CHAPTER 9 –

FUNCTIONALISM: DARWIN,

GALTON, CATTELL, JAMES &

HALL

Dr. Nancy Alvarado

Functionalists

Functionalists were the first major non-German

school of psychology.

They were interested in studying the functions of the

mind and the adaptive value of consciousness.

These concerns were a product of the intellectual

climate of the 19th century, dominated by Darwin’s

theory of evolution.

Their work was later extended by the American

functionalists at the Univ. of Chicago and Columbia.

Charles Darwin (1809-1882)

Darwin was born to a wealthy family with interests

in medicine and natural science.

The pivotal experience of his life was his 5-year

voyage on the Royal Navy survey ship, the H.M.S.

Beagle, where he collected specimens.

He first left med school & got a “poor” (third-class)

degree in religion.

He was initially seeking confirmation of the Biblical

account of creation, but his experiences changed his

mind.

The Voyage of the Beagle

At each stop, Darwin travelled extensively inland.

Questions

Darwin’s findings raised many questions:

Why had God created so many different species?

Why had God allowed giant armadillos (found as

fossils) to become extinct but not the smaller armadillos?

Why had God allowed some species to become totally

extinct?

How would there have been room on the ark for the

giant fossils?

How could the earth have been created in 4004 BC

when the age of the fossils was much older?

The Galapagos Islands

The Galapagos Islands are

part of the country of

Ecuador.

Galapagos Observations

Tortoises from islands just 50-60 miles apart had

clearly different shells.

On one island, finches had strong thick beaks to

crack nuts and seeds, while on another island they

had smaller beaks and fed on insects.

On a third island they had beaks better suited for

eating fruit, berries & flowers.

Darwin wondered how such differences had

developed – perhaps species are not fixed but are

able to adapt and change over generations.

Theory of Evolution

Darwin’s eventual theory was influenced by writings

of several theorists before him:

Darwin read Quetelet’s summary of Malthus’s view of

population growth – Malthus predicted an increasingly

severe struggle for existence due to lack of food.

“It at once struck me that, under these circumstances,

favorable variations would tend to be preserved and

unfavorable ones destroyed” Darwin wrote.

He called this idea “Natural selection” or “Survival of

the Fittest.” (1859) He delayed publication for 20 yrs.

Publication of His Theory

First Darwin published his journal “The Voyage of

the Beagle” which was very popular.

In 1858, he became aware of Wallace’s theory of

natural selection, and agreed to present both his

and Wallace’s theory jointly to the Linnean Society.

There was little reaction.

In 1859, he published his “Origin of the Species,”

which sold out immediately.

His theory was hotly debated (see famous Oxford

Wilberforce/Huxley debate on pg 308 of text).

Similarity of Man to Animals

Do we share behavioral, emotional and cognitive

characteristics with other species?

In “The Descent of Man,” Darwin argued that “there is

no fundamental difference between man and the

higher mammals in their mental faculties.” (1871)

Morgan’s canon: “In no case may we interpret an

action as the outcome of the exercise of a higher

psychical faculty if it can be interpreted as the

outcome of the exercise of one which stands lower

in the psychological scale.”

Mechanism

Darwin suggested no genetic mechanism for

evolutionary change.

Lamarck proposed that acquired characteristics can

be inherited by offspring, speeding up change.

Gregor Mendel demonstrated inheritance of

physical characteristics in plants and laid the

foundation for modern genetics.

This was the mechanism for evolution.

Darwin’s Psychology

“The Expression of the Emotions in Man & Animals.”

Darwin studied facial expressions, anticipating later

research by Paul Ekman.

Darwin kept detailed records on the growth of his

son, Erasmus, and published them in “A Biographical

Sketch of an Infant” in Mind, 1877.

His methods were repeated by Jane Goodall, Piaget,

and B.F. Skinner.

Darwin’s theory raised questions about the

adaptive value of consciousness and mind & survival

Francis Galton (1822-1911)

Galton was one of the last amateur scientists, with

eclectic interests:

Meteorologist, experimented with stereoscopic photos,

studied fingerprints, invented an early teletype.

Anthropologist and explorer (sought source of the

Nile).

Galton was impressed by how well people he met had

adapted to their harsh desert environment (Kalahari).

He published “Art of Travel.”

Individual Differences

Galton was interested in measuring things:

Whenever you can, count.” Fidgets per minute in kids,

middle-aged and elderly. “Beauty map” of Britain.

In 1884 he established an anthropometric

laboratory to collect data on individual differences.

Psychometrics – measurement of mental powers.

Visual & auditory reaction times, highest audible tone.

He published a method for quantifying correlation later

derived mathematically by Karl Pearson (r).

He used questionnaires, associations & tests of imagery.

Galton as Hereditarian

In “Hereditary Genius” he discussed the relative

contributions of environment & genetics to ability.

“I propose to show in this book that a man’s natural

abilities are derived by inheritance under exactly the

same limitations as are the form and physical features

of the whole organic world.”

He proposed that abilities were on the same continuum

as other physical traits – Quetelet’s law of deviation

from the average (like the normal curve).

Quetelet & Galton established the “normal man”.

Galton & Statistics

Galton developed the following terms:

Median, bell-shaped curve, correlation, dispersion,

interquartile range, regression, percentile.

Galton’s student Pearson introduced:

Histogram, kurtosis, random sampling, random walk,

skewness, standard deviation, variance.

Formula for the correlation coefficient, Pearson’s r.

The concept of dealing with individual differences

in a probabilistic way – the characteristics of a

population are regular, even if people are not.

Nature and Nurture

Galton argued that because talent seemed to

concentrate in eminent families (Hereditary Genius),

individuals must be inheriting such abilities.

He introduced the terms nature vs nurture into the

debate and the idea of twin studies, see pg 322.

Candolle criticized this idea, cataloging the

favorable circumstances in eminent families.

In response, Galton wrote:

“English Men of Science: Their Nature and Nurture.”

Galton and Eugenics

Galton was fascinated by the idea of human

improvement via genetic control, which he called

Eugenics.

He proposed voluntary means of improvement.

Eugenics societies and idea were widespread after

WWI – G.B. Shaw & Isadora Duncan (his brain…).

Abuses were justified in the name of eugenics, including

forced sterilization and restrictive immigration in the US.

With the rise of the Nazis, these were implemented as

Hitler’s “final solution to the Jewish question.”

Inquiries into Human Faculties

In 1872, Galton published “Statistical Inquiries into

the Efficacy of Prayer.”

He advocated for the use of control groups in statistical

comparisons.

Are prayers beneficial? Royalty have shorter lifespans.

There is no evidence that missionary voyages are safer.

In his “Inquiry into Human Faculties and

Development,” the chapters on prayer were omitted

from future editions due to controversy.

James McKeen Cattell (1860-1944)

Cattell was one of the first students to get a Ph.D.

with Wundt, then he was appointed to Cambridge.

He was strongly influenced by Galton, and like

Galton measured everything he could about himself.

In 1888, Cattell founded a lab at the University of

Pennsylvania using Galtonian measures with

students but moved to Columbia College in 1891.

He discussed 10 mental tests in “Mental Tests and

Measurements,” published in Mind – The Freshman

Test.

Cattell’s Anthropometric Tests

The 10 tests included:

Dynamometer pressure, Rate of Movement, Sensation-

Areas, Pressure causing Pain, Least Noticeable

Difference in Weight, Reaction-Time for Sound, Time for

Naming Colours, Bi-Section of a 50-cm. Line, Judgment

of 10 Seconds Time, Number of Letters Remembered on

One hearing.

Wissler found no correlation between the tests.

These tests were abandoned in favor of better

mental measurements (see Chapter 11).

Cattell’s Other Work

Experimental research on judgments of relative

rank, such as shades of gray rank ordered on

brightness.

Leading psychologists ranked those in their profession.

Backgrounds of famous scientists – a person had the

best chance if their father were clergy or professor.

His famous students were: Thorndike, Woodworth,

Strong (vocational test).

Published Science (AAAS). Founding member of

APA. His company developed WAIS, WISC, TAT.

William James (1842-1910)

In early 20th century, America’s foremost

psychologist. First on everyone’s list (Cattell).

As a young man, James floated directionless,

rejecting chemistry, natural science, dabbling in

medicine, until finally discovering psychology.

He visited Fechner, Helmholtz,Wundt & DuBois-

Reymond.

He finally graduated in medicine. He was offered a

job at Harvard teaching physiology & anatomy.

He contemplated suicide at age 28.

Principles of Psychology

In 1874, James taught his first class on physiology

and psychology (making it up as he went along).

In 1882, he took a leave of absence to visit

European psychologists again.

In 1890, he published Principles of Psychology

which became an instant classic.

Theodore Roosevelt was a famous student of James.

After the success of his book, he withdrew from

experimental research -- not worth the effort.

Link to Principles of Psychology

Available as an ebook that can be read on the

web:

http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/j/james/william/principles/complete.html

Eclectic & Philosopher

He became increasingly interested in mind-body

relationships and psychical phenomena.

Psychosomatic illness led to interest in “mind cures.”

He studied automatic writing, telepathy, clairvoyance,

fortune-tellers, religious experience (energy flow).

He wrote “Pragmatism” expressing a practical

philosophy – pragmatic criteria for judging truth.

All beliefs are judged by their consequences in action.

If a belief in God works, it is a pragmatic truth for that

person.

James as a Psychologist

He opposed the Wundt-Titchener approach.

He proposed an analytical approach that studies

the functions of consciousness & its characteristics.

Consciousness is adaptive – lets us adjust to environment

Also, personal, ever-changing (a stream), selective.

James-Lange theory of emotion – the perception of

changes in the nervous system constitute emotion.

Cannon criticized this view

Habits are formed by nurture early in life.

Views on Memory

James said the strength of a memory depends on

the quality of the structure of the brain, an innate

characteristic not influenced by experience.

Systematically linking facts together might improve

memory.

This contradicted the dominant view, formal discipline,

that said a general intellectual faculty could be

developed via exercise.

Memorizing poems (Victor Hugo’s Satyr and Milton’s

Paradise Lost), he demonstrated interference.

G. Stanley Hall (1844-1924)

A contemporary of James, Hall grew up in a farm

family of Puritan heritage.

At age 16, he worked as a village school teacher.

Later, he attended Williams college and Union

Theological Seminary in NYC.

In 1869, he went to Europe, then returned &

finished seminary and taught at Antioch College.

He ultimately did his Ph.D at Harvard, then went

back to Europe to study in Wundt’s lab.

Hall’s Early Career

Hall lectured on the German psychologists at

Harvard and Johns Hopkins which led to a job there

The president of Johns Hopkins created fellowships for

grad students which attracted excellent students.

Hall founded a great psychology dept and The

American Journal of Psychology.

Hall was the founding president of Clark University.

Lots of problems, including being raided by Univ of

Chicago (2/3 of faculty & 70% grad students left).

Hall helped found the APA in 1892.

Hall as Developmentalist

In 1883, Hall developed questionniares for Boston

kindergarten children to assess the content of their

minds – how children think.

He was the first psychologist to describe

adolescence as a separate stage.

He stressed the importance of genetics & evolution.

He developed a recapitulation theory (embryological

development recapitulates evolutionary development).

As he grew older he became interested in aging.

The Clark Conference

Hall organized the first opportunity for Americans

to meet Freud.

Freud gave 5 lectures, Jung gave 3 lectures – both

received honorary degrees.

The lectures were published, bringing them to a

wider audience.