Why It MattersThe Mexican president Antonio López de Santa Anna responded harshly to

tensions in Texas. Delegates to a convention held at Washington-on-the-Brazosbelieved freedom from Mexico was the only answer to their problems. They

wrote a declaration of independence and a constitution for a new government.

The Impact TodayTexans trace the origins of the current constitution back to the one written in 1836.

That basic law of the land continues to provide for stable government and protectionof the rights of the people.

202 CHAPTER 9 Road to Independence

1832• July 4, “America” sung publicly for the first time

1834• National Republicans changed their name to Whigs

1835★ The Battle of Gonzales was fought

between Mexican troops and Texas colonists

★ The Consultation set up a provisional government

1832 1833 1834 1835

Road toIndependence

1836★ The Declaration of Independence from

Mexico adopted on March 2

★ The Texas Constitution approved onMarch 16

203CHAPTER 9 Road to Independence

Austin artist Bert Rees completed a mosaic of the Battle of Gonzalesin 1959, part of which is shown here. It appears on the front of theGonzales City Hall.

TEXASHISTORY

Chapter OverviewVisit the texans.glencoe.comWeb site and click onChapter 9—ChapterOverviews to previewchapter information.

1837 1838 1839

1839• Opium War began in China

1836

1838 • Cherokees driven from their homelands onto

the Trail of Tears

Journal ofa Journey to

Independence

Step 1 Fold a sheet of paper in half from topto bottom.

Step 2 Then fold the paper in half from sideto side.

Step 3 Label the foldable as shown.

Identifying Main Ideas Study FoldableMake this foldable and use it as a journal to helpyou record information as well as questions andthoughts you have about Texas’s journey toindependence.

Reading and Writing As you read the chapter,write journal entries in your foldable from theviewpoint of someone who is personallyexperiencing the political tensions in Texas at thistime. Write descriptive entries about your life asa Texan while Texas struggled for independence.

204 CHAPTER 9 Road to Independence

November 7Consultation adopts“Declaration of the People”

RevolutionBegins

Guide to ReadingMain IdeaThe first shots of the Texas Revolutionwere fired, and Texans took steps togovern themselves.

Key Termscommittees of correspondence,siege, provisional government,municipality, regular army

Reading StrategyOrganizing Information As you read this section, complete a tablelike the one shown by filling in thesignificance of the persons listed.

Read to Learn• which battles began the Texas

Revolution.• what decisions were made at the

Consultation of 1835.

Section ThemeCivic Rights and ResponsibilitiesTexans turned a struggle for state self-government into a war for independence.

November 3Consultation beginsat San Felipe

October 2Battle of Gonzales

Preview of Events✦1835

Person Significant ActionsGeneral Cós

Colonel Ugartechea

Stephen F. Austin

Sam Houston

In a letter to his wife Martha, dated December 7, 1835, Micajah Autry wrote:“I have taken passage on the Steam Boat Pacific and . . . have met on the sameboat a number of acquaintances from Nashville and the District bound for Texasamong whom are George C. Childress and his brother. Childress thinks the fight-ing will be over before we get there and speaks cheeringly of the prospects.”

Within three months of Micajah Autry’s journey, George Childress wouldwrite the Texas Declaration of Independence.

A Mexican Army Arrives in TexasTension continued to build in Texas. It seemed to officials both back

in the Mexican capital and in Texas that radicals like William B. Traviswere becoming disloyal. The small number of soldiers at the forts had

Steamboat, c. 1835

been unable to control the tense situation.More soldiers were needed. The arrival ofGeneral Cós with additional troops broughtthe number of Mexican soldiers in San Antonioto 650. Their presence in Texas caused muchconcern among the settlers. Towns formedcommittees of safety in case of threat by fed-eral soldiers. Patrols watched the roads to givewarnings of approaching troops. Rumorsspread through the countryside that GeneralCós was planning to arrest all Texan leadersand march them back to Mexico in chains.Committees of correspondence—local groupssharing political and military information,much like those that were formed during theAmerican Revolution—sprang up to keep thecolonists informed.

Gonzales—The Lexington of TexasThe first conflict between Mexican troops

and Texan colonists came at Gonzales onOctober 2, 1835, two weeks before the sched-uled start of the Consultation at Washington-on-the-Brazos. The first battle of the AmericanRevolution had taken place at Lexington,Massachusetts, when British soldiers hadattempted to take arms and ammunition awayfrom the people. Because of this similarity inthe circumstances that touched off the two rev-olutions, Gonzales is known as the “Lexingtonof Texas.”

Colonel Ugartechea (oo•gahr•teh•CHAY•ah),the Mexican commander at San Antonio,ordered the people of Gonzales to surrendertheir small brass cannon. The local officialrefused and sent runners to the surroundingareas to gather armed men. Colonel Ugartecheathen ordered about 100 soldiers to take the can-non by force.

The people buried the cannon in a peachorchard until reinforcements arrived from thecountryside. The Texan forces dug up the cannonand mounted it on a wagon. A local blacksmithquickly forged some ammunition out of ironscraps and pieces of chain. The Texans decorated

The Texan independence fighters must havelearned at least one important lesson fromthe patriots of the American Revolution.Before the days of e-mail and the Internet,getting information from one place toanother was a slow process. Setting up acommunication network was the first steptoward any kind of united political action.The committees of correspondence in boththe American and the Texas Revolutionsdirected much of the early activity of the revolutionaries.

Battle of Gonzales by BruceMarshall James Tumlinsonacquires the cannon from theMexican government in 1831(center back); after the Battle ofGonzales in 1835, it is buried atSandies Creek (center right); it isunearthed by a flood in 1936(bottom right). Do you think the artist was successful in hiseffort to tell the story of theGonzales cannon? Why or why not?

205

History Through Art

the front of the cannonwith a white flag thatbore the words “Comeand Take It.”

When the Mexicantroops arrived at Gon-zales, they faced 160armed Texans command-ed by Colonel John H. Moore. The fighting atGonzales started in the early morning. After thebrief struggle, the Mexican leaders ordered theirtroops to withdraw toward San Antonio. OneMexican soldier was killed. No Texans died in theconfrontation.

Although the Battle of Gonzales was briefand casualties were light, news of the clashquickly spread throughout Texas. Many colonistswho previously had been indifferent about theprospect of fighting were now enthusiastic. AtSan Antonio, General Cós regarded the actions atGonzales as the outbreak of war.

On to San AntonioOn October 9th—one week after the fight-

ing at Gonzales—a force of about 120 Texans took the garrison at Goliad by surprise. They

battled for about thirty minutes before captur-ing the presidio. The surrender of the Mexicantroops and the victories at Gonzales and Goliadconvinced many Texans that Mexican troopscould be defeated easily. The only large Mex-ican force remaining in Texas was the armycommanded by General Cós at San Antonio.Texans began gathering around Gonzales forthe march against Cós. The cry was now “On toSan Antonio!”

Stephen F. Austin was called upon to take com-mand of the 300 Texans assembled at Gonzales.Known as the Army of the People, Austin’stroops started their march. As they advanced,more volunteers joined, until nearly 400 made upthe ranks. Cós commanded about 750 troops.After some brief fighting around San Antonio,the Texans decided to make camp and lay siegeto (set up a military blockade around) the city.They had no heavy artillery and wished to avoidan all-out attack on the Mexican defensive posi-tions. The Texans hoped Cós would run out ofsupplies and quickly be forced to surrender.

Describing Which two battles madethe colonists believe the Mexicans could be easily defeated?

206 CHAPTER 9 Road to Independence

GonzalesSan Antonio

Juan Seguín fought in theTexas Revolution andbecame a captain in thearmy. He survived theBattle of the Alamo becausehe was away searching forreinforcements. He madehis way to East Texaswhere Sam Houston was

putting together an army,but it was too late—theAlamo had fallen. He foughtwith Houston at the Battleof San Jacinto and helpeddefeat Santa Anna’s army.

Seguín served in theTexas Senate and as a highofficial in San Antonio. He

helped defeat a Mexicanexpedition against SanAntonio but was lateraccused of treason. Bornand raised in San Antonio,he was finally forced toleave Texas because he felt like a “foreigner” in his native land.

Juan NepomucenoSeguín 1806–1890

Peace Party Prevails at the Consultation

While the Texan troops camped near SanAntonio, other Texans met in San Felipe at aConsultation on November 3, 1835. Originally,the meeting had been scheduled to take placein Washington-on-the-Brazos on October 15,but it was delayed because of the events at Gonzales and Goliad. The meeting wasmoved to San Felipe because the town had aprinting press.

Fifty-eight delegates representing 14 townsor districts attended the Consultation. WarParty delegates favored an immediate declara-tion of independence from Mexico. Theybelieved that the fighting had shown that Texascould no longer live peaceably under Mexico’srule. Peace Party delegates also agreed thatTexans should oppose Santa Anna, but theyobjected to an immediate declaration of inde-pendence. They wanted the Consultation todeclare that Texas was fighting for the MexicanConstitution of 1824, which Santa Anna hadoverthrown. The Peace Party hoped to winMexican support with this argument.

On November 6, delegates of the Consul-tation voted. A motion calling for immediateindependence was defeated. Fourteen delegatesvoted for independence, while 33 membersvoted against the proposal.

On the following day, the Consultationadopted a statement known as the “Declarationof the People of Texas in General ConventionAssembled.” In this declaration, printed in bothSpanish and English, the Texans declared them-selves to be loyal citizens of Mexico. Theypledged to support the Mexican Constitution of1824 and declared that they had taken up armsonly to defend themselves and to oppose therule of Santa Anna. The declaration stated thatTexas was no longer bound by the compact ofunion but that Texans offered their support tosuch members of the Mexican confederacy aswould take up arms against military dictator-ship. They urged all Mexican citizens, both inTexas and elsewhere, to join their struggle fordemocratic government. They also offered landto volunteers who would help them.

Summarizing What was stated inthe Declaration of the People drafted at the Consultation?

207CHAPTER 9 Road to Independence

History

Newspaper advertisements offering freeland in exchange for military servicebrought many people to Texas during therevolution. These courageous newcomerswere willing to risk everything for a chanceat a better life after the war. Notice theaddress of the hotel given in the primarysource. How does this differ fromadvertisements you might see today?

A Provisional Government BeginsAfter adopting the Declaration of the People,

the Consultation created a provisional govern-ment, or temporary government, for Texas. Itconsisted of a governor, a lieutenant governor,and a general council with one representativefrom each of the locally governed areas known asmunicipalities. The powers of the governor andcouncil were defined only vaguely, however.That vagueness would eventually lead to conflict.

The Consultation chose Henry Smith ofBrazoria as governor and James W. Robinson ofNacogdoches as lieutenant governor. Smith andRobinson both were members of the War Partyand supported Texas independence, but most of

the members chosen for the council supportedthe Peace Party. Quarrels continued between thetwo sides because of their different beliefs.

The Consultation adopted a plan for the creation of a regular army of full-time, paid soldiers. Sam Houston was chosen to be thecommander of the regular army, but he was notgiven authority over the volunteer army stillcamped at San Antonio. Born in Virginia, SamHouston had moved to Tennessee while a youngman. He lived with nearby Cherokees for threeyears, learning their language and customs.After serving in the War of 1812, Houstonentered politics as a district attorney and waslater a United States congressman and governorof Tennessee. He moved westward in 1829 andlived for several years among the Cherokeesagain, this time in Indian Territory. He beganvisiting Texas in 1832, and by 1835 had perma-nently moved to Texas.

The Consultation named Stephen F. Austin,William H. Wharton, and Branch T. Archer ascommissioners to represent Texas in the UnitedStates. They were told to obtain troops, supplies,and money to finance the expected war and toaid in the struggle against Santa Anna.

Identifying Who was chosen asgovernor of the new provisional government?

208 CHAPTER 9 Road to Independence

Checking for Understanding1. Using Key Terms Pretend you

are a soldier in Texas. Write a letterto your family using these words:siege, provisional government,municipalities, and regular army.

2. Reviewing Facts What were thepolitical goals of the Peace Partyand War Party?

Reviewing Themes3. Civic Rights and Responsibilities

Why is Gonzales known as the“Lexington of Texas”?

Organizing to Learn4. Searching for Facts Draw a chart

like the one shown below. Use theinformation in this section toanswer the following questionsabout the Consultation ofNovember 1835.

Critical Thinking5. Making Comparisons Name ad-

vantages and disadvantages of theprovisional government’s structure.

6. Identifying Leadership QualitiesHow would Sam Houston’s back-ground help him as a leader?

Summarizing Describe the stepsleading up to the Battle of Gonzales.What effect did the battle have on thefight for independence?

Where was the Consultation held?

Who attended?

Why did they meet?

What did they decide?

Since 1957 the citizens of Gonzales have gatheredto celebrate their Texas heritage in a three-day“Come and Take It” festival each October. It is herethat the first Texas Army of Volunteers gathered,fired the first shot of the Texas Revolution, andbecame the Alamo’s only reinforcements.

Why Learn This Skill?The Internet has become a valuable research

tool. It is convenient to use, and the informationcontained on the Internet is plentiful. However, it is up to the user to distinguish between quality infor-mation and inaccurate or incomplete information,just as you would with printed material.

Learning the SkillOn a reliable Web site, the author and publisher

or sponsor should be clearly indicated. The informa-tion on the site should be current, and the site shouldbe easy to navigate.

To evaluate a Web site, ask yourself the followingquestions:

• Is more than one source used for backgroundinformation within the site?

• Does the site contain a bibliography?• Are the links within the site up to date?• Is the author clearly identified?• Does the site explore the topic in depth?• Does the site contain links to other useful

resources?• Is the information easy to access? • Is the design appealing?

Practicing the SkillVisit the Web site featured on this page and

answer the following questions.

Lone Star Junction (www.lsjunction.com)

1Who is the author and sponsor of the Web site?

2What links does the site contain?

3What sources were used for the informationcontained on the site?

4Does the site explore the topic in depth? Why or why not?

5Is the design of the site appealing? Why or why not?

TechnologyTechnology

Evaluating a Web Site

Evaluating a Web Site Go to a Web site that you visitregularly or choose a Web site that you want to learn moreabout. Answer the following questions about the Web site.

1. Name each of the links.2. Choose one of the links and describe its contents.3. Is the information from that link reliable? Why or

why not?4. Is the information from that link detailed? Why or

why not?

209

210 CHAPTER 9 Road to Independence

November 26Grass Fight outsideSan Antonio

The Capture ofSan Antonio

Guide to ReadingMain IdeaTexans won a victory at San Antonio,but the provisional government failed.

Key Termsvetooverride

Reading StrategyClassifying Information As you readthis section, complete a chart like theone shown here outlining the impor-tance of the following dates.

Read to Learn• what military events occurred in the

winter of 1835–1836.• what problems were caused by the

provisional government.

Section ThemeCulture and Traditions People ofmany ethnicities joined together in thefight for Texas independence.

Preview of Events

December 5Attack on SanAntonio begins

Adventurous Americans had a lively interest in Texan affairs and searchedfor news of the latest events. In 1835, Micajah Autry wrote, “Major Arnold fromTennessee and myself left the rest of the company . . . and went down toOrleans for the purpose of learning the true state of things in Texas . . . Theresult was that the war is still going favourably . . . It is thought that Santa Annawill make [an invasion] . . . in the Spring but there will be soldiers enough ofthe real grit in Texas by that time to overrun all Mexico.”

✦1835 ✦1836

Date ImportanceDecember 5, 1835

December 9, 1835

March 1836

The Grass FightStephen F. Austin left his command at San Antonio for the United States on

November 25, 1835, to plead for aid. Edward Burleson of Mina (MEE•nah),present-day Bastrop, was chosen to command the volunteer army.

November 25Austin leaves forU.S. to seek aid

New Orleans dock

Soon after Burleson became commander ofthe volunteers, one of the army scouts, Erastus“Deaf” Smith, reported that a Mexican cavalryand mule train were heading toward SanAntonio. The Texans believed that the muleswere carrying bags of silver to pay Cós’s sol-diers at San Antonio. A group of Texans went tointercept the “silver train.” The Texans foughtwith the Mexican troops and captured some ofthe mules. The Texans were disappointed to dis-cover that the mules were carrying only grassfor Cós’s cavalry horses. This skirmish came tobe known as the “Grass Fight.”

Except for the Grass Fight, there was littlemilitary activity around San Antonio in Octoberand November 1835. The Texan volunteersgrew restless, discouraged, and hungry. Winterwas approaching, and most of the soldiers hadno coats. Many of the original volunteersreturned to their homes in late November. Inearly December, the siege was called off and thebaggage wagons were loaded.

The Assault on San AntonioAs Burleson prepared to leave the camp near

San Antonio, he received information that Cós’sarmy was weak and could not win against amajor attack. By this time, news of the war hadspread, and hundreds of volunteers were arriv-ing in Texas from the United States.

Ben Milam, an empresario, had helped in thecapture of Goliad and marched with the armytowards San Antonio. When he learned that amajority of the army had decided not to attack,Milam was convinced that this would be disas-trous for the cause of independence. He knew a

victory would encourage Texans to continue thefight. He then made his famous plea: “Who willgo with old Ben Milam into San Antonio?” The47-year-old leader gathered about 300 volun-teers to follow him to the old Spanish capital.Milam divided his force into two columns, lead-ing one himself and designating Frank W.Johnson to lead the other. Johnson, a closefriend of Stephen F. Austin, was in favor ofgoing to war with Mexico and complete inde-pendence for Texas.

N

S

EW

50

500 mi.

0 kmAlbers Equal-Area projection

98°W 97°W

29°N

Gulf ofMexico

LavacaR

.

Guadalu

pe

R.

San Antonio R.

Colorado

R.

Nuec es R.

Gonzales(October 2, 1835)

San Antonio(October 28, 1835

November 26, 1835December 5–9, 1835)

Goliad(October 9, 1835)

Battle

November 26, 1835, was the occasion of the GrassFight between Mexican and Texan forces outsideSan Antonio. Predicting Consequences What is the approximatedistance between San Antonio and Gonzales?

211

Gonzales to San Antonio

Ben Milam (left) was killedwhen the Texas forces laidsiege to the Mexican troops at the Battle of San Antonio.Who assumed commandafter Milam’s death?

History

The assault began on December 5 and lastedfor four days. Milam’s troops had the advan-tage because the Mexican army was equippedfor fighting only on open battlefields. On the third day of the battle (also called the Siege ofBéxar), Milam was killed, and Johnson tookfull command. During the fighting, theMexican forces were driven toward the centerof town and took refuge in the abandoned mis-sion known as the Alamo. Cós asked for sur-render terms on December 9 and promised hewould never again fight against the colonistsor the Constitution of 1824. He and his soldierswere allowed to return to Mexico a few dayslater.

The capture of San Antonio was a significantvictory. A volunteer army of about 400 Texans haddefeated a force of nearly 1,000 Mexican troops.

Two Texans were killed, and 21 were wounded.About 150 Mexican soldiers were killed,wounded, or captured.

The Texas army now held both Goliad and theAlamo. Texas soil was cleared of Mexican troops.Believing that the war was over, the Texan vol-unteers began returning to their homes.

Explaining What did Cós promiseaccording to the surrender terms?

Tejanos and African Americans Join the Fight

The Siege of Béxar had divided the Tejanos ofSan Antonio. Most stayed neutral, but somehelped Cós. The Texas army at San Antonio in-cluded more than 100 Tejanos. Many of themserved in a scouting company, commanded byCaptain Juan N. Seguín. Born in San Antonio,Seguín was a supporter of the Texas movementfor independence. As Cós began his invasion ofTexas, Seguín recruited volunteers fromMexican ranches along the San Antonio River.Plácido Benavides of Victoria brought 30Mexican ranchers to join the fight. ManuelFlores of San Antonio volunteered to serveunder Seguín, his brother-in-law.

Hendrick Arnold, a free African American,guided Milam’s column in the battle. As didFlores, Arnold later served in the Battle of SanJacinto. Another free African American, Green-bury Logan, was the third Texan wounded atSan Antonio, suffering a wound to his right armthat crippled him for life.

212 CHAPTER 9 Road to Independence

The fighting in San Antonio from December 5 toDecember 9, 1835, between Mexican troops and Texastroops has been called the “Siege of Béxar.” Two freeAfrican Americans, Hendrick Arnold and GreenburyLogan, fought valiantly in San Antonio.Describing What advantage did the Texans hold inthe assault on San Antonio?

C09_02CGNS_82396719p3 x 19p5

N

S

EW

SpanishGovernor's

Palace

San FernandoCathedral

LaVillita

MainPlaza

TheAlamo

MilitaryPlaza

San AntonioR.

San

An

ton

ioR

.

irri

gati

on c

an

al

irri

gati

onca

na

l

irri

gati

onca

na

l

irrigation canal

San Antonio in the 1830s

San AntonioSan Antonio

The Provisional GovernmentWhile the fighting was raging at San Antonio,

the provisional government carried on the workof the Permanent Council, a group formedbefore the Consultation met. The PermanentCouncil had created a post office and had madeplans for a navy and an army. It also appealed toU.S. citizens for more men, money, and supplies.

Governor Henry Smith of the provisionalgovernment and members of the general councilquarreled frequently. In December the councilvoted to hold a convention of the people inMarch 1836. Governor Smith vetoed, or rejected,

the proposal. The general council then overrode,or passed the proposal over, his veto.

Another disagreement concerned a proposedexpedition to capture the Mexican town ofMatamoros (mah•tah•MOH•rohs). The councilapproved the plan, but again the governoropposed it. Neither side would cooperate withthe other. The result was a near breakdown ofgovernment. In early 1836, when Texas shouldhave been making preparations to fight SantaAnna, little was being accomplished.

Examining Why was there a nearcomplete breakdown in Texas government?

213CHAPTER 9 Road to Independence

Checking for Understanding1. Using Key Terms What is a

synonym for veto? What is a synonym for override?

2. Reviewing Facts What did Texansfind on the Mexican silver train?

Reviewing Themes3. Culture and Traditions How

many Tejanos were in the Texasarmy at San Antonio?

Organizing to Learn4. Categorizing Draw a chart and

describe the actions each individualtook during the siege of SanAntonio in 1835.

Critical Thinking5. Contrasting In 2 or 3 sentences,

compare how the volunteers prob-ably felt after the Grass Fight andafter the capture of San Antonio.

Determining Cause and EffectWhat were some of the reasons thatcaused the near breakdown of theprovisional government?

Born in New Jersey,Burnet was raised by abrother after his parentsdied. A lawyer, he moved toGalveston in 1831.

His political careerbegan in 1833 as a memberof the convention that draft-ed a proposed constitutionfor Texas as a state. At the

Convention of 1836, whichdeclared Texas’s independ-ence, Burnet was elected ad interim (temporary)president of the Republic ofTexas. In spite of angeringmany Texans during histerm, he was later electedvice president underMirabeau Lamar.

When Texas became astate, Burnet was appointedits first secretary of state.After the Civil War, he waschosen to represent Texasin the U.S. Senate, butbecause Texas did not meetRepublican Reconstructionrequirements, he wasunable to serve.

David G. Burnet 1788–1870

Person ActionMilam

Johnson

Cós

Seguín

214 CHAPTER 9 Road to Independence

March 16Texas constitution approved

The Conventionof 1836

Guide to ReadingMain IdeaTexans declared their independenceand set up their government as SantaAnna’s forces defeated Texans at theAlamo and in South Texas.

Key Termspetition, executive, legislative, judicial, civil rights, ad interim

Reading StrategyOrganizing Information As youread, complete a chart like the oneshown here listing three grievancesthat led to Texas’s Declaration ofIndependence from Mexico.

Read to Learn• what the Texas Declaration of

Independence from Mexico stated. • what provisions the Texas

Constitution included.

Section ThemeCivic Rights and ResponsibilitiesThe Texas constitution provided forrepresentative government.

March 2Texas Declaration ofIndependence adopted

Preview of Events

Texas immigrant and new patriot Micajah Autry wrote to his wife in thespring of 1835. “I have little doubt but that the army will receive ample sup-plies . . . as the people of Texas have formed themselves into something likea government which will give them credit in Orleans . . . I am determined toprovide a home . . . or perish.” Autry died at the Alamo defending the landhe had lived in for only two months.

Santa Anna Crosses Into TexasIn December 1835, the council—over the veto of Governor Smith—

called for a new convention, to be held in March 1836. Texans hoped thatSanta Anna would make no real movements toward Texas until after theconvention. They were disappointed to learn that the Mexican president

✦1836

Grievances

1.

2.

3.

✦1837

Texas cannon

was marching toward Texas with a large army.In early February, Santa Anna crossed the RioGrande. His army arrived in San Antonio onFebruary 23. The Texans still remaining in SanAntonio moved into the Alamo. As they weremaking the Alamo stronger, other Texans weretraveling to Washington-on-the-Brazos.

The Convention Declares Independence

Many Texans were looking forward to the newconvention. During the last week of February,elected delegates began arriving at Washington-on-the-Brazos. The town consisted of a fewpoorly constructed cabins, and tree stumps werestill standing in the main street. There was nolibrary, no printing press, and no conventionhall. The delegates, who were all male, met innear-freezing weather, in an unfinished building.They hung cloth over the open windows in anattempt to keep out the biting north winds.

The Convention of 1836 began its work onMarch 1, 1836, with 59 delegates. Only 2 of themembers, José Antonio Navarro and JoséFrancisco Ruíz, were native Texans. At least 3other native-born Texans—Gaspar Flores, ErasmoSeguín, and José María Carbajal—were electedas delegates but did not attend. Forty-five of thedelegates were natives of southern states of theUnited States. Seven had been born in northernstates. There was one member from Mexico, onefrom England, one from Scotland, one fromIreland, and one from Canada.

The first work of the convention was toelect Richard Ellis as chairman and H.S.Kimble as secretary of the meeting. A motion

was then passed that acommittee be createdto write a declarationof independence fromMexico. It is generallyagreed that the decla-ration presented thenext morning waswritten by George C.Childress, a recent ar-rival from Tennessee.

The Texas Declaration of Independence wassimilar to the U.S. Declaration of Independencewritten 60 years earlier. The Texas Declarationstated that the government of Santa Anna hadviolated the liberties guaranteed under theMexican Constitution of 1824. The declarationcharged that Texans had been deprived of free-dom of religion, the right to trial by jury, the rightto bear arms, and the right to petition, or requestsomething from, the government. It stated thatMexico had failed to provide a system of publiceducation. Because the Mexican government hadsent a large army, the declaration also noted thatthe Texans’ protests against these policies weremet with force. Because of these grievances, thedeclaration proclaimed the following:

“The people of Texas, in solemn conventionassembled, appealing to a candid world for thenecessities of our condition, do hereby resolveand declare that our political connection withthe Mexican nation has forever ended; and thatthe people of Texas do now constitute a free,sovereign, and independent republic.”

The Declaration of Independence was adoptedby unanimous vote of the Convention on March2, 1836, and the delegates who were presentsigned the document. March 2 is celebrated asTexas Independence Day.

Summarizing What grievances didthe Texas Declaration of Independence address?

215CHAPTER 9 Road to Independence

TEXASHISTORY

Student WebActivity Visit thetexans.glencoe.com Website and click onChapter 9—StudentWeb Activity to learnmore about the TexasConvention of 1836.

Sections of the Constitution of 1836 of theRepublic of Texas were copied word forword from the United States Constitution.One difference, however, was that the TexasBill of Rights, which had been added asamendments to the U.S. Constitution, wasput in the main body of the Texas constitution.Neither of the original constitutionsaddressed the treatment of enslaved African Americans.

The Delegates Write a Constitution

After the adoption of the Declaration ofIndependence, the convention turned to writinga constitution for the new republic. For twoweeks, the delegates debated and discussed var-ious provisions of this document. The delegateswere anxious to finish the Texas constitutionquickly. Santa Anna’s presence in Texas meant apossible attack by Mexican troops. On March 16,the document was completed and approved.

There were similarities between theConstitution of Texas and that of the UnitedStates. Provisions were made for three branchesof government: the executive (chief governingofficer), legislative (lawmaking), and judicial(court) branches. The chief executive, or presi-dent, was given a great amount of power to carryout the duties of the office entrusted to him.

The Texas constitution contained a Bill ofRights, guaranteeing freedom of speech, free-dom of the press, freedom of religion, trial byjury, and other basic civil rights, or guaranteedfreedoms. Some of the parts of the constitutionwere based on practices common in Spanish-Mexican law courts. These included recogniz-ing that property was jointly owned byhusbands and wives and measures to help peo-ple in debt. Some provisions were unique toTexas at the time. Ministers and priests werebarred from holding public office—a strictinterpretation of the principle of the separationof church and state.

The Texas constitution made slavery legal.The legislature was forbidden to free slaves inTexas or to prevent their importation from theUnited States. Free African Americans were notpermitted to live in the Republic of Texas without congressional permission. African

216 CHAPTER 9 Road to Independence

History Through Art

Reading of the Texas Declaration of Independence by Charles and Fanny Normann Thisdocument was adopted unanimously by the delegates of the Convention of 1836. Who aresome of the individuals who would have been present at the reading?

Washington-on-the-Brazos

★Washington-on-the-Brazos

★

Americans who fought for Texas independencefound themselves in a strange position. Theywere unable to live freely in the state that they,as free people, had helped liberate.

The Ad Interim Government Takes Control

With Mexican troops in Texas, it was im-possible to hold general elections to approvethe constitution and to vote for a leader of thenew republic. It became necessary to set up agovernment. The convention’s last act was toselect officers for an ad interim, or temporary,government. (See table on page 218.) These offi-cers were to serve until regular elections couldbe held. David G. Burnet, an early pioneer inTexas and formerly an empresario, was chosenas the ad interim president. Sam Houston waselected by unanimous vote as commander inchief of the army. The convention did not repeatthe mistake of the Consultation—Houston wasput in charge of both the volunteers and theregular army.

Identifying Who was the presidentof the ad interim government?

A Convention DiaryColonel William F. Gray, a visitor at the con-

vention, kept a diary of the proceedings. Entriesfrom Gray’s diary provide a vivid picture of thedelegates, their work, and their feelings.

Sunday, February 28, 1836This evening a number of members arrived,

among them Lorenzo de Zavala, the most interesting man in Texas. He is a native ofYucatán; was Governor of the State of Mexicofive years, minister of the fiscal department, andambassador to France from the Republic ofMexico, which post he renounced when SantaAnna proved [disloyal] to the liberal cause . . .He now lives on his estate on Buffalo Bayou,near Galveston Bay. He is a fine writer and aRepublican; a fine statesman . . . [He] has pub-lished a volume of travels in the United States,printed in Paris in the Spanish language.

Monday, February 29, 1836A warm day, threatening rain from the south.

Many other members are coming in and it is

217CHAPTER 9 Road to Independence

Delegates Voting on the 1836Constitution by Bruce MarshallNews of the fall of the Alamo reachedWashington-on-the-Brazos shortlybefore the convention adjourned. AsSanta Anna was rumored to be on theway, delegates left quickly. The newgovernment moved to Harrisburg,near present-day Houston. Whatmood does the artist convey in thispainting of the adjournment of theConvention of 1836?

History Through Art

now evident that a quorum will be formedtomorrow. Gen’l Houston’s arrival has createdmore sensation than that of any other man. Heis evidently the people’s man, and seems to takepains to ingratiate himself with everybody . . .

Wednesday, March 2, 1836The morning clear cold, but the cold some-

what moderated . . .Mr. Childress from the committee reported a

Declaration of Independence, which he read. Itwas received by the house . . . and unanimouslyadopted in less than one hour from its first andonly reading. It underwent no [changes] . . . Theonly speech made upon it was a [short address]. . . by General Sam Houston . . .

A committee of one member from eachmunicipality was appointed to draft a constitu-tion. They subdivided themselves into three com-mittees, on the executive, legislative, and judicialbranches; Zavala chairman on the executive.

An express was this evening received from Col. Travis, stating that on the 25th a

demonstration was made on the Alamo by aparty of Mexicans of about 300 . . . It is believedthe Alamo is safe.

Sunday, March 6, 1836This morning, while at breakfast, a dispatch

was received from Travis, dated Alamo, March3, 1836. The members of the Convention andthe citizens all crowded into the Conventionroom to hear it read . . .

A great many persons are . . . preparing tostart to the [scenes of fighting]. In the afternoonHouston left, accompanied by his staff . . . Thetown has been [in a bustle all day], but is nowquiet enough.

Wednesday, March 16, 1836. . . [A]fter supper the delegates met again

and] proceeded to business. The constitutionnot being quite ready, they adjourned until 10o’clock. They met at that hour and went towork. At 12 [a.m.] the constitution was finallyadopted. A [law] organizing a provisional gov-ernment was then adopted, consisting of presi-dent and vice-president . . . with most of thepowers conferred by the Constitution on thepresident and congress.

. . . an election was held [immediately].David G. Burnet and Samuel P. Carson werenominated for president. Burnet was elected bya majority of seven. Lorenzo de Zavala wasthen nominated for vice president by RobertPotter; no opposition. He was elected by aunanimous vote . . .

Frequent alarms were brought in during thenight. Spies and patrols were ordered out;much excitement.

Santa Anna Advances On March 17 the convention adjourned. Two

days earlier, reports had been received that theAlamo had fallen. A messenger arrived onMarch 17 and reported that Santa Anna’s army

218 CHAPTER 9 Road to Independence

Ad Interim Government OfficersPresident

Vice President

Secretary of State

Secretary of Treasury

Secretary of War

Secretary of Navy

Attorney General

Commander of the Army

David G. Burnet

Lorenzo de Zavala

Samuel P. Carson

Bailey Hardeman

Thomas J. Rusk

Robert Potter

David Thomas

Sam Houston

Making Inferences With the threat of Mexicantroops in Texas making elections impossible, the firstofficials to serve under the new constitution wereelected by the members of the Convention of 1836,rather than by the general public. How does the list ofgovernment offices reflect the fact that Texansbelieved their new state to be in danger?

Checking for Understanding1. Using Key Terms Define petition,

executive, legislative, judicial, civilrights, and ad interim.

2. Reviewing Facts Who were thetwo native Texans that attendedthe Convention of 1836?

Reviewing Themes3. Civic Rights and Responsibilities

What were some of the key pointsof the Texas Declaration ofIndependence adopted by theConvention of 1836?

Organizing to Learn4. Sequencing Create a time line and

arrange the following events in thecorrect sequence.

a. Declaration of Independencewas unanimously adopted.

b. Lorenzo de Zavala was electedvice president.

c. Convention receives a dispatchabout the Alamo from Travis.

d. General Houston arrived at theconvention.

Critical Thinking5. Making Comparisons Use

the information in this section toname and describe some of thesimilarities between the TexasConstitution of 1836 and theUnited States Constitution.

Drawing Inferences What did theTexas constitution say about AfricanAmericans? Knowing this information,how do you think the African Americansfelt about their position in the area?

was marching toward Washington-on-the-Brazos. William F. Gray wrote in his diary that,after the convention adjourned, the membersscattered “in all directions, with haste and inconfusion.” General panic seemed to spreadthroughout central Texas.

President Burnet and his cabinet immedi-ately left Washington-on-the-Brazos and headedsoutheast. They established a government at

Harrisburg, a small town that today is part ofHouston. A few weeks later, as Santa Anna’sarmy approached, the Texas government againwas forced to flee, this time to Galveston. Thewar was underway, and the future looked bleakfor the new Republic of Texas.

Explaining Why was the ad interimgovernment forced to flee so many times?

219CHAPTER 9 Road to Independence

Childress was born inNashville, Tennessee,where he also practicedlaw and edited theNashville Banner. He madehis first trip to Texas in1834 to visit his uncle,but after raising moneyand volunteers inTennessee for the Texas

army, he decided to moveto Texas permanently.

Childress was an elected representative of Milam Municipality atthe Convention of 1836.He introduced a resolu-tion authorizing a commit-tee of five members todraft a declaration of

independence. He wasappointed chairman of thecommittee and is recog-nized as the primaryauthor of the declaration.Following the convention,Childress was sent toWashington, D.C., as adiplomatic agent of theRepublic of Texas.

George C.Childress 1804–1841

Reviewing Key TermsNumber your paper from 1 to 8. Next to each number, writethe term from the list below that best completes the sentence.

siege regular army petitionexecutive municipality legislativead interim veto

1. The president decided to __________ the new land bill.

2. The __________ branch of government made new laws.

3. The Texans chose to lay __________ to the city of SanAntonio.

4. The new constitution established a strong __________branch, with a president elected to a two-year term ofoffice.

5. The citizens of the __________ voted to elect a new citycouncil.

6. Sam Houston was chosen as commander of the__________.

7. Texans wanted the right to __________ their governmentif they believed they had a grievance against it.

8. Officers of the government were appointed on an__________ basis until elections could be held.

Reviewing Key Facts9. List three ways in which Texans tried to protect themselves

against the arrival of General Cós and his troops in 1835.10. Name two African Americans and two Tejanos who fought

for Texas independence.11. Explain why the capture of San Antonio was an important

victory for Texas.12. Cite reasons why Texas was almost without a government

during the early months of 1836.13. Describe the document read and adopted by the

Convention of 1836 on March 2.14. Identify the author of the Texas Declaration of

Independence.

Critical Thinking15. Making Inferences What did the Battle of Gonzales

demonstrate about Texas colonists?16. Analyzing Information Why could it be said that during

1835 Texans were talking peacefully but acting warlike?

220 CHAPTER 9 Road to Independence

Road toIndependence

1835• Texas colonists and Mexican troops fight at Gonzales on October 2.• Texans form the Consultation in San Felipe on November 3 to discuss Santa Anna’s rule.• The Consultation discusses independence, adopts the Declaration of the People, forms a provisional govern- ment, and establishes a regular army.• Texans capture the Alamo from Mexican forces on December 9.• The general council of the provisional government calls for a new convention to be held in March 1836.

1836• Santa Anna arrives with Mexican troops in San Antonio on February 23.• The convention begins in Washington-on-the-Brazos on March 1.• The convention adopts a Declaration of Independence from Mexico on March 2.• The convention approves the Texas Constitution on March 16 and selects temporary officers for the government.• The convention adjourns on March 17.• Santa Anna’s army advances toward Harrisburg.

★

★

★

★

★

Geography and History Activity 17. Study the map above. In two or three sentences describe

the relative location of San Antonio. Why were so manybattles fought near this important city?

Practicing SkillsEvaluating a Web Site A Web site can provide informationabout a variety of topics. However, it is important to considerthe accuracy of the source and content. Visit the official Website of the State of Texas (www.state.tx.us) and answer thefollowing questions.18. Are the links up to date and current?19. Do the links provide useful and accurate information?20. Is the design appealing?21. Is the information easy to access? Is it properly labeled?You might also want to compare the State of Texas Web sitewith another state’s Web site.

Building Technology Skills22. Recognizing People Visit the Web site

www.lsjunction.com and click on “People” under theArchives section. Examine the list that appears. Howmany of the individuals do you know something about?Record what you know, and then click on each individ-ual’s name to learn more.

Portfolio/TAKS Writing Activity23. Writing Letters With a Point of View Imagine that you

are a delegate to the Convention of 1836. Write a letterdescribing the actions at the Convention. Explain how youwould have voted on key issues.

Cooperative Learning Activity24. Debating Issues Read the following debate position state-

ment: The Texas Revolution could not have been avoided.Form two teams of two members each. Team A will arguefor the statement; Team B will argue against the statement.The first speaker on Team A will make a three-minutespeech for the statement. A speaker from Team B will makea three-minute speech against it. The second speaker fromTeam A will answer the arguments of Team B. The secondspeaker from Team B will answer the arguments of Team A.

221CHAPTER 9 Road to Independence

Self-Check QuizVisit the texans.glencoe.com Web site and click onChapter 9—Self-Check Quizzes to prepare for the chapter test.

TEXAS HISTORY

100

1000 mi.

0 km

N

S

EW

Albers Conic Equal—Area projection

100°W 95°W

0°N

Sab

ine

R.Trinity R.

BrazosR

.

Colora do R.

Guadalupe R.Nueces

R.

Gulf ofMexico

Rio Grande

San

Antonio R.

MEXICO

TEXAS

LA.

Nacogdoches

Washington

San FelipeHarrisburg

Galveston

LaGrangeColumbus

BrazoriaVelasco

MatagordaVictoria

Goliad

Gonzales

San Antonio

BastropAustin

Old San Antonio Road

Old San Antonio Road

Test-Taking Tip:

A statement can be incorrect because just one or twowords make it incorrect. In order to spot the detailsthat make the statement incorrect, read slowly and

then ask yourself if the statement is true.

Use information from this chapter to answer thequestion below.

The Texas Constitution stated that

A San Antonio would become the temporary capital of theRepublic of Texas.

B Sam Houston was to be the first president of the Republicof Texas.

C free African Americans had to petition the legislature toremain in Texas.

D all citizens of Texas became citizens of the United States.