softwood plantations, planting of Elavu with Teak in intimate mixture, was started in 1962. These mixed plantations were found to be successful. During the second Five Year Plan period the Central Government urged the Forest Departments to raise soft wood plantations and offered financial assistance to such ventures. Match wood plantations with admixture of Elavu and Teak in 1:3 proportions, with prescription for removal of teak in stages by way of thinning in favour of Elavu trees, were started during this period, with the financial assistance from the Central Government. The State Government continued to expand and maintain these plantations as a part of the policy to ensure supply of softwood to matchwood industries in the state. This Division has at present 1934.998 Ha under match wood plantations, within Achenkovil and Kallar Ranges. All these plantations were raised on the banks of Achenkovil River, under the jurisdiction of the old Achenkovil Range. Due to the reorganization of the Ranges consequent to the formation of new Division, many of the plantations came under the Kallar Range. All the plantations, except the 1976 Match Wood Plantation at Chittar in Achenkovil Range, are considered to be good. The success and good performance of these plantations are attributed to (1) ‐ Advantage of deep, fertile and well drained alluvial soil, (2) ‐ Proper and timely execution of cultural operations, (3) ‐ Timely removal of Teak plants by way of thinning and (4) ‐ less biotic pressure in terms of grazing in the locality.

The rotation fixed for these plantations was 30 years and the thinnings for removal of teak trees in stages had to be carried out in the 8th, 15th and 20th years. The teak trees from some of the plantations were fully removed. Though many of these plantations have already crossed the rotation age, they are still retained as there is not much demand for this species. The details of Match Wood Plantations raised in old Achenkovil Range, as per the previous Working Plan, with their current status is given in Table No.23, followed by the lists of Match Wood Plantations in Achenkovil and Kallar Ranges (Tables 24 and 25)


TABLE No: 23 MATCH WOOD PLANTATIONS OF OLD ACHENKOVIL RANGE AS PER THE PREVIOUS WORKING PLAN

Sl: No:

YEAR

LOCALITY

AREA (Ha)

PRESENT STATUS/REMARKS

1. 1961 Pallivasal. 14.783 Felled & Replanted. (1993. TP, Pallivasal, Ar:14.771 ha, in Achencovil range)

2. 1963 Mlanthadom 49.474 Felled & Replanted.( 1995 TP, Mlanthadom Ar:50 ha, in Kallar range)

3. 1963 Kodamala East 15.551 Do. (1993. TP, Chuttippara Ar:15.700 ha, in Achencovil range)

4. 1964 Kumbavurutty 47.851 In Achenkovil Range, Teak fully removed.

5. 1964 Pallivasal. 13.730 do

6. 1965 Kumbavurutty 43.320 do

7. 1965 Kumbavurutty 15.941 do

8. 1966 Manalar 61.500 In Achenkovil Range, Teak fully removed. 10.25 ha felled & regenerated during 2003(2003TP, Manalar) and an extent of 1.250 ha was converted into Albizzia Pln: during 1981

9. 1966 Chittar 83.984 In Kallar Range .Teak fully removed.

10 1967 Alinjamon 124.652 In Achenkovil Range, Teak fully removed.

11. 1967 Manalar 16.621 In Achenkovil Range

12. 1968 Harijan Colony 17.009 In Achenkovil Range, Teak fully removed.

13 1968 Savakotta 169.830 Divided between Achenkovil Range (66.83 ha ) & Kallar Range (103.320 ha‐Teak fully removed)

14. 1969 Harijan Colony 103.100 In Achenkovil Range

15. 1969 Aruvikkara 119.276 In Achenkovil Range – Kulachippara, Teak fully removed.

16. 1970 Valayam 59.251 In Kallar Range

17. 1972 Double Cutting 176.000 In Kallar Range

18. 1973 Koorampara 138.000 In Achenkovil Range

19. 1973 Mlanthadom 114.850 In Kallar Range

20. 1974 Below Akvl Estate 83.450 In Achenkovil Range

21. 1974 Below Abnd Estate. 84.000 In Achenkovil Range

22. 1974 Amarakka Thodu 56.000 In Achenkovil Range

23. 1974 Pallivasal 80.000 In Achenkovil Range



26. 1976 Chittar 105.000 In Achenkovil Range

27. 1987 Kodamala 37.100 It is a Teak Plantation in Achencovil range.


TABLE No: 24. MATCH WOOD PLANTATIONS OF ACHENKOVIL RANGE

Sl: No:

Year

LOCALITY

EXTENT (Ha)

REMARKS

1 1964 Pallivasal 13.730 Teak fully removed

2 1964 Kumbavurutty 47.851 Teak fully removed



5 1965 Muthala Thodu 13.233 Not mentioned in previous WP. Original area ‐14.447 ha. Out of this, 1.2141 Ha was given to Govt H.S. School. Teak fully removed

6 1966 Manalar 51.250 Original area 61.500 Ha. Part converted in to TP. (2003 TP Manalar ‐10.250 Ha) Part (1.25 Ha) planted with Albizzia in 1981. Teak fully removed

7 1967 Manalar 16.621

8 1967 Alinjamon 124.652 Teak fully removed

9 1968 Harijan Colony 17.009 Teak fully removed

10 1968 Savakotta 66.830 Total area ‐ 169.830 Ha. Balance area in Kallar Range. 11 1969 H C / Koorampara 103.620

12 1969 Aruvikkara 119.276 Teak fully removed

13 1973 Koorampara 138.000

14 1974 Below Achenkovil Estate 83.450

15 1974 Do‐ Ambanad Estate 84.000

16 1974 Amarakka Thodu 56.000

17 974 Pallivasal 80.000

18 1976 Chittar 105.000

TOTAL 1179.783

TABLE No: 25. MATCH WOOD PLANTATIONS OF KALLAR RANGE

Sl: No:

Year

LOCALITY EXTENT (Ha) REMARKS

1 1966 Chittar 80.170 Teak fully removed 2 1968 Savakotta 103.320 Total Area=169.830 Ha. 3 1970 Valayam 59.251

4 1972 Double cutting 176.000

5 1973 Mlanthadom 114.850

6 1975 Valayam 120.000

7 1975 Valayam 66.000

TOTAL 719.591


Attempts were also made to raise softwood plantations of exotic species like Balsa (Ochroma logopus), Albizzia falcateria etc. It is pertinent to note that the much favoured industrial species, Eucalyptus, was not at all tried in this tract to raise plantations. The Balsa plantation raised on a trial basis, turned to be a failure due to Wildlife damage. Similarly, a few plantations of Albizzia falcateria were raised in this tract The 1981 and 1988 Albizzia plantations referred to in the previous Working Plan are untraceable at present. The details of Albizzia plantations are given in Table – 26

TABLE No: 26. ALBIZZIA PLANTATIONS OF ACHENKOVIL RANGE

Sl: No:

YEAR

LOCALITY

Extent (Ha) REMARKS

1. 1981 Manalar 1.250 Area with poor stock, inside 1966 Match Wood Plantation Was regenerated with Albizzia.

2. 1997 Alinjamon 4.250 1981 Albizzia Clear felled area

3. 1998 Muthala Thodu 4.000 On either side of the road

4. 1999 Rest House Compound 1.250 Failed.

10.750

2A.2.12D. MISCELLANEOUS PLANTATIONS Plantations of many other species were also tried in this tract in an effort to afforest the denuded forest areas, under various schemes and projects. All the efforts were aimed at reacquiring the past splendors and glory of the vegetative cover and to make the forests more valuable. The noteworthy effort in this respect is the Rosewood plantations. Suitable areas with natural growth of Rosewood trees were selected. The natural established root suckers were tended to grow freely and root suckers and basketted seedlings were planted and protection was afforded from annual fires and grazing. The details of the Rosewood augmentation areas are given in Table 27, 28 and 29

TABLE No: 27. ROSEWOOD AUGMENTATION AREAS ‐ ACHENKOVIL RANGE

SL: NO;

YEAR LOCALITY

EXTENT (HA)

REMARKS

ROSEWOOD PLANTATIONS OF ACHENKOVIL RANGE – 117.566Ha

1 1994 Rest House Compound 4.691

2 1994 Rishi Mala 28.000

3 1994 Moonnattu Mukku 32.675

4 1997 Kumbavurutty 7.200

5 1997 Koorampara 15.000

6 1997 Alampara 30.000

TOTAL 117.566


TABLE No: 28. ROSEWOOD AUGMENTATION AREAS ‐ KALLAR RANGE

SL: NO;

YEAR LOCALITY

EXTENT (HA)

REMARKS

ROSEWOOD PLANTATIONS OF KALLAR RANGE – 120.860 Ha

1. 1979 Alappady 7.360 Inside 1968 T P, Alappady

2. 1980 Alappady 7.000 Inside 1968 T P, Alappady

3. 1981 Alappady 6.500

4. 1983 Alappady Meth 6.000 Inside 1981‐82‐83 T P,

5. 1994 Chittar Moozhi 15.000 Inside 1972 T P, Chittarmoozhi.

6. 1994 Panamthoppu 15.000

7. 1995 Valayam 21.400

8. 1996 Valayam 28.600

9. 1998 Manjappara 14.000

TOTAL 120.860

TABLE No: 29.

ROSEWOOD AUGMENTATION AREAS ‐ KANAYAR RANGE

SL: No;

YEAR

LOCALITY

EXTENT (HA)

REMARKS

ROSEWOOD PLANTATIONS OF KANAYAR RANGE – 91.980 Ha

1. 1981 Alappady 5.000

2. 1996 Pullumala 10.000

3. 1996 Alappady 12.480

4. 1997 Kadamankulam 12.500

5. 1997 Alappady Methu 12.000

6. 1998 Kadamankunnu 25.000

7. 1998 Kanayar 15.000

TOTAL 91.980

During past few years many private firms started to raise plantations of certain fast growing species like Acacia mangium. A craze for this species has developed among the public due to the tall claims made by the private plantation firms. In the nearby tracts, the KFDC has also raised extensive plantations of this fast growing species. Attracted by the promising performance of the KFDC plantations, this species was tried in this tract too. Three plantations were raised and they have not fared well, may be due to lack of proper attention and protection. The details are furnished in Table No.30.


TABLE No: 30. ACACIA MANGIUM PLANTATIONS

SL: NO;

YEAR LOCALITY

EXTENT (HA)

REMARKS

ACHENKOVIL RANGE – 4.000 Ha

1. 2001. Division Office Compound 1.500 Failed

2. 2001 Muthala Thodu 2.500 Failed

TOTAL 4.000

KALLAR RANGE – 15.200 Ha

1. 1997 Pulinchi 15.200 Failed

TOTAL 15.200

In an effort to augment the growth of local species and to develop the degraded, poorly stocked and less valuable forests in to economically valuable stands, many schemes were introduced in the State to treat the natural forests. The Kallar Watershed Scheme was a scheme formulated to regain the past glory of the forests of Kallar Valley. Gap planting that envisaged planting of basketted or naked seedlings of local species in the gaps found in the degraded forests, in order to improve the stocking and to help the development of a dense vegetative cover was attempted under this scheme. RDF, NWFP, Decide species, HFV, Micro‐watershed planting etc are some of the schemes aimed at the betterment of the denuded areas. The Heterogeneous Mixed Seeding method or Profuse Mixed Seeding method, in which good quality seeds of various valuable local species were dibbled / broadcasted on loosened mounts, was also tried over extensive patches of degraded forest areas, with a crown density of less than 0.4. This program started in 1989‐90 to promote the development of valuable heterogeneous mixed vegetation. These treatment areas are called HMS Plots. Extensive patches were treated in a similar way under the Kallar Watershed Scheme. These areas are referred to as HFV Plots. Again the Shola forests occurring at high elevations and hill folds were also tended under the Western Ghats Development Programme. The main object of the scheme was to afford protection to these evergreen patches from the annual fires that force these patches to retreat to damper sites. Efforts were also made to plant seedlings of suitable species along the protected fringes, thereby helping these patches to grow and expand outwardly. Measures for conserving soil and moisture were also undertaken along with all these planting operations. The details of the areas treated are given in Table No: 31

TABLE No: 31. MISCELLANEOUS TREATMENT SITES

SL: NO; YEAR LOCALITY EXTENT (HA) GAP PLANTING

KallarRange 139.500 Ha

1 1995 Idukku Para 47.500 2. 1996 Chittar 10.000 3. 1996 Chittar 2.000 4. 1996 Chittar 20.000 5. 1996 Chittar – Aramba 40.000 6. 1996 Manakkayam 20.000 TOTAL 139.500


SL: NO YEAR LOCALITY EXTENT (HA) GAP PLANTING

Kanayar Range = 139.000 Ha1. 1993 Kanayar 40.000

2. 1996 Kazhaku Mala 20.000

3. 1996 Kanayar 20.000

4. 1996 Vazhapperiyar 38.000

5. 1997 Kadamankulam. 21.000

TOTAL 139.00

TREATMENT AREAS UNDER MIS: SCHEMES

Achenkovil Range = 229.050 HaSL: NO; YEAR LOCALITY EXTENT (HA)

1. 1986 Muthala Thodu 17.000

2. 1996 Kumbavurutty 20.000

3. 1998 Koorampara 14.800




7. 2005. Kulachippara 110.250

TOTAL 229.050

KALLAR RANGE = 205.160 Ha 1.. 1998 Idukku Para 24.160

2. 1999 Chittar 30.000


4. 2005 Aramba 83.300

TOTAL 205.160 KANAYAR RANGE = 159.500 Ha


2. 1998 Vazhapperiyar 40.000

3. 1999 Karingowali hodu 20.500

4. 1999 Meenmutty 30.000

5. 1999 Kadamankunnu 21.000

6. 2001 Kazhaku Mala 18.000

TOTAL 159.500


HMS TREATMENT AREAS ACHENKOVIL RANGE = 1395 Ha

1 1992‐93 Thannickal 150.000 2 1992‐93 Manalar –Bit I 125.000 3 1992‐93 Manalar –Bit II 175.000 4 1992‐93 Aruvikkara 85.000 5 1992‐93 Alappady 250.000 6 1993‐94 Pallimundan 200.000 7 1993‐94 Kumbavurutty 307.000 8 1994‐95 Mulantheri 103.000 TOTAL 1395.000

HFV AREAS (Under Kallar Water‐shed Scheme) KALLAR RANGE = 1031 Ha

1 92‐93‐94 Aramba Coupe 2A 237.000 2 92‐93‐94 Aramba Coupe 2B 102.000 3 92‐93‐94 Aramba Coupe 3B 225.000 4 92‐93‐94 Aramba Coupe 4B 242.000 5 92‐93‐94 Aramba Coupe 16 A&B 225.000 TOTAL 1031.000

KANAYAR RANGE =1423 Ha 1 1993‐94 Alappady Block 1 125.000 2 1993‐94 Alappady Block II 182.000 3 1993‐4 Alappady Block III 236.000 4 1993 Kanayar Block I 220.000 5 1993 Kanayar Block II 202.000 6 1993 Mangala Block I 206.000 7 1993 Mangala Block II 252.000 TOTAL 1423.000

SHOLA FOREST TREATED AREAS ‐ ACHENKOVIL RANGE 1 1996 Pasukkadatheri –Bits I‐IV 1.110 2 1997 Thuval Mala Bit III 2.960 3 1997 Thuval Mala Bit IV 2.760 4 1997 Thuval Mala Bit V 4.480 5 98‐99 Thuval Mala Bit VI & VII 5.400 6 1999 Thuval Mala Bit VIII 2.520 7 1999 Ezhukoppam Bit IX 1.820 8 1999 Ezhukoppam Bit X 4.480 9 1999 Thuval Mala Bit XI & XII 3.040 TOTAL 28.570


2A.2.12 E. BAMBOOS, REEDS AND CANE PLANTATIONS Plantations of Bamboos, reeds and canes were raised under various projects with a view to replenish the depleting natural stock in their habitats. Suitable sites for these species were selected and artificial regeneration was attempted. Bamboos were tried solely in areas where the tree growth was poor. It can be said that the sites selected were poor and this factor reflected in the development of the planted seedlings. The overall growth is not at all promising. The reeds were tried in areas with suitable conditions and most of them are growing well. In the case of canes, areas where the canes were found in plenty in the past, but depleted due to biotic interferences, were selected and artificial regeneration was tried. In the damp and shady places they are thriving well. The details of the plantations are given in Table No.32.

TABLE No: 32

BAMBOOS, REEDS AND CANES PLANTATIONS SL: NO; YEAR LOCALITY EXTENT (HA)

BAMBOO PLANTATIONS ACHENKOVIL RANGE = 19.000 Ha

1 1994 Pallimundan 9.000 2 1996 Kambi Line 10.000 TOTAL 19.000

KALLAR RANGE = 105.000Ha 1. 1987 Panamthoppu 30.000 2. 1993 Kallar 47.000 3. 1993 River Belt 28.000 TOTAL 105.000

KANAYAR RANGE = NIL CANE PLANTATIONS

ACHENKOVIL RANGE = 271.271 Ha SL: NO YEAR LOCALITY EXTENT (HA)

1. 1993 Manalar 30.000 2. 1994 Manalar 26.700 3. 1995‐96 Amarakka Thodu 10.000 4. 1995‐96 Kumbavurutty 10.000 5. 1995‐96 Pallimundan. 10.200 6. 1996 Manalar 19.850 7. 1999 Muthala Thodu 11.200 8. 1999 Pallimundan 7.050 9. 1999 Moonnattumukku 20.000 10. 1999 Moonnattumukku 11.000 11. 2001 Koorampara 23.420 12. 2003 Ambanar 35.500 13. 2004 Koorampara 20.100 14 2005 Kambi Line 36.251 TOTAL = 271.271 Ha

KALLAR RANGE = 87.000Ha 1. 1981 Aramba 19.500


2. 2003 Chittar 67.500 TOTAL 87.000

KANAYAR RANGE = 135.000Ha 1. 2002 Vazhapperiyar 29.750 2. 2004 Thalamthodu 75.000 3. 2005 Pettyveena Aruvi 30.250 TOTAL = 135.000

REED PLANTATIONS. ACHENKOVIL RANGE = 31.000 Ha

1. 1984 Manalar 5.200 2. 1988 Alinjamon 25.800 TOTAL 31.000

KALLAR RANGE = 21.200Ha 1. 1980 Valayam 2.500 2. 1983 Valayam 9.600 3. 1984 Valayam 9.100 TOTAL 21.200

KANAYAR RANGE = NIL

2A.2.12 F. TREATMENT AREAS UNDER KERALA FORESTRY PROJECT As per the guidelines issued under the Kerala Forestry Project, works were undertaken for the reclamation of denuded and under stocked areas by assisting natural regeneration to get established by giving ample protection against biotic interferences and planting various valuable local species after preparing detailed site specific plans. There was also a scheme to assist the regeneration of bamboos, reeds and rattans in their natural habitats. The details of the areas treated under the Schemes are furnished in the subjoined Table No.33

TABLE No: 33. KERALA FORESTRY PROJECT TREATMENT SITES

Sl: No; YEAR LOCALITY EXTENT (Ha)

ASSISTED NATURAL REGENERATION AREAS.

ACHENKOVIL RANGE = 203. Ha1 1998 Manalar 94.250 2 2001 Amarakkathodu 108.750 TOTAL 203.000

ACHENKOVIL RANGE = 554.625 Ha

1 1999 Adachuketty 101.750 2 1999 Koottackal 103.000 3 2000 Pulinji 78.500 4 2000 Chittar 100.250 5 2001 Chittar –Bit‐II 120.000 6 2002 Pulinji –Bit ‐ II 51.125 TOTAL 554.625


KANAYAR RANGE = 206.500Ha 1 2001 Vazhapperiyar 28.250 2 2001 Kooramala 46.000 3 2001 Kanthari mala 29.000 4 2002 Kooramala – Bit II 73.250 5 2002 Alappady Meth 30.000 total 206.500

Sl: No; YEAR LOCALITY EXTENT (Ha)

Rehabilitation of Degraded Forests ACHENKOVIL RANGE = 214.750 Ha

1. 1999 Koorampara 106.000 2. 2000 Ambanar 108.750 TOTAL 214.750

KALLAR RANGE = 396.530 Ha 1. 1999 Koottakkal 50.000 2. 1999 Adachuketty 40.250 3. 2000 Manjappara 28.750 4. 2000 Manakkayam 88.970 5. 2000 Chittar 73.250 6. 2002 Manakkayam .II 53..060 7. 2003. Alappady 62.250 TOTAL 396.530

KANAYAR RANGE = 339.500Ha 1. 1999 Manjappara 103.000 2. 2000 Vazhapperiyar (Mangala) 116.500 3. 2000 Vazhapperiyar 61.500 4. 2000 Pathiyan Thodu 36.250 5. 2002 Kadamankunnu 22.250 TOTAL 339.500

Sl: No; YEAR LOCALITY EXTENT (Ha) RATTAN, REED BAMBOO AREAS.

ACHENKOVIL RANGE = 151.400 Ha 1. 2000 Ambanar 36.020 2. 2000 Ezhukoppam Bit‐1 50.130 3. 2001 Ezhukoppam Bit‐II 65.250 TOTAL 151.400

KALLAR RANGE = 251.625 Ha 1. 2000 Chittar ‐ Aramba 91.250 2. 2001 Alappady 66.750 3. 2002 Chittar – Bit II 93.625 TOTAL 251.625


RATTAN, REED BAMBOO AREAS. KANAYAR RANGE = 134.370 Ha

1. 1999 Pulikkayam 51.000 2. 2000 Usman Kunnu 83.370 TOTAL 134.370

2A.2.12G. PEPPER PLANTATIONS Pepper planting started in this tract in Achenkovil Range in the year 1974. Pepper vines were planted adjacent to Elavu in the MW plantations. Pepper plantations were raised as part of the intensive forestry management aimed at increasing the revenue. From 1979 onwards another venture, rising of multi‐crops (Pepper, Cocoa, Medicinal plants etc) under the Scheme ‘Vanalaksmi Plantations’ were attempted. All these plantations were raised in the Match Wood Plantations where the Elavu trees served as the props for this climber to cling and grow. The planting continued till 1981. The total extent of Pepper plantations in this Division comes to72.440 ha. At present the condition of these plantations are not at all promising, mainly due to lack of maintenance and proper attention. As a result the yield as well as the revenue has decreased considerably. The details of the plantations are given in Table No.34. These plantations have also outlived their normal life.

TABLE No: 34. PEPPER PLANTATIONS

SL NO;

YEAR LOCALITY EXTENT (HA)

REMARKS

ACHENKOVIL RANGE – 45.740 Ha

1. 1974 Kumbavurutty 4.800 Inside 1965 Kumbavurutty M/W Plna (47.851 ha)

2. 1975 Kumbavurutty 2.560 Inside 1965 Kumbavurutty M/W Plan: (47.851 Ha)



5. 1980 Kumbavurutty 16.560 Inside 1964 Kumbavurutty M/W Plan: ( 47.851 Ha)

6. 1981 South Series 7.300 Inside 1964 Pallivasal M/W Plan: (13.730 Ha)

TOTAL 45.740 KALLAR RANGE – 26.700Ha

1. 1979 Chittar 22.400 Inside 1966 Chittar M/W Plantation (80.170 Ha)

2. 1981 Chittar 4.300 Inside 1966 Chittar M/W Plantation (80.170 Ha)

TOTAL 26.700 2A.2.12H. MEDICINAL PLANTATIONS From 1964 onwards, medicinal plantations were raised in small plots in suitable localities. After their establishment they were simply left at the mercy of nature. No maintenance works were carried out properly due to lack of funds and at present they are in a pathetic condition. Table No.35 is the list of medicinal plantations raised in this Division.


TABLE No: 35. MEDICINAL PLANTATIONS

Sl: No; YEAR LOCALITY EXTENT (Ha) REMARKS Achenkovil Range – 42.740ha 1. 1994 Rest House Compound 1.240 Failed

2. 1995‐96 Manalar 2.000 Failed 3. 1996 Kambi Line 4.000 Failed 4. 2004 Chittar 35.500 Failed TOTAL 42.740 Kallar Range – 150.375 ha 1. 1997 Manakayam 10.000 2. 1997 Pulinchi 15.000 3. 1998 Manjappara 15.000 4. 2004 Chittar 46.225 Raised under NWFP Fund 5. 2004 Manjappara 64.150 Raised under NWFP Fund TOTAL 150.375

TABLE No: 36.

ABSTRACT OF PLANTATIONS IN ACHENKOVIL DIVISION Achenkovil Range

Kallar Range

Kanayar Range TOTAL FOR DIVISION SL:

No: Particulars

No: Extent No: Extent No: Extent No: Extent 1. Teak 17 306.189 10 1,228.435 7 848.670 34 2383.294 2. Match Wood 18 1179.783 7 719.591 * **** 25 1899.374 3. A: falcateria 4 10.750 * *** * *** 4 10.750 4 Rosewood 6 117.566 9 120.860 7 91.980 22 330.406 5 A: mangium 2 4.000 1 15.200 * *** 3 19.200 6 Gap planting * *** 6 139.500 5 139.000 11 278.500 7 Mis: Schemes 7 229.050 4 205.160 6 159.500 17 593.710 8 HMS 8 1395.00 * *** * *** 8 1395.000 9 HFV * *** 5 1031.000 7 1423.000 12 2454.000 10 Shola Forests 10 * *** * *** 10 11 Bamboos 2 19.000 3 105.000 * *** 5 124.000 12 Reeds 2 31.000 3 21.200 * *** 5 52.200 13 Canes 14 271.271 2 87.000 3 135.000 19 493.271 14 KFP ‐ ANR 2 203.000 6 554.625 5 206.500 13 964.125 15 KFP ‐ RDF 2 214.750 7 396.530 5 339.500 14 950.780 16 KFP ‐ RRB 3 151.400 3 251.625 2 134.370 8 537.395 17 Pepper 6 45.740 2 26.700 * *** 8 72.440 18 Medicinal 4 42.740 5 150.375 * *** 9 193.115 TOTAL 108 4247.860 73 5052.801 47 3479.990 228 12780.651


2A.3. STATUS OF NATURAL REGENERATION The regeneration in the Wet Evergreen forests of this tract as a whole is quite adequate and satisfactory. In these forests, which were worked under the Selection Felling System during the past, natural regeneration was relied on to fill the gaps created by the selective felling and for this purpose a rest period was allowed by prescribing a Felling Cycle of 20 to 30 years. But the large gaps created by overexploitation, the heavy damages wreaked on the existing natural regeneration by the fall of the trees and their subsequent extraction and the large proportion of the rejections that were left at the site – all these caused very high degree of disturbance to the stand and the regeneration. Due to the sudden and grievous exposure, many species perished and the less valuable lower storey species took over and occupied the top canopy. As a result the original composition of the stand changed and retrogression crept in. Regeneration in a wet Evergreen stand are controlled by factors such as seed year, seed fall, viability of seeds, predation by animals, light conditions, germination, establishment etc. However, the regeneration is prolific and sufficient number of seedlings gets established in undisturbed evergreen forests. But the natural regeneration in the semi‐evergreen and deciduous forests, even though good, fails to get established due to many limiting factors, such as annual ground fires, draught, heavy weed growth, grazing, etc. Sweeping annual ground fires, not only destroy the seeds and the established seedlings, but cause exposure and deterioration of the soil. Prolonged drought spells as well as the breaks in monsoon affect the water regime through increased evapo‐transpiration. Grasses and obnoxious weeds hinder the regeneration in many ways. They prevent the seeds reaching the soil, compete for space, water and nutrients and suppress the seedlings. Helecteres isora, Lantana camara, Eupatorium odoratum etc are the prominent undergrowth. In addition to these, Mikenia has started to come up in the moist clearings and the open space along the banks of rivers. They have just started to smother the tree growth near by. Large climbers like Calycopterix floribunda, Acacia torta, Butea species etc also hinder the growth. Grazing by cattle is common in areas near to the populated part. The wild Elephants, Gaur, Sambar, wild Boar etc also trample the regeneration. In the degraded areas the number of established seedlings is often less than 500 per ha as per the regeneration survey carried out. In the interior areas where the growth is not much affected by the annual fires, the regeneration is profuse and they get established in a satisfactory and promising manner. 2A. 4. INJURIES TO WHICH CROP IS LIABLE A forest is very vulnerable in as much as it can easily be depleted and destroyed unless carefully protected. The establishment, development, and extension of the forests are affected by many factors, either natural or manmade. The natural causes comprising the climatic and edaphic factors and the resultant effects, and the biotic causes including the interference of living things and their influences, hamper the Establishment and development of the vegetation and they are presently referred to as threats or constraints in the management and are to be mitigated effectively. While formulating management policies threat scape analysis is essential and they are to be dealt with after prioritizing them. 2A.4.1. NATURAL CAUSES 2A.4.1A. WIND. Heavy wind is very rare in this tract. So, the mechanical damage caused by wind is not serious when the whole area is taken in to consideration. The winds that follow the North‐east monsoon do cause some damage to the trees in the plantations. Breaking of branches of Elavu and Teak trees occur regularly during the monsoon periods. Uprooting of trees rarely occur in areas where the soil is shallow. The dry easterly winds that blow across the border during the months of January and February, with their desiccating effect cause much damage. During this year (2006), the winds were fierce and they did much damage to the teak pole crop in 1981 Teak Plantation, Kambi Line, by stripping off the


tops of trees along a linear strip. It also increases the fire hazard. Dry winds help in spreading forest fires and enhance transpiration and evaporation of the soil. 2A. 4. 1B. DROUGHT. Due to long breaks in the monsoon, long spells of draught are now experienced in this tract. During this period the rate of transpiration increases and it results in much water loss. It severely affects the water balance in the plants. As the trees become leafless to reduce the transpiration to the minimum, all the vegetative activities almost cease. It affects the growth and reduces the increment. It induces premature leaf fall and enhances the fire hazard. It reduces the viability of the seeds, germination of the seeds and the establishment of the seedlings. It also reduces the microbial activities in the soil and prevents accumulation of humus. The draught affected plants are generally more susceptible to pests and diseases. 2A.4.1C. FLOODS. Flood damages in this tract are negligible. Rain fed rivers of this tract usually swell up only in the monsoon period. Due to small scale land slips, rash floods occur rarely and the banks of the rivers collapse and trees along the banks are uprooted. By consolidating the banks at the vulnerable points or by erecting barriers with boulders to ease and divert the course of flow, especially at sharp bends, the damages can be avoided. 2A.4.1D. FIRE. Fire can be considered as the most destructive agent concerning the forest crops. It causes considerable damages to the vegetation and the habitat. Fire may be beneficial in rare cases. The thick mat of leaf litter on the forest floor often prevents the seeds to strike root in the soil and form the breeding ground for noxious insects. Fire helps to reduce or destroy this cover. Really, here the fire brings about conditions favourable for the inducement of regeneration of valuable forest species. Late season fires may even burn the seeds. In this tract no crown fires are reported, but the recurrences of annual ground fires are common feature, especially in the higher grassy slopes, plantations and deciduous forests. These sweeping fires usually do not cause much damage to the tree growth. However, when the mass of dry inflammable debris is more, the intensity of fires and the damages also increase proportionately. As the fire spreads quickly and rages fiercely because of the high temperature and winds, the damages will be severe. Fires that start spontaneously due to natural factors are not recorded. In most cases, the fires are intentional ones, started by the residents in the settlements to drive away wild game that may raid their crops or by the tribals staying inside the forests, for the collection of NWFP. The tribals staying inside the forests will kindle fire for cooking the food or to drive away wild game from their resting areas and will move away without putting off the fire. These un‐extinguished fires will spread and cause much havoc. Fire destroys the organic matter in the live top soil. Nitrogen in the decomposed leaf mould is also lost. The exposed dead soil which when trampled over by grazing animals gets pulverized and the dislodged particles are washed off with the first heavy monsoon shower. With the loss of the top fertile layers, the soil becomes impoverished and devoid of microbes and humus. The fires are largely responsible for the unsatisfactory and inadequate state of natural regeneration of valuable species, especially in the deciduous forests. Repeated fires retard or even prevent the development of good undergrowth. Severe fires can affect even large trees. The boles are often charred or the foliage becomes scorched, ultimately resulting in the reduction of growth. Wet evergreen forests and the temperate montane forests are virtually immune from fire hazard because of the damp conditions. Yet, the fringes of these stands are regularly damaged by the fires from the surrounding deciduous forests or grassy areas and results in the dwindling of the areas under wet vegetation. In the case of the deciduous forests, even the composition gets modified with the disappearance of fire tender species. The gregarious growth of certain species like Trema orientalis, Macaranga peltata etc can be attributed to the regular annual fires that sweep the area. In plantations, the teak trees produce numerous epitomic branches, which will reduce the value of the timber. At present various fire‐protection methods are resorted to for protecting the fire prone areas. These


include the prophylactic measures of clearing fire lines around vulnerable areas well in advance and keeping them clear off combustible materials by engaging fire watchers and fire protection gangs, who may detect and put off fires as and when they occur. Propaganda measures to create public awareness about the dangers and the necessity to help the authorities in preventing the fire outbreaks also helps a lot. 2A.4.2. BIOTIC CAUSES 2A.4.2A. FUNGI. All the forest areas with damp conditions form good habitat for a variety of fungi. Many of them are beneficial as they bring about the decomposition of the complex vegetative bodies on the forest floor and recycle essential nutrients much needed for the growth of plants. Certain fungi form symbiotic structures by associating with the roots called micorrhizha. Fungi become harmful when they attack the growing apical meristematic tissues and other soft tissues, and cause diseases. The wounded and unhealthy plants are easy victims to fungal attacks. Fungal attack on trees causes rot of the inner dead heartwood, thereby depleting the value of timber. In such cases the affected trees continue to live, as the living outer sapwood is normally remain unaffected and on felling alone it will be revealed that they contain no usable wood. Usually the fungi cause many diseases in the seedling stage. 2a.4.2B. PLANTS. Many plants that grow and live parasitically on the trees of the main crop, consequently affect the host tree adversely. They may be climbers, weeds, parasites, or pathogenic forms. The woody climbers often climb up, spread over the crowns, and smother the trees in their effort to get maximum sunlight. Certain climbers twine around the bole of the trees and as they grow thicker constrict the tree trunk, cause malformation of the bole and ultimately strangle the support tree. Entada scandans, Calycopterix floribunda, Acacia torta, Bauhinia vahli, Caesalpinia bondicella etc are some of the woody climbers found in this tract. Cutting off these climbers is a part of the periodical tending works to be carried out in the plantations. Parasitic plants may kill the host trees gradually or reduce their vigour seriously. The main parasite found in teak plantations of this tract is the Loranthus (Dendrophthoe falcata). The fruits of this species are eaten by the birds and the seeds sticking to their beaks will get deposited on the branches of new hosts, where they germinate and grow sucking the nutrients from the host plant tissues. The mechanical removal of the affected branches is the only remedial measure that can be resorted to check this menace. The creeper/climber Mikenia micrantha, which is notorious for its fast growth and consequent suppression of the vegetation of a locality by overtopping them has started to infest this tract also. The banks of the streams of upper reaches are fully covered by this invasive weed. In the locality called Nadu Kani this weed can be seen growing vigorously and profusely annihilating all the regeneration in the area. It is a sad fact that no effective control measures were evolved yet to thwart the progress of this weed. As this plant is not palatable, the herbivores avoid it completely. The epiphytes or the saprophytic fungi that grow on the trees do not cause any serious or grave damage to the hosts, but they too often help other fungi and insects in attacking the trees. Many noxious weeds and grasses come up, compete with the younger plants, and deprive them light, moisture, and growing space. The fibrous roots of thickets of grass may prevent the rain water reaching in to the soil, cause loss of water through transpiration, and increase the danger of draught. They may also hinder the seeds from striking roots in to soil. They along with other weeds like Eupatorium, Lantana, Helecteres etc suppress the younger seedlings and hamper their proper development. As most of these weeds are annuals or biennials, they will become dry with the advent of summer and increase fire hazard. It is often seen that as a result of annual fires, the grassy patches around the wooded areas creep into these patches.


Mikania smothering even large trees

Fungal Mushroom growing on tree trunk 2A.4.2C. INSECT PESTS. A large number of insects, about which a lot is yet to be known, thrive in the forests. Many of them are beneficial to the plant kingdom as they help in successful pollination and destruction of aphids and other injurious insects. They also give us many useful produces like honey, wax, etc. Many pernicious insects do much damage to the forest vegetation. Crickets, Scale insects, Grass hoppers, Wire worms etc are common pests that cause damages to young seedlings in the nurseries and forests. The dying of the leading shoots, appearance of galls, small tunnels in the stems etc are caused by insects. The toon shoot borer (Hypsipyla robusta) is a good example for this. The Teak stem borer (Sahyadrassus malabaricus) causes serious damage to the teak wood during the younger stage. The larvae of this insect develop on ground vegetation, migrate to teak saplings, and enter the stem. It bores in to the stem and makes a cylindrical tunnel along the pith. The entrance to the tunnel will then be closed with the saw dust and other debris cemented by a secretion exuded by the larva. The larva then goes on feeding the callus tissue newly formed around the tunnel mouth before entering the pupa stage within the tunnel. The point of attack on the stem may become weaker and the sapling may break at this point. Attack of this borer is seen in certain localities. The Carpenter Worm (Alcterogystia cadambae) is another borer that attack and damage the forest trees. Infestation by this pest is common in plantations and natural forests. Teak trees of all ages face periodic attacks by teak defoliator (Hyblaea pleura) and skeletonizer (Eutectona machaeralis). The larvae of these insects voraciously feed on the leaves and as a result, the trees become leafless soon. It affects the growth of the trees by reducing photosynthetic surface area.

DAMAGE CAUSED BY CUTTING BLAZE FOR MARKING.

BURRS FORMED DUE TO BORER ATTACK


Many other insects cause severe damages to the seedlings, flowers, fruits and stems. Many of them ahoast as vectors, being carriers of microbial infections. 2A.4.2D. ANIMALS. Wild animals as well as domestic animals cause damage to the forest crops. Wild elephants, gaurs, Sambar wild boar etc often trample down the regeneration and young growth around their favourable haunts and along their usual tracks. Wild elephants cause much damage to younger teak plantations by uprooting or breaking the poles for stripping off the bark for food. Browsing by the ungulates also cause severe damage to the young vegetation. Wild boars, Porcupines etc dig and uproot young plants in their search for the succulent root tubers. Monkeys, Squirrels, Hares, mouse etc feed on the seeds and cotyledons of certain species and hamper the natural regeneration. However, they help in the dispersal of seeds and also check the proliferation of noxious insects by feeding on them. Grazing by domestic animals is another menace. In the natural forests and plantations in the vicinity of the populated part of Achenkovil, grazing by domestic cattle and goats is common, as the local people let loose their cattle and goats in to the surrounding forests. Grazing causes destruction of the regeneration, wounding of the grown up trees, and hardening of the soil by trampling and dislodging the soil particles, thereby encouraging soil erosion and reducing soil fertility. 2A.4.2E. MAN. Man is the single most important factor responsible for the destruction of the structure and composition of the forests. The direct damages inflicted by man include the illicit felling of the trees for illegal gains, encroachments, clearing of forests for Ganja cultivation, setting of fire to drive away wild animals and to get a carpet of new flush of grass, crude ways of collection of NWFP, poaching, illegal and unsustainable fishing, poisoning waters, sand mining etc. Mismanagement of the forest tracts by adopting unscientific practices, lack of proper methods to ensure adequate regeneration of desired species and defective and untimely execution of tending operations will ultimately lead to the depletion of the forest crops. Excessive use or abuse of rights and concessions granted and over exploitation will lead to the destruction of the forests. Even the clear felling of the hill tracts that form the catchment areas of rivers and excessive opening of the evergreen forests will result in various set backs in the nature. The offences registered for the illicit activities committed inside the forests give clear indication regarding the intensity of damages inflicted by man. As the number of offences registered during the last decade is very less, it can be very well deduced that the direct threat to the forest by man at present is negligible in this tract. The details of offences booked are given in Appendix No 11 2A.5. MOUNTED FORCE EPISODE This tract was notorious for illegal activities; mainly the smuggling of valuable timber and other forest produce across the interstate border, in to the neighboring Tamil Nadu State. During the early nineties these illicit activities raged beyond description and the new Division was formed with the object of curbing the menace. The meager strength of staff engaged in protection duty and the inaccessibility of the areas involved were the main constraints in the protection work. With the formation of the new Division, effective protective measures were formulated. Patrolling in the inaccessible interior forests was strengthened. To enhance the staff mobility, ponies were provided for the first time in the history of the Kerala Forest Department. As per GO (MS) No: 93/1995/ F & WLD dated 16.12.1995, sanction was accorded to purchase six ponies for the patrolling work.(ANNEXURE‐12).In the GO, it was ordered to constitute a committee under the Chairmanship of the Conservator of Forests, Southern Circle, to effect spot purchase of the ponies. The Forest Veterinary Officer, the Veterinary Officer attached to the Mounted Police and the Divisional Forest Officer Achenkovil were the members of the Committee. The Committee visited an equine farm at Ootty, selected the ponies, and effected the spot purchase of 6 ponies (2 males and 4 females) during December‐1995. The ponies were brought to Achenkovil by lorry. Few experienced persons were also hired from Ootty to train the local people who will be engaged for the upkeep of the ponies and to impart training to the staff to ride on these animals. The venture was


inaugurated by the Hon: Forest Minister and the animals were put to service immediately. There are no record to show how these ponies were utilized effectively to perambulate the areas of illicit activities and to control the menace. With the valiant efforts on the part of the staff, the smuggling activities were controlled and the tract is now comparatively calm. With the passage of time the female ponies gave birth to calves and many died due to diseases. At the beginning of 2004, there were 3 ponies at the disposal of the Division. As the smuggling activities were controlled completely, they were of very little use at that time. Since the upkeep of these animals required huge amounts, it was decided to dispose off them in public auction and the Government accorded sanction for the disposal as per GO (Rt) No: 418/2001/dated 09.10.2001. (ANNEXURES: 13, 14, 15). They were sold in public auction on 25.02.2004. With this, the episode regarding the ponies used for the ‘protection of forest wealth’ came to an end.


CHAPTER II B.

FOREST FAUNA.

2B.1. – GENERAL: The term ‘wildlife’ with respect to a locality will denote the entire animal community therein, covering all forms of life. The natural fauna in a locality is characterized by the habitat conditions that were created and influenced by the Vegetation types met with in that locality. Situated in the tropics and endowed with a variety of geographical features, this tract shows the presence of different regional, climatic and edaphic climaxes and offers a wide range of habitat types. The varied habitats support a wide variety of fauna rich in number and biological diversity. These forests provide good abode for predator fauna due to rich prey base. The important wild animals found in the area are the following. 2B.1.1. – MAMMALS: Indian Elephant. (Elephas maximus) This large terrestrial herbivore represents the order proboscides in the Asian continent. Apart from its great size, the most striking feature of the animal is the proboscis or trunk, which is the elongated nose and upper lip, used for seizing food, taking up water for drinking and bathing, blowing dust over body, testing air for danger etc. This trunk ends in a small ‘lip’, which will help the animal to pick up even small objects. In males, the incisors of the upper jaw grow out to form tusks, used in defence and combat, for levering up small trees, for digging grip etc. The tusks of females scarcely protrude and they are often described as tusk‐less. The tusk‐less males are called makanas usually healthy and large in build. Though six molar teeth will be present in each half of upper and lower jaws, only two teeth are used at a time. The two molars move forward continuously and in the process they will wear out and drop and the next pair in succession takes up the function. Longevity of this animal is really controlled by its teeth‐wear. When the last pair drops, mastication becomes impossible and the animal suffers. Eyes are small and sight is poor, but the senses of smell and hearing are acute. The animal requires about 250 to 320 Kgs of food in a day and always in the lookout for the same. They roam usually in herds, but lone individuals that are often aggressive and dangerous, can also be seen. They are diurnal in habit. Male elephants, both wild and tamed, occasionally exhibit peculiar periodical paroxysms of excitement. Then the elephant is said to be in ‘musth’. A musth elephant will be arrogant and aggressive. As this tract lies contiguous with the neighbouring Divisions, elephants from the adjoining Divisions migrate in to this area, especially during the Sabari Mala Season.


Indian Bison or Gaur. (Bos gaurus).This majestic ungulate, though often erroneously referred to as bison, is not a true bison. It is a magnificent bovidean, with huge head, massive body, sturdy limbs and strong horns curved inwards over the head. The horns are broad and flattened at base and pointed at tip. Cows have smaller, less sturdy horns. It is a heavily built animal, with a pronounced hump or dorsal muscular ridge, abruptly ending behind the shoulders. The brown to black coat with short hairs and the white stockings on lower limbs are characteristic features. They usually graze in open glades in small family groups led by the old bull, early in the mornings and afternoons and retire to the shelter and seclusion of forests during the hot hours or when disturbed. Their defence is their massive size and acute sense of smell. The adult ones are seldom attacked by the beasts of prey. However, older and weak ones and calves often fall prey to predators. In this tract they are seen in plenty in certain seasons. Sambar (Cervus unicolor).It is the largest Indian deer. The stags carry the grandest bony, stout and rugged antlers, which are shed annually. The coat is coarse and shaggy with yellowish or greyish tinge. Usually they graze at night in open glades and seek shelter in the forests during the day time to avoid the high temperature and the predators. The senses of smell and hearing are acute while the eyesight is moderate. Its alarm call is often the surest sign of presence of tiger or leopard in the vicinity. They form the main food base of the carnivores of this tract. During nights they can be found in large numbers on the banks of the streams near Manalar and Thulu Mala side. Barking Deer (Rib‐faced Deer) (Muntiacus muntijak). It is a small, shy deer, with reddish coat and short two‐tined stubby antlers. The antlers are set on pedicels that extend down each side of the face as bony ridges, and hence the name rib‐faced deer. The upper canines are well developed in males and used in self‐defence. Their dog‐like barking call is easily imitated by the experienced hunters and these animals fall easy prey to their guns. They are often found in pairs or singly in the valleys at dawn and dusk. Their pellets are often noticed on the sides of road near Manalar. Mouse Deer – Indian Cheverotin (Moschiola meminna). This small ruminant with coat spotted brown and white, is not easy to meet with, as it is very adept at hiding in the bushes. Its small size, shy habits and protective colouring help to escape observation. The slender limbs are with less specialised bones. It lacks antlers. The males have small protruding canines. Except in breeding season they are solitary. They inhabit the lower reaches of the foot hills with grass covered rocky outcrops. Often they form an easy prey to other carnivores, python etc. The dogs reared by the tribals staying within the forests seek them out easily and killed by tribals for flesh. Their number is dwindling very fast in this tract due to hunting by the tribals and the survivors are confined to the interior areas. Wild Boar (Sus scrofa). These animals are found everywhere in large numbers in this tract. They form the major food base for the beasts of prey of this tract. With the protection they are getting the population of this highly prolific species has gone up and has become almost an unavoidable menace to the people residing in the settlements and the village. They often raid the agricultural crops raised by the residents and damage them. They also cause damage to nurseries and younger plantations by digging up in search for tubers. These formidable animals will turn with ferocity on any one disturbing them. They are omnivorous and consume any thing, animal or plant, fresh or rotten that comes their way. At present in and around the village, they are in the role of scavengers that feed on the faecal matters of human beings and keep the area clean. They roam in large groups in the vicinity of the staff colony and the populated part of the village regularly at night in search of food and presumably to escape from the predators. Bonnet macaque (Macaca radiata). This medium sized, long tailed monkey species is endemic to peninsular India. A bonnet of long dark hairs radiates in all directions from a whorl on its crown. These arboreal social animals live in small groups led by old strong males. They are found in the plain forest stretches and seldom venture in to the populated parts. They are omnivorous and feed on fruits, leaves,


shoots, insects, grubs, spiders etc. But when the food supply is meagre inside the forests, they do crop raids very cunningly. They are found visiting the mango trees in the staff colony during the fruiting season. Lion‐tailed macaque (Macaca silenus). This species is endemic to Western Ghats. The animal is with a glossy black fur coat, a beard and a tuft of hairs at the end of the tail. They live in groups headed by old strong male. They are sighted in the thick forest areas near to the estates and also in the riparian fringe forests. With its dark colour and shy and seclusive habits there is little wonder that it is seldom seen in this tract. Nilgiri langur ‐ (Hooded leaf – monkey) (Trachypithecus johnii) It is a langur with glossy black coat and yellowish brown head. The favourite haunts of these animals are the dense evergreen forest stretches with perennial water courses. They are very rare in this tract, probably due to the heavy poaching occurred in the past. The supposed medicinal value of their meat and the resultant demand are the main reasons that induced the poachers to seek this animal. Moreover the destruction of its habitat also caused the dwindling of the population. The local people have sighted these animals in the high reaches of this tract. They never come close to the populated parts and remain in the ghat sections. Tiger (Panthera tigris). Tiger is the prominent carnivore in this tract. This animal with blackish brown stripes in yellowish brown background looks magnificent in its natural background. It essentially requires three things‐ ample shade to sleep in, water source to quench the thirst and cool its body and good prey base. It is intolerant of high temperature and hence seeks shades under the trees to escape the heat of the day. In spite of its heavy build, it can move with astonishing suppleness and can swim with ease. They are mainly nocturnal in habit and prey upon the splendid prey base of gaur, sambar, wild boars, deers etc of this tract. Though there are instances where these animals have turned to be cattle lifters in the absence of game animals, there are no clear case of cattle lifting reported from this tract in the recent past. Pug marks of this animal are seen at various localities in the interior areas. Leopard (Panthera pardus). This carnivore with a fulvous coat marked with black spots arranged in rosettes in tawny –yellow background can thrive in almost all habitats. Usually, except in breeding season they are solitary animals. The animal is a good swimmer, good climber and a powerful leaper. Its wariness, keen senses and ability to hide make it almost impossible to track it down easily. They prefer rocky slopes with abundant bushes for cover. Being more tolerant to high temperature, they frequently hunt during day time. They hunt any animal that can be overpowered, like Sambar, gaur, wild boars and other small games. Its habits bring it in to far more contact with man than the tiger. Leopards are often met with in this tract. Sighting of a leopard during night in the bushes along the sides of the stretch of the road from Kumbavurutty to the first hair ‐ pin bend of the Ghat section was reported by many. Jungle Cat (Felis chaus).This common wild cat of India resembles the house cat in many respects, but has a distinctive appearance with the heavy build, long legs and comparatively small tail. Fur is also richer than the domesticated tabby. Usually it is a solitary animal and pairing is observed only during the breeding season. They reside in wooded areas with a safe retreat among rocks. It hunts on small mammals, birds, reptiles etc, mainly during night, using stealth. Being very swift and exceedingly strong for its size, it can bring down games larger than the animal. Raids on poultry are often reported from this tract. Leopard Cat (Prionailurus bengalensis). It is of the size of a domestic cat, but with longer limbs. Its colour and markings give it the look of a small panther. They are seldom seen due to their nocturnal habit. They prefer open areas with thickets of bushy growth. They hunt on small mammals and birds. Instances of sightings of this animal in a rare way confirm the presence of this species in this tract.


Indian Wild Dog‐ Dhole (Cuon alpinus). It is similar to a domestic dog, but shorter in limbs and muzzle. These red coated animals prefer forest areas with ample food, shade and water. They are social animals going about in packs. These powerfully built animals have great stamina and they go on tracking the prey with the acute sense of smell, scouring forests and meadows for miles around, during daytime. Their persistence in running down the prey is remarkable. They may even force a tiger to give up its kill by their strong will and group work. In this tract these animals are sighted frequently, hunting in small packs. Here, they are solely responsible for the non‐proliferation of the deers and small games. Sloth Bear (Melursus ursinus). These heavily built animals are having black shaggy fur coat with brownish tinge. The muzzle and the tips of the limbs are dirty white in colour. The elongated muzzle and lower lip, the long un‐kept hair, the short hind limbs, the long claws and the whitish V‐shaped breast patch are the characteristic features of these animals. The feet are broad with five toes with non‐retractile claws. Therefore, they are capable of standing on the hind legs for surveillance of the surroundings. The sight is poor, but the senses of smell and hearing are acute. They are usually found in small groups. They prefer areas with rocky out crops to offer them shelter from scorching sun and rains. They are nocturnal in habit. It is an omnivorous animal and feeds on small games, insects, wild fruits, honey etc. It is very fond of termites. Using the strong long claws it will dig out the termites, blows out the dust and sucks the termites with mobile lips. They usually attack only on provocation or in defence of the cubs. In this tract, along the banks of the major streams, there are areas with large rocky out crops and tumbled boulders. Signs denoting the presence of bears can be found in these localities. Indian Jackal (Canis aureus). These animals are a little larger than the common fox. Its nearest wild relative is the wolf, but the jackal is smaller in build and meaner in aspect. They live in any environment. In this tract they reside in the open forests in the vicinity of the populated part. They are found in pairs or in small packs. Solitary animals can also be seen. They come out in dusk, hunt and retire at dawn. They hunt small animals which they can overpower. They usually look for carrion, especially the remnants of the kills of larger carnivores. They also raid the poultry, try to lift lambs etc. Indian Fox – common Fox (Vulpes bengalensis). They resemble the domestic dogs, but the tail is with more tufts of hairs. They are found near to human habitation. It rarely enters forests. The eerie howling of the animal at dusk is perhaps more familiar to most of the people than the animal. They live in burrows dug by them. The burrow will be with very many openings. They will sleep in the burrows by day and will come out at dusk to seek its food. They will be in packs of various sizes. They hunt on small games, reptiles, insects, crabs etc, and also feed on carrions. Poultry raids by these animals are quite common in this area. Indian Grey Mongoose‐ common mongoose (Herpestes edwardsi). They are uniformly grey or rufous in colour. They are usually found in pairs or small family groups. They prefer areas with thick undergrowth and shun dense forest areas. They are diurnal in habit and feed on rats, mice, lizards, birds, insects, snakes, eggs and fruits. They live in holes dug by them. Ruddy Mongoose (Herpestes smithi). They resemble the grey mongoose, but the colour is little red and the tail is black tipped. Its food and habits are similar to that of the grey mongoose. But it shuns open areas and prefers forest tracts. Being a forest species it is seen very rarely. Stripe‐necked Mongoose (Herpestes vitticollis). This is the largest among the mongooses found in India, attaining a total length of nearly 1 M. There is a black stripe on each side of the neck, starting near the ear and reaching up to the shoulder. These stripes are the distinctive features of this animal. The coat is with a tinge of chest‐nut red and the tail is black tipped. Invariably it is a forest animal and hence less commonly seen around human habitation. Unlike other mongooses it is little attracted by rats, poultry and other foods found near human habitation. Its diet includes crabs, frogs, lizards etc.


Toddy Cat – Common Palm Civet (Paradoxurus hermaphrodites). This animal, commonly called as ‘Marappatti’, are found in and around human habitations. It has the habit of sampling the toddy from the pots attached to the tapped palms and hence called as Palm Civet. Their fur is dark, grey or brown with small white spots. The limbs are always black or dark brown. It is common in wooded areas. It lives much on trees, lying curled up by day among the branches or holes in the bole. It also nests in the holes of trees and crevices in the rocks. They also take up abode in buildings, between the roof and the ceilings and turn to be a menace to the householders. They are nocturnal hunters and feed on small animals such as rats, mice, birds etc and on all kinds of fruits including the coffee berries. They produce a nauseous secretion from an anal gland to escape from predators. Small Indian Civet (Vivericula indica). They are smaller when compared to other civets. Its fur coat is grey in colour, marked with spots and bands. They prefer open scrub jungle near to human habitations to live in. It shelters in holes or under rocks or bushes or even in uninhabited or abolished buildings. Though it can climb on walls or trees, it seeks its food on the ground. These nocturnal animals hunt on small animals like rats, squirrels, birds, lizards, insects etc. It may also prey on fowls in the poultry. They also feed on fruits, roots and such vegetable matter. They are kept under captivity for extracting the ‘civet’ which is a musk‐like product from the scent glands. It is a highly perfumed ingredient in certain indigenous medicines. Indian Pangolin‐ Ant‐eater (Manis crassicaudata). The most distinctive feature of this species is the armour it is provided with. The upper surface of the body and tail are covered with horny overlapping scales. When disturbed, they roll in to a ball and the scales protect them from the external attacks. They live in burrows made by them. These curious terrestrial animals are toothless and hence use the long tongue that can be ejected out to suck in the ants that comprise their main food. The forefeet are provided with large digging claws, which they effectively use to dig out the anthills. The animal is a good climber. During the day time it will curl up and sleep and comes out in night to seek food. This species is sighted in this tract. Slender Loris (Loris tardigradus). These weird animals usually found in the dense forest tracts are very interesting to look at. The body and the limbs are very slender. The face is almost rounded and the muzzle is short. The ears are very small but the eyes are very large. They have no tails. These arboreal creatures are nocturnal in habit. They are very sluggish and move very slowly. They feed on fruits, leaves, insects and small animals they can capture. They stalk on preys and capture with a sudden grab. They sleep rolled up on the branches by grasping with hands and feet. Travancore Flying Squirrel. (Petinomys fuscocappillus). They have flaps of skin on the sides of the body, joining the fore and hind limbs. When they are at rest these wings are scarcely noticeable. As the limbs are connected with this ‘wing’, their agility on ground suffers a little. Using these ‘wings’, they take gliding leaps from the tree tops. When the animal leaps, the outspread limbs expand the wings to its fullest extent. It is noteworthy that the animal is not capable of continuous true flight. Once they reach the ground, they will climb up once again to the top of another tree to repeat the exercise. The tail is bushy and its underside is scaly to assist in climbing. The sharp and curved claws are useful in climbing. These nocturnal animals spend the day in the hollows in the trees of dense forests. They feed on insects, small animals and fruits. They are found in the interior areas of this tract. Indian Giant Squirrel. (Ratufa indica).This species is endemic to India. They can be found only in forests. They often stay at the tops of lofty trees and seldom come to the ground. They usually move from tree tops to tree tops by remarkably giant leaps. They are very active and agile animals. This beautiful squirrel is with a long bushy tail. The black fur coat has characteristic reddish brown stripes and marks. They are shy animals that stay motionless when intruders are sighted and so not easy to discover. They live alone or in pairs in a globular nest made of twigs and leaves. The nests will be constructed among


the slender branches where the heavier predators cannot reach and hunt them. A single animal may build several nests on different trees to be used as sleeping quarters, nurseries etc. They feed on fruits, shoots and insects. They are found in large numbers in the dense forest areas of this tract, especially near Manalar. Indian (three striped) Palm Squirrel (Funambulus palmarum). This is the common squirrel found in the homesteads. The three white stripes on the dorsal side of the black coat and the profusely bushy tail are the salient features of this animal. They feed on fruits, nuts, tubers, young shoots, buds and other vegetative materials. They have the habit of storing the food materials for using at the time of adverse conditions. Indian Crested Porcupine (Hystrix indica). This is a peculiar animal provided with profuse armature of black and white quills of 15 to 30 cms long on the back. These formidable quills are the modified hairs, used for defence. When they are disturbed or attacked, the animal erects the quills, grunt and puff and rush backwards with incredible speed towards the enemy to dash with and the quills are driven deep in to the body of the enemy. The quills are loose and get detached easily. The quills embedded in the flesh of the enemy will cause utter pain and sometimes may turn to be fatal. The muzzle is pointed and hairy. The neck and shoulders also carry white bristles. They favour rocky hill sides with good vegetative cover. During day it will rest in crevices or in burrows. They come out after sunset in search of food. They feed on fruits, grains and all types of vegetables. They cause much damage to the nurseries and agricultural crops. They have a keen sense of smell. They have got the peculiar habit of keeping pieces of bone or horns near the burrows and gnawing them, probably to make the calcium required for the development of the quills. Black‐naped Hare (Lepus nigricollis). This hare has got a black patch on the back of its neck and hence the name. It is also called as the Indian hare. They are often sighted in open areas with thickets of bushes. Though they are usually nocturnal, they seek food during day time too. It relies on grass, leaves and succulent herbaceous materials. They cause damage to seedlings by nipping off the apical portion. Large Bandicoot Rat (Bandicota indica). These rodents are found in areas near to human habitation. Their large size helps to distinguish them from other rats. They prefer the outskirts of human dwellings such as the gardens, stables, etc. They make extensive burrows and do much damage. They feed on household refuse, grains, vegetables, etc. Lesser Bandicoot Rat (Bandicota bengalensis). It is also called as the Indian Mole Rat. It is a smaller bandicoot with a dark greyish coat. It is found in almost all places – in forests, pasture lands, gardens and even in waste lands. It dug up burrows with special chambers to store food grains for periods of famine. It multiplies like any thing. It is the most destructive rat that causes considerable damage to crops and stored food grains. Indian Flying Fox (Pteropus giganteous). This is one of the large fruit bats. They are seen flying with slow wing beats at dusk. By day they roost in trees in large noisy colonies, leave the roost soon after sunset in search of food, fly along the same root in single file and return to the same tree at dawn. They have an uncanny memory of the location and fruiting time of the trees. They cause considerable damage to the orchards. The trees on which they roost will also be killed due to fouling of the foliage. Fulvous Fruit Bat Rousettus leschenaultia). They are medium sized fruit bats found in areas near to human habitations. They roost in caves, in unoccupied old houses or man made tunnels. The roosting places will be changed when disturbed continuously or when the food availability in the vicinity dwindles. They leave the colony at dusk and fly fairly long distances in search of the fruit trees.


Common Yellow Bat (Scotophilous heathi). The Yellowish brown colour of the dorsal parts and the canary yellow colour of the under parts of the body is the distinctive feature of this bat. They roost in small colonies in crevices, roofs and holes in ceilings. They appear in the evenings and flies round in company. They feed on insects as well as fruits. Painted Bat (Kerivoula picta). This small bat with yellow ‘wings’ painted with black stripes and spots are sighted frequently in the populated part of this tract. As its colour perfectly matches with the dry leaves among which it roosts during day singly or in pairs, it is not easy to spot them. 2B.1.2. ‐ BIRDS.

The tract is very rich in avifauna and more than one hundred species can be seen in this locality. All the birds common to Western Ghats can be met with in this tract. In this tract there are no perennial water bodies and as a result the aquatic birds can be sighted very rarely. A few cormorants and storks visit the tract during favourable seasons. The peacocks and the giant Hornbills are the pride of this tract. Peacock Common Peafowl (Pavo cristatus). These magnificent birds are found frequently in this tract. The adult cock is a gorgeous bird with the abnormally lengthened tail and alluring plumage. But the hen is smaller with sober, mottled brown feathers that lack the lustre. It is considered as a sacred bird by the locals. It has become the pride of this tract Great Indian Hornbill (Buceros bicornis homrai). This is a rare large pied bird with stout, yellow and black horn‐shaped bill, surmounted by a casque. They are found in the evergreen forests of the valleys of this tract. The diet of this magnificent bird consists of fruits, lizards, snakes and small animals. Malabar (Common) Grey Hornbill (Tockus griseus griseus). In the forests of the plain areas, these birds can be found in small groups making much noise, especially during the mating period. It is a plain grey coloured hornbill, with no casque on its bill. White streaks can be seen on breast and throat. Sexes are almost alike. Large flocks. congregate to feed on fruiting trees and keep up an incessant chatter and harsh croaks. Jungle Fowl (Gallus sonneratii). It resembles the domestic fowl in almost all respects. The cock is more beautiful with brightly coloured feathers and sickle shaped tail. The hen is with brown feathers that have no lustre. They are found everywhere in this tract in pairs or in small groups. They are shy and seldom stray far from cover. They usually come out in the mornings and afternoons for feeding. Their diet includes shoots, fruits, grains, termites and other insects. They roost at night upon the trees or bamboos Indian purple rumped Sun Bird (Neetarinia zeylanica sola). These birds can be often sighted in pairs on flowering trees. In the case of the males, the dorsal feathers are brightly coloured and the female ones are brown to olive brown in colour. This small bird flirts from flower to flower, searching nectar. The bird is capable moving back and forth without really turning the whole body. Peacock on Achenkovil Range Office roof

Hatchling of Grey Hornbill


The other birds commonly found in this area are listed below. Pariah Kite (Milvus migrans), Brahmony Kite (Haliastur Indus), Jungle Myna (Acridotherus fuscus), Hill Myna (Gracula religiosa) Crow‐pheasant (Centropus sinensis), White‐headed Barbler (Turdoides affinis), Blue‐winged Parakeet (Psittacula columboides) Red‐whiskered Bulbul (Pyennonotus jocosus), Indian Lorikeet (Loriculus vernalis), Spotted Dove (Streptopelia chinensis), Emerald Dove(Chacophaps indica) Hoopoe (Upupa epops), Paradise fly catcher (Terpsiphone paradise), Rocket‐tailed Drongo (Dicrurrus paradiseus), Indian Oriole (Oriolus oriolus), Mountain Imperial Pigeon (Ducula badia), Nilgiri Wood Pigeon (Columba elphinstonii) Emerald Dove (Chalcophaps indica), White throated Kingfisher (Halcyon smyrnensis), Brown‐capped Pigmy Woodpecker (Dendrocopos nanus) Golden‐backed Woodpecker (Chrysocolaptes lucidus), Indian Robin (Saxicoloides fulicata) Indian Blue Robin (Lusciniabrunnea) Mag‐pie Robin (Copsychus saularis) Jungle Crow (Corvus macrorhynchos) Black Bulbul (Hypsipetes leucocephalus) 2B.1.3. ‐ REPTILES. This tract forms a good abode for a variety of lizards and snakes. Both poisonous and non‐poisonous snakes are seen in abundance within the forests. The important species found in this tract are listed below. Though crocodiles were present in the watercourses of this tract in the past, at present they are not seen. Monitor Lizard (Varanus versicolor). This is the largest lizard found in the drier plains of this tract. The animal is much sought after by the tribes for its meat and skin, as it is believed that the blood and meat have medicinal properties. The tribal people use their pet dogs to chase this animal and catch it. Due to these indiscriminate killings, the species is becoming rare and rare in this area. If this trend is not checked, it is certain that the species will become extinct in this tract in the very near future. Garden Lizard (Calotes calotes). This commonest lizard is found everywhere in this tract. Its size and colour varies from locality to locality to suit the surroundings Chameleon (Chamelion zeylanica) This arboreal lizard is an interesting species. They are cryptically coloured and it cannot be recognised easily when they stay among the foliage. Its ability to change the colour in accordance with the surrounding is remarkable. The large protruding eyes can be revolved and used to watch the surrounding without actually turning the head. Though it is very clumsy in its movements, it stealth the prey and shoots it’s long sticky tongue to catch the prey. This animal thrives mainly on insects


Flying Lizard (Draco dussumieri) This calotes‐like lizard is provided with a flap of skin on the lateral sides of the body. The skin is attached to the limbs. By extending the limbs, this ‘wing’ can be spread out and used to glide down from trees. Though the name suggests the animal is capable of flying, no true flight is possible. They are found in the drier tracts of this division. Skink (Mabuya species) Many species of these lizards that vary in sizes and colour are found in this tract. While some prefer the hot and damp conditions among the decomposing dried leaf litter, others are found in open areas. King Cobra (Ophiophagus Hannah). It is the most dreadful poisonous snake, as it attacks the intruders without any provocation. They are found in dense forests at higher altitudes as they prefer to avoid human interferences. It may attain a length of about six M. The hood is not wide as in cobra. It feeds on other snakes and rodents. It makes nest with the dried bamboo leaves and twigs. The eggs are laid in the lower compartment. Even the young ones coming out of the eggs are capable of killing large animals with the poison they possess. The poison is neuro‐toxic and death is imminent. Cobra (Naja naja). This is the commonest poisonous snake found in this tract. It is characterised by the bicellate mark on the dorsal part of the hood that will be clearly visible when the hood is expanded with the intention to strike. The neck region comprises long ribs and it helps the snake to dilate the neck portion and expand the hood. The male members are heavier in build and possess longer tails and larger hoods. It feeds on rodents, frogs, birds etc. The poison is neuro‐toxic and the death is due to respiratory failure. Python (Python molurus). It is the largest snake found in this tract. It is a non‐poisonous snake, nonetheless dangerous as it coils round its victim and kills by strangulation. When disturbed it hisses loudly. Usually they prefer moist areas. It is a good swimmer as well as climber. It seems to be very lethargic, but when it sights a prey, turns very active. It may sometimes coil round on the branches of trees waiting the prey passing beneath. When the prey reaches just below, it may fall on it and coils round to constrict and kill it. It feeds on small animals, birds, frogs etc. Viper (Vipera ruselli). It is another common poisonous snake found in the area. It is dark brown in colour with elliptical patches that run in three rows. The head is distinctively triangular in shape. They inhabit rocky and bushy areas, where the colour of its skin merges with the surroundings. Usually it remains coiled with the head at the centre of the coil. When provoked, it will raise its head, the body will be swelled rhythmically and hiss loudly and continuously. It hurls itself at the victim and the big fangs are pressed. They feed on small animals, birds, lizards etc. Krait (Bangarus caeruleus). This poisonous snake is steel blue in colour with white bands around the body. These white bands are not distinct in anterior region. This snake is nocturnal in habit and feeds on other snakes, birds, rodents, lizards etc. The venom is neuro‐toxic in action. The victim feels sleepy and dies. Rat Snake (Ptyas mucosus). It is a common non‐poisonous snake that is considered as the true friend of farmers as it helps them by preying upon and destroying the rats and mice. It is very agile and a good climber. When cornered, it will bite viciously. It will emit a foul smell on touch or even secrete a bad smelling black liquid from the anal glands. Common Blind Snake (Typhlops braminus). It is a primitive snake, resembling a large earthworm, with a shining chocolate hue. They are found in rotting vegetation and also in cool damp places. The head is not distinct and the eyes are more or less concealed by imbricate scales. They burrow easily in soft soil. They feed on larvae, worms and soft insects.


Common Green whip‐snake (Dryophis nasutus). It is a slender snake, almost green in colour. The dorsal part is full of black and white oblique lines, which are well defined in the anterior region. The head is elongated with a pointed tip. The eyes are well‐defined with horizontal pupil and bright golden iris. It can be found in the foliage of small trees and bushes. It remains suspended with its tail and the head is held free to catch preys. It has the habit of swaying the head slowly and trying to take aim at shining objects or victims. It strikes viciously. Its diet consists of insects, lizards, small birds etc Checkered Keel back (Natrix piscator). It is an aquatic non‐poisonous snake, found frequently in the stagnant water in ditches in the rivers and streams. It seldom comes out of water. When cornered it strikes viciously. Its diet includes frogs, small fishes, worms, insects etc Water Snake (Enhydris enhydris). This is another aquatic snake that seldom leaves the water. It is non‐poisonous and harmless. It feeds on frogs, worms etc. Tree Snake (Dendrphis species). This non‐poisonous snake is sighted rarely among the foliages of small trees and bushes. Sand Boa (Eryx coppicus). This non‐poisonous snake is pinkish grey in colour with deep brown irregular patches all over the body. The head is not distinct. The eyes are very small with vertical pupil. Nostrils appear as small vertical slits. They always remain hidden in sandy soils. It feeds on frogs, mice, lizards etc. The tail is blunt and resembles the head portion. It can also crawl back. Due to these peculiarities it is often described as a two‐headed snake by the common folk. Wolf Snake (Oligodon venustus). The colour of this harmless non‐poisonous snake is grey with brownish tinge. It resembles the krait in appearance. But here the brown bands of anterior region will be clear and distinct. They are found in open areas with bushy thickets. It comes out in the evenings seeking food. It feeds on small rodents, lizards, insects etc. Tortoises (Testudo travancorica).These armoured animals are found in damp places near to the perennial streams of the upper reaches of this tract. Indeed they are few in number at present as they were sought for meat by the tribals staying within the forests. 2B. 1.4. ‐AMPHIBIANS. Amphibians are represented by frogs, toads and caecilians in this tract. The common frogs belonging to the genera Rana are found in the water holes and damp places. The common frogs found here are the following. Rana hexadactyla, Rana tigrina, Rana semipalmata, Rana malabarica, Rana aurentiaca. Toads belonging to the genera Bufo are common in this tract. The prominent toads that can be met with in this tract are the following. Bufo melanostichtus, Bufo parietallis, Bufo microtympanum. Tree frogs belonging to the genera Rhacophorous are also seen in this tract. Many of them are poisonous. Eg: Rhacophorous malabaricus. In addition to these a few caecilians, which are the worm‐like burrowing amphibians are also available in this tract.


2B.1.5. ‐ FISHES. Achenkovil River is considered as the prominent river of this tract. However, the upper reaches of this river and most of its tributaries dry up during the peak summer days. Moreover, due to the flash floods occurred during 1991, the deeper gouges in the river got silted and it cannot hold water through out the year. As such, this water course cannot form a good abode for the Piscean fauna. During the monsoon period when the water flow is steady, some fishes from the lower parts migrate to the upper reaches of the river. As the water level recedes most of them will return and the remaining ones will be trapped in the murky water left in small ditches in the water courses. The tribes soon catch them and consume. Certain cat fishes and related species may be undergoing aestivation to thrive the summer days. But in regard to Kallar River, the main tributary of Achenkovil River, the situation is entirely different. The water flow in this river is perennial. There are many abrupt falls in the course of this river and as a result many deep gouges and ditches are formed. These craters overhanging with huge rocky out crops form good abode for a variety of fishes. The Ezharuvi, Pambin kayam, Kattikuzhi, Meenmutty etc are some of the craters in the river course, renowned as sure spots to see fishes of large dimensions. “Kattikuzhy” is named so because it harbours a type of fish locally called as “Katti” that is found to be growing to immense sizes, as the overhanging rocks afford good protection. The prominent fish species found growing in these streams are the following

‐Parambassis thomassii, ‐Nemachillus rupicola, ‐Nemachilius traigularis ‐Pristolepis marginata, ‐Tetradon travancoricus, ‐Salmo gairdneri, ‐Nandus nandus, ‐Etroplus maculates, ‐Channa striatus, ‐Megalops cyprinoids, ‐Ophiocephalus species, ‐Sachobranchus species, ‐Ballitora maculata, ‐Cyprinus carpio ‐Puntius vittatus, ‐Gambussis affinis, etc. ‐Barillius daniconious ‐Barilius gatensis

2B.1.6. ‐ INVERTEBRATES. This lower group of animal kingdom is also well represented in this tract. The earthworms and leaches are the prominent annelids found in damp areas. Earthworms belonging to the genera Drawida, Megascolex, Lemnoscolex, Dichogaster, Moniligaster, Travanscolides, Metapheri etc, are common. During the rainy season the leaches are abundant in the interior forests and it will be almost impossible to escape from their attack. Leaches belonging to the genera Bipalium are present in abundance. A few fresh water mussels, slugs and snails are the Molluscs encountered. Arthropods are well represented in this locality. Crabs and Prawn‐like fishes are the crustaceans found. Scorpions and Centipedes of various sizes found in the damp areas are dreaded much, as most of them are poisonous. Millipedes and Pill millipedes of various sizes and hues are very common. Multitude of insects and their larvae, both beneficial and noxious are found here. Wood louse, leaf insects, honey bees, butterflies, dragon flies, ticks, beetles, ants, bugs, grass hoppers of various sizes and hues etc represent the group insecta. Honeybees of different sizes make their hives on the branches of lofty trees, high rocky out crops, among the bushes and grasses, in the hollows of tree trunks etc. Honey and wax form the important NWFP items collected by the tribes. Spiders of different varieties are also found. They include the funnel‐web spiders, jumping spiders, oval‐eyed spiders, wandering spiders, daddy long leg spiders, comb‐footed spiders, crab spiders etc. The most dreaded wood spider, locally referred to as “Oorampuli” is quite common in this tract. This tract is also the abode of a large number of butterflies, moths and dragon flies. Just before the onset of monsoon numerous butterflies can be sighted swarming the area. The common yellow variety is present everywhere in this tract in this process of swarming. Troides minos, Neptis hylas, Junonia lemonias, Danaus genutia, Catopsilia pomana, Leptosia


nina, Kanishka canace, Hypolimnas bolina, Parantica nilgiriensis, Hypolimnas missipus, etc are some of the butterflies found here. 2 – feet long Earth worm

A large Spider Nest of a burrowing Spider

Brilliantly coloured Grass hopper

2B.2. ‐ INJURIES TO WHICH THE FAUNA IS LIABLE PROTECTION AND MANAGEMENT OF FAUNA 2B.2.1. ‐ INTRODUCTION. It is already made clear that this tract is affording good abode and shelter to many forms of wild life. The richness and variety of the fauna of this tract is really admirable. Considering the opulence of the wild life of this tract, the well quoted remark that 60 to 65 % of the wild life population of the State is found outside the renowned sanctuaries, can be once again stressed. The major threat factors faced by the wild life population in this tract are discussed below. 2B.2.2. ‐ HABITAT FRAGMENTATION AND ALIENATION. In the past extensive forest tracts were clear felled for various purposes that are described as developmental activities crucial for the well being of the society. In this tract also the natural forests were cleared to be regenerated with valuable species and the evergreen stretches were worked under selection felling system. All these resulted in the increased human interferences and indeed it adversely affected the well being of the wildlife. In this vast stretch of forests, few settlements within the tract


cause disturbance to the harmonious life in their habitat. The visitors passing through Achencovil, during Sabarimala season also disturb the peaceful movement of larger mammals. 2B.2.3. ‐ CARRYING CAPACITY. When the existing forest vegetation is clear felled for raising plantations of required species, the environmental and ecological factors of the locality will be altered drastically. Food, water and shelter are the most important requirements of the fauna to thrive successfully. The carrying capacity of a habitat is determined by considering the abundance or inadequacy of these components. If the domestic cattle intrude, the available food is to be shared and it brings out competition between the wild fauna and domestic cattle. In the absence of palatable vegetation, the population of herbivores will dwindle and it will adversely affect the existence of carnivores too. Likewise, water is an important requirement that determines the existence of life. Water in Kallar is available throughout the year and Achencovil river dries up only during peak summer season. However there are no reports of death due to shortage of water. It is the same case with shelter. Shelter is essential for the wild animals to rest in the hot hours of the day and to hide from the predators. In the absence sufficient shelter the fauna may retreat to other safer areas. In addition to these, the changes in the environmental factors such as temperature, humidity, precipitation etc also influences the animal life in a particular territory. All these are interlinked factors that directly influence the animal community. 2B.2.4. ‐ EPIDEMICS. Due to the existence of human settlements, the wild fauna is forced to share their domain with the domestic cattle. They will be grazing together in the same area. As the domestic cattle and wild herbivores are prone for almost similar diseases, the chances of mutual transmission increases. If once an epidemic breaks out in a territory, it may wipe out the whole population of the affected species. It is very difficult to treat the wild fauna against any disease. 2B.2.5. ‐ FIRE. Fire will annihilate many small forms of wild life directly. Small invertebrates, snakes, ground roosting birds; rodents residing in burrows etc will get killed. The fire also causes deterioration of the soil, destruction of vegetation and depletion of the habitat. If the fire sweeps the area regularly without any check, it will ultimately pave way for the dwindling of wild life population, due to scarcity of food / fodder. 2B.2.6. ‐ PREDATION. The life forms in a habitat are interlinked in many ways. They will interact with each other and also with the environment. They also have to depend directly or indirectly on the members of the community. This interdependence and interaction are essential to maintain the balance in nature. The herbivores are the primary consumers in this ecosystem and their success depends on the availability of sufficient food materials in the area. If the population of the herbivores increase without any check due to the absence of predators, it will tell upon the carrying capacity of the area. The food scarcity due to over population may ultimately lead to the total destruction of the herbivores. Similarly, if the number of the predators in an area is more, there will be excessive predation which will wipe out the prey base and result in the extermination of the carnivores also. So it is evident that the wildlife community should maintain a balance that will help to keep equilibrium in nature unaltered. 2B.2.7. ‐ HUMAN ACTIVITIES. Men indulge in illegal activities like poaching and trade of wild life articles. Wild animals are often hunted for their meat or other animal products like hide, musk, certain body parts, etc. Capturing of live animals for the purpose of trade is another factor that causes dwindling of the population of certain species. Snaring and poisoning the wild animals in an effort to protect the crops is another human activity that causes destruction of wild life. The public has to be enlightened in this regard so as to


ensure the protection of wildlife. Dependence of local tribals on many of are smaller animals for food is a serious issue. 2B.2.8. ‐ WILDLIFE OFFENCES. As this tract is lying far away from the densely populated areas, the wild animals in this tract face no serious threats. In this extensive tract, human habitation is confined to a small extent around the Sastha Temple at Achenkovil. Again, the tract is lying contiguous with the dense forest tracts of the neighbouring Forest Divisions. As such the wild animals can move freely over a very large stretch of forest that provides ample shelter and food. The forestry operations carried out by the department do cause disturbance to the wild life. However, these unavoidable disturbances simultaneously ensure protection to the wild life from poachers by the mere presence of staff and labourers within the forests. The fact that only a single wild life offence was registered since the establishment of this Division amply proves that there are no serious threats to the wild fauna of this tract. On 05.03.2003 a Sambar was found shot dead within the South Section of Achenkovil Range and a case was registered after the usual procedures as OR.2/2003. 2B.2.9. ‐ ANIMAL_HUMAN CONFLICT. Crop raids by wild life rarely occur in the settlements and private holdings of this tract. Wild Boar is the main culprit in these cases. Instances of crop raids by wild elephants, sambar and such other large herbivores are very rare. As there are dense bamboo and reed breaks and grassy patches within the tracts the herbivores can find sufficient food materials within their natural home and they never venture in to areas frequented by man. But, as the wild boar population has swelled up, they foray in to the village in search of edible stuff. Another possible reason behind these regular nocturnal visits to the areas of human habitation could be the intention to avoid the predators. However, the animal ‐ human conflict is not at all a severe problem in this area. Since the establishment of this Division, only two complaints were received claiming compensation for the damages and losses inflicted by the wild animals. The first application was received in the year 1998. It was the case of lifting a cow let loose in the forests for grazing, by a tiger. The compensation ordered to be paid in this case is Rs.3,000/‐. The victim of an attack by a monkey submitted the next application during the year 1999. In this case too an amount of Rs.2,000/‐ was sanctioned as compensation. It is also noteworthy that the residents in this tract never raised any demand to erect power fences or to dig trenches along the forest boundaries touching the private holdings to prevent the entry and onslaught by the wild animals. But on the whole it is evident that the animal‐human conflict in this tract is negligible 2B.3. ‐ FAUNA – MANAGEMENT At present this tract is not considered as an area where wildlife management activities are to be carried out with much significance or as a corridor to be developed more to facilitate the movement of wild animals. No activities are carried out till this date exclusively to manage the wild fauna of this tract. During the peak summer days the streams crisscrossing this tract will become dry, the grasses and other edible plants in the open areas will perish and there will be the threat of annual wild fires. Owing to these, the animals will be congregating around certain spots where water and food materials will be available in diminutive quantity. This will result in severe competition among the animals and it will cause irreparable damages to certain group of animals. As such, it is imperative to chalk out some simple measures to provide essential facilities to the wild life at various ideal spots within this tract. For securing water throughout the year, small check dams can be constructed across the streams at sites regularly haunted by the wild animals during the favourable season. Small ponds can be dug in areas where the water table is high and de‐silting of the existing water holes can be attempted to provide water to the wild animals. Salt licks can also be established near these spots. Other facilities relished by certain animals, such as wallowing pits, can also be prepared. While afforesting the denuded forest


areas by planting local species, care should be taken to include some species that will provide fodder to herbivores, fruits and shelter to arboreal animals and birds. Live and let live is to be the policy to be adopted and for this there must be avid insight and sincere efforts to incorporate some measures in the regular forestry operations to provide some facilities to the wild fauna, which is the integral part of the ecosystem.

Documents

CHAPTER – II - Keralaforest.kerala.gov.in/images/02flf.pdf · 2016-09-06 · phenology of the stand are governed by the locality factors. The existence of different types of forests