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Chapter 9- The States of Matter Gases indefinite volume and shape,
low density. Liquids definite volume, indefinite
shape, and high density. Solids definite volume and shape,
high density Solids and liquids have high densities
because their molecules are close together.
Kinetic Theory
are evidence of this.
Kinetic theory says that molecules are in constant motion.
Perfume molecules moving across the room
A Gas is composed of particlesusually molecules or atomsConsidered to be hard spheres
far enough apart that we can ignore their volume.
Between the molecules is empty space.
The Kinetic Theory of GasesMakes three assumptions about gases
The particles are in constant random motion.
Move in straight lines until they bounce off each other or the walls.
All collisions are perfectly elastic
The Average speed of an oxygen molecule is 1656 km/hr at 20ºC
The molecules don’t travel very far without hitting each other so they move in random directions.
Kinetic Energy and Temperature Temperature is a measure of the
Average kinetic energy of the molecules of a substance.
Higher temperature faster molecules. At absolute zero (0 K) all molecular
motion would stop.
Kinetic Energy
% of Molecules
High temp.
Low temp.
Kinetic Energy
% of Molecules
High temp.
Low temp.Few molecules have very high kinetic energy
Kinetic Energy
% of Molecules
High temp.
Low temp.Average kinetic energies are temperatures
The average kinetic energy is directly proportional to the temperature in Kelvin
If you double the temperature (in Kelvin) you double the average kinetic energy.
If you change the temperature from 300 K to 600 K the kinetic energy doubles.
Temperature
Temperature If you change the temperature from
300ºC to 600ºC the Kinetic energy doesn’t double.
873 K is not twice 573 K
Pressure Pressure is the result of collisions of the
molecules with the sides of a container. A vacuum is completely empty space - it
has no pressure. Pressure is measured in units of
atmospheres (atm). It is measured with a device called a
barometer.
Barometer At one atmosphere
pressure a column of mercury 760 mm high.
Dish of Mercury
Column of Mercury
1 atm Pressure
Barometer At one atmosphere
pressure a column of mercury 760 mm high.
A second unit of pressure is mm Hg
1 atm = 760 mm Hg
760 mm1 atm Pressure
Avagadro’s Hypothesis
Equal volumes of gas at the same temperature and pressure have equal numbers of molecules.
That means ...
Avagadro’s Hypothesis
2 Liters of
Helium
2 Liters of
Oxygen
Has the same number of particles as ..
Only at STP
• 0ºC
• 1 atm This way we compare gases at
the same temperature and pressure.
This is where we get the fact that 22.4 L =1 mole
Think of it it terms of pressure. The same pressure at the same
temperature should require that there be the same number of particles.
The smaller particles must have a greater average speed to have the same kinetic energy.
Liquids Particles are in motion. Attractive forces between molecules
keep them close together. These are called intermolecular
forces.
• Inter = between
• Molecular = molecules
Breaking intermolecular forces. Vaporization - the change from a
liquid to a gas below its boiling point.
Evaporation - vaporization of an uncontained liquid ( no lid on the bottle ).
Evaporation Molecules at the surface break
away and become gas. Only those with enough
KE escape Evaporation is a cooling
process. It requires heat. Endothermic.
Condensation Change from gas to liquid Achieves a dynamic equilibrium with
vaporization in a closed system. What is a closed system? A closed system means
matter can’t go in or out. (put a cork in it)
What the heck is a “dynamic equilibrium?”
When first sealed the molecules gradually escape the surface of the liquid
As the molecules build up above the liquid some condense back to a liquid.
Dynamic equilibrium
As time goes by the rate of vaporization remains constant
but the rate of condensation increases because there are more molecules to condense.
Equilibrium is reached when
Dynamic equilibrium
Rate of Vaporization = Rate of Condensation
Molecules are constantly changing phase “Dynamic”
The total amount of liquid and vapor remains constant “Equilibrium”
Dynamic equilibrium
Vaporization
Vaporization is an endothermic process - it requires heat.
Energy is required to overcome intermolecular forces
Responsible for cool earth. Why we sweat. (Never let them
see you.)
Kinetic energy
%
of
Molecules
T1
Energy needed to overcome
intermolecular forces
Kinetic energy
%
of
Molecules
T2
At higher temperature more molecules have enough energy
Higher vapor pressure.
Boiling A liquid boils when the vapor
pressure = the external pressure Normal Boiling point is the
temperature a substance boils at 1 atm pressure.
The temperature of a liquid can never rise above it’s boiling point.
Changing the Boiling Point Lower the pressure (going up into
the mountains). Lower external pressure requires
lower vapor pressure. Lower vapor pressure means lower
boiling point. Food cooks slower.
Raise the external pressure (Use a pressure cooker).
Raises the vapor pressure needed. Raises the boiling point. Food cooks faster.
Changing the Boiling Point
Solids Intermolecular forces are strong Can only vibrate and revolve in
place. Particles are locked in place - don’t
flow. Melting point is the temperature
where a solid turns into a liquid.
The melting point is the same as the freezing point.
When heated the particles vibrate more rapidly until they shake themselves free of each other.
Ionic solids have strong intermolecular forces so a high mp.
Molecular solids have weak intermolecular forces so a low mp.
Crystals A regular repeating three
dimensional arrangement of atoms in a solid.
Most solids are crystals. Amorphous solids lack an orderly
internal structure. Think of them as supercooled
liquids.
Cubic
Body-Centered Cubic
Face-Centered Cubic
Phase Changes
Solid
Liquid
Gas
Melting Vaporization
Condensation
Freezing
Liquid
Sublimation
Melting Vaporization
Condensation
Condensation
Solid
Freezing
Gas
Energy and Phase Change Heat of vaporization energy required
to change one gram of a substance from liquid to gas.
Heat of condensation energy released when one gram of a substance changes from gas to liquid.
For water 540 cal/g
Energy and Phase Change Heat of fusion energy required to
change one gram of a substance from solid to liquid.
Heat of solidification energy released when one gram of a substance changes from liquid to solid.
For water 80 cal/g
Water
Waterand IceIce
Water and Steam
Steam
-20
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
0 40 120 220 760 800
Heating Curve for Water
Water
Waterand IceIce
Water and Steam
Steam
-20
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
0 40 120 220 760 800
Heating Curve for Water
Heat of Vaporizati
on
Water
Waterand IceIce
Water and Steam
Steam
-20
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
0 40 120 220 760 800
Heating Curve for Water
Heat of Fusion
Water
Waterand IceIce
Water and Steam
Steam
-20
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
0 40 120 220 760 800
Heating Curve for Water
Slope = Specific Heat
Steam
Water
Ice
Water
Waterand IceIce
Water and Steam
Steam
-20
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
0 40 120 220 760 800
Heating Curve for Water
Both Water and
Steam
Water
Waterand IceIce
Water and Steam
Steam
-20
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
0 40 120 220 760 800
Heating Curve for Water
Ice and
Water
Water
Waterand IceIce
Water and Steam
Steam
-20
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
0 40 120 220 760 800
Heating Curve for Water
Calcualting Energy Three equations Heat = specific heat x mass x T Heat = heat of fusion x mass Heat = heat of vaporization x mass
Numbers to Know For ice S.H. = 0.50 cal/gC For water S.H = 1 cal/gC For steam S.H. = 0.50 cal/gC Heat of vaporization= 540 Heat of fusion = 80 cal/g
How to do it The total heat = the sum of all the heats
you have to use Go in order
HeatIce
Below 0 C
+
Melt Ice
At 0 C
+
Heat Water
0 C -100 C
+
Boil Water
At100 C
+
Heat Steam
Above100 C
Examples How much heat does it take to heat
12 g of ice at -6C to 25C water? How much heat does it take to heat
35 g of ice at 0 C to steam at 150 C?
