CHAPTER 9 Creating a Nation - Davenport · PDF fileAmericans successfully met the challenge of establishing state governments and a ... CHAPTER 9 Creating a Nation: 1776–1791 251

1775–1779 1780–1784

248 UNIT 3 A New Nation: 1776–1791

1783 Spain, Denmark, Sweden recognize United States

Creating a Nation1776 –1791

CHAPTER 9★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★

FocusAmericans successfully met the challenge

of establishing state governments and anational government under the Articles of Confederation. It soon became apparent,however, that weaknesses of the newnational government might break it apart.America’s leaders sought new solutions.

Concepts to Understand★ How the Articles of Confederation and Constitution formed a

foundation for American democracy★ Why civil rights and liberties were so important to the people of

the United States

Read to Discover . . .★ the strengths and weaknesses

of the Articles of Confederation. ★ the importance of

compromises in creat-ing the Constitution.

SETTING THE SCENE

Journal NotesAs you read this

chapter take notes

on the things that

Benjamin Franklin

said and did during

the Constitutional

Convention.

United States

World

� CONTINENTAL CURRENCY

Chapter OverviewVisit the American History: The Early Years to1877 Web site at ey.glencoe.com and click onChapter 9—Chapter Overviews to previewchapter information.

HISTORY

1781 Articles of Confederation ratified1783 Treaty of Paris formally ends

American Revolution1776 Declaration of Independence

signed

http://www.glencoe.com/sec/socialstudies/ushistory/ahey2001/chapter9/overview.html

249CHAPTER 9 Creating a Nation: 1776–1791

1785–1789 1790–17941787 Turkey declares war on Russia1789 French Revolution begins

1791 Haitians revolt against Frenchcolonial rule

1785 Land Ordinance passed1788 U.S. Constitution ratified1789 George Washington inaugurated

as first President 1791 Bill of Rights ratified

Signing of the Constitution of the United Statesby Howard Chandler Cristy

Delegates to the Constitutional Convention signed thefinal draft of the Constitution in Independence Hall.

History

A R TAND

� THE FEDERALIST

★ State ConstitutionsMost states established governments

similar to the colonial governments theyreplaced. Colonists felt concerned aboutgiving too much power to a few people.As a result, they divided power betweentwo branches. The legislative branchbecame the lawmaking branch. It includ-ed representatives elected by the states’voters. All states except Pennsylvania andGeorgia created bicameral, or two-house,legislatures. Members of each house rep-resented geographic districts. In nearly allstates, voters directly elected the legisla-tive members.

Forming a Union★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★


SECTION 1

GUIDE TO READING

Reading StrategyOrganizing Information As you readabout the efforts to set up a national gov-ernment, use a spider diagram similar tothe one below to list information aboutstate governments. Label the diagonals“Legislative Branch” and “Executive Branch” and add characteristics of each.

Read to Learn . . .★ how the Articles of Confederation gave

state governments more power than the national government.

★ the strengths and weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation.

Terms to Know★ constitution★ legislative branch ★ bicameral★ executive branch★ bill of rights★ Articles of

Confederation★ ratify

Main IdeaThe colonists’ first attempt to establisha national government failed to bringstability to the new nation.

�THE ARTICLES OFCONFEDERATION

As fighting spread from Massachu-setts in 1775, royal governors throughoutthe colonies watched their authority col-lapse. At first a few governors tried toorganize Loyalist resistance, but eventual-ly all royal governors abandoned theiroffices and fled.

In May 1776 Congress urged thecolonies to replace their colonial charterswith new constitutions, or plans of gov-ernment. Colonists considered writtenconstitutions important because theywould spell out the rights of all citizens.They would also set limits on the powerof government.

StateGovernments


The second branch of government car-ried out the laws that this legislaturemade. This branch became known as theexecutive branch. A state governor head-ed the executive branch. Because manyAmericans had come to distrust strongexecutive power, most state governorswere elected to one-year terms by theirlegislatures, and they had no power toreject bills.

Rights of CitizensAlthough Americans considered indi-

vidual rights to be important, the expres-sion of freedoms varied from state to state.For the most part, laws restricted citizen-ship to white male property owners. Neither women nor African Americanscould vote in most states. New Jerseyextended the right to vote to “all freeinhabitants,” so women could vote there.

In 1807, however, the state legislature tookthe right away.

Although the Revolution did not winfull equality for all Americans, it movedAmerica in that direction. It became diffi-cult to claim that “all men are createdequal” in a society with enslaved people.Americans began to question slavery.Some states prohibited the importation ofslaves, and by 1804 all northern states hadbanned slavery.

Although states discriminated againsttheir residents on the basis of race, sex,religion, and economic standing, moststate constitutions included a bill of

� SELF-GOVERNMENT In the late 1700s Americans, such as these citizens ofBoston, gathered to discuss their state governments. How did most state con-stitutions divide the governing power at this time?istory

PicturingH

� SLAVE SHACKLES

Citizenship


rights that spelled out certain rights thestates had to recognize and protect. Theserights included trial by jury and freedomof the press.

★ The Articles ofConfederation

Even as the 13 states began to writetheir constitutions, the Congress drew upits own blueprint for a national govern-ment. Writing a national constitution,though, proved difficult. In 1776 fewAmericans considered themselves citizensof one nation. Instead, they felt loyalty totheir own states.

Although the states seemed unwillingto turn over power to the national govern-ment, the Congress finally drafted a con-stitution. On November 15, 1777, theContinental Congress completed andpassed the Articles of Confederation andproposed that it go into effect after everystate had approved it.

Claims in the WestNot until 1781, however, did all of the

states ratify, or approve, the Articles. Adelay in the ratification process occurredbecause of a dispute among the states.Several states claimed large tracts of west-ern land. Based mainly on colonial char-ters that had granted land “from sea tosea,” these claims often overlapped. Inaddition the six states without westernland claims argued that the West shouldbecome public land, land belonging to thenational government.

Although most states ratified the Arti-cles, Maryland would not ratify it untilall lands between the AppalachianMountains and the Mississippi Riverbecame public land. Virginia, which hadhuge claims—the present-day states ofKentucky, West Virginia, Ohio, Indiana,Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin—refused to comply. Maryland worriedthat states like Virginia would becometoo powerful if allowed to keep theirwestern lands.

� RELIGION, CHURCHES, AND THE COLONIES This scene shows Virginia’s Old BrutonChurch. Religious freedom was important to most Americans in the late 1700s.What part of state constitutions spelled out certain rights for citizens?istory

PicturingH


Articles RatifiedFinally in 1781, with Lord Cornwallis

and the British army moving toward Vir-ginia, the state agreed to give up its landclaims. Maryland ratified the Articles, andat last the states became united.

The Articles became the first constitutionof the United States. The main author of the

Articles, John Dickinson, called it a “firmleague of friendship” among the states. Itestablished a loose alliance of states ratherthan a strong central government. Dickin-son and the other writers feared a strongcentral government because of their experi-ence with the British monarchy and Parlia-ment. They purposefully created a weak

Virginia

North Carolina

SouthCarolina

BRITISHNORTH

AMERICA Maine(Part ofMass.)

LOUISIANA(Ceded to France by

Spain, 1800)

Md.Del.

N.J.

New York

R.I.

N.H.

Mass.

Conn.

Georgia

Pennsylvania

Massachusetts,1785

Connecticut, 1786

Connecticut,1800

Ceded by Spain, 1795Ceded by Georgia, 1802

Vermont, madea state 1791

(Claimed by N.Y.and N.H.)

SPANISH FLORIDA

Lake OfThe Woods

ATLANTIC OCEAN

Ohio R.

Mississippi R.

LakeErie

Lake Ontario

Lake Huron

Lake

Mic

higa

n

Lake Superior

85° W95° W 90° W 80° W 75° W 70° W

45° N

43°43' N

42°2' N

50° N

36°30' N

32°28' N

35° N

31° N

41° N

30° N

40° NAPPA

LACH

IAN

MOU

NTAI

NS

1786

1000 200 miles

1000 200 kilometers

States with claims toWestern lands

New York (1782)

South Carolina (1787)

Massachusetts(1785, 1786)

Connecticut(1786, 1800)

North Carolina (1790)Georgia (1802)Disputed

Western Claims(date of cession)

Virginia (1784)

State of Franklin

Western Land Claims of the Original States

Region After the Revolution, many states extended their boundaries west ofthe Appalachian Mountains. Which state had the largest land claim in theWest?


national government under the Articles ofConfederation.

The Articles of Confederation madethe Continental Congress the nationallawmaking body in which each state hadone vote. Its powers included declaringwar, raising an army and navy, makingtreaties, borrowing money, establishinga postal system, and conducting busi-ness with Native Americans and othercountries.

Weaknesses of the ArticlesThe list of powers sounded impressive.

Under the Articles of Confederation,though, the national government reallyremained much weaker than the stategovernments. It had no authority overindividual citizens and very little controlover state governments. The ContinentalCongress, now called the ConfederationCongress, could make laws, but the writ-ers provided no measures to carry outthose laws. The Articles left it to the statesto enforce laws passed by Congress. TheArticles also made no provision for acourt system. If states disagreed, they hadno place to resolve their differences.

The Articles had other weaknesses, too.Every state could send delegates to Con-gress, but each state, whatever its size,had only one vote. The larger states didnot like this policy, viewing it as unfair to

them. Congress did hold all the powersconnected to war and peace. These pow-ers, however, actually meant very little.Without the money to finance a war or theability to collect taxes to raise the money,these war powers proved useless.

The Articles did not require the states tosend money to Congress. Congress couldnot collect money to pay for the activitiesof the national government. The statessent very little money, and Congresscould not force them to send more.

George Washington called the Confed-eration Congress “a shadow without sub-stance.” It became clear that theContinental Congress could do little in theinterests of the states. Congress kept talk-ing about a national authority that did notreally exist.

Checking for Understanding1. Define constitution, legislative branch,

bicameral, executive branch, bill of rights,Articles of Confederation, ratify.

Critical Thinking2. Distinguishing Fact From Opinion What

did George Washington mean when hecalled the Confederation Congress “a shad-ow without substance”? Did he state a factor an opinion?

3. Identifying Issues Re-create the diagramshown here, and list three weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation.

Footnotes to HistoryBen Franklin’s Choice The bald eaglebecame America’s national symbol when itwas placed on the Great Seal in 1782. Ben-jamin Franklin, however, did not approveand suggested the turkey as the nationalbird. He was strongly opposed to theAmerican bald eagle that was, he claimed,“a bird of bad moral character . . . andoften [full of lice].” In praise of the turkey,Franklin stated, “The turkey is . . . a muchmore respectable bird, withal [in addition,it is] a true original native of America.”

INTERDISCIPLINARY ACTIVITY4. Citizenship Create a bumper sticker

supporting ratification of the Articles of Confederation.

★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★Section 1 ★ Assessment★ SECTION 1 ASSESSMENT ★

Weaknesses

GUIDE TO READING

The Confederation Era★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★


SECTION 2

�

FARMER HARROWING FIELDS

Under the Articles of Confederation,the United States was an unstable nation.Even as America expanded westward, itcontinued to have problems with othernations. Constant bickering among thestates disrupted the government, andmany groups within society became dis-contented. Americans doubted whethertheir new nation would survive.

★ Settling the WestUntil the end of the 1800s, “the West”

was not a specific geographic region ofthe United States. Instead, the Westdescribed the next area of settlement aspioneers invaded the territories of NativeAmericans and removed them from their

land. During the Confederation period,the West lay just beyond the AppalachianMountains. Between 1780 and 1790 thewestern population grew from about2,000 to about 100,000.

Congress proved powerless to meet theneeds of the westerners. It could not dis-lodge the British from their forts in theNorth. Without money, Congress couldnot purchase Native American land norprovide troops to protect the settlers.

The Land Ordinance of 1785Prior to 1783, settlers claimed land in

the West just by settling on it. Land dis-putes sometimes grew violent. As a resultof this, and to raise money, Congresspassed the Land Ordinance of 1785. Thislaw provided an orderly method for set-tling land north of the Ohio River.

Reading StrategyOrganizing Information As you readabout the Confederation period, use a dia-gram such as the one shown here to listthe states that entered the union during this period and the year in which they entered.

Read to Learn . . .★ the problems the new nation faced

under the Articles of Confederation.★ how the Northwest Ordinance provided

for growth in the West.

Terms to Know★ republic★ economic depression

Main IdeaAs settlement expanded westward,the new nation struggled under theArticles of Confederation.

New States

Geography


The ordinance stated that land would besurveyed and divided into townships 6miles square (16 sq. km). Each townshipwould contain 36 sections. A section con-sisted of 1 square mile (2.6 sq. km) and con-tained 640 acres (259 ha). Congress plannedto sell the land at auctions for no less than$1 per acre. Revenue from the sale of onesection in every township supported thecreation of a public school. This is the firstexample of federal aid to education.

To attract land speculators, the lawrequired that buyers take at least one

whole section. Speculators could thendivide their sections into smaller rectan-gular tracts and sell the tracts to settlersat a profit.

The Northwest OrdinanceWhile the Land Ordinance of 1785

dealt with the sale of land in the North-west Territory, the Northwest Ordi-nance, passed in 1787, made provisionsfor governing the new territory. It statedthat no less than three and no more than

CANADA

SpanishLouisiana

OhioIndianaIllinois

Wisconsin

Michigan

Pennsylvania

Ohio River

Lake Superior

Lake Erie

Mississippi River

Lake

Mic

h iga

n

Lake Huron

1 M

ile

1 Mile

Half section320 acres

Quarter section

160 acres

Township

New YorkLake Ontario

Va.

Kentucky

6 5 4 3 2 1

7 8 9 10 11 12

18 17 15 14 13

19 20 21 22 23 24

30 29 28 27 26 25

31 32 34 35 36

16

6 M

iles

Ran

ge L

ine

Base Line

6 Miles

Section 33

The Northwest Territory, 1785

Region The Northwest Territory was divided into townships, each with 36sections. Section 16 was always reserved to support public schools. Whatpresent-day states were created from the Northwest Territory?

Northwest Territory

200 miles100

200 kilometers1000

0

Present-day stateboundaries


five territories could be carved out of theNorthwest Territory. Congress wouldappoint a governor and three judges foreach territory until it became populousenough to form its own government andbecome a state.

As soon as 5,000 adult white males set-tled a territory, it could elect a territoriallegislature. The territory then could senda nonvoting delegate to represent it inCongress. When the population reached60,000, the people of the territory couldwrite a constitution and apply for state-hood. If Congress approved the constitu-tion, the territory became a state with thesame rights as the existing states.

The ordinance placed only a few restric-tions on the territories. First, their newgovernment had to be a republic. Arepublic is a type of government in whichrepresentatives are elected to govern on

behalf of the people. Second, the ordinancerequired territories to ensure freedom ofreligion and to guarantee trial by jury forthose accused of crimes. Third, the ordi-nance prohibited slaveholding in the terri-tory. The Northwest Ordinance becamethe first law in United States history torestrict the practice of slaveholding.

The Land Ordinance of 1785 and theNorthwest Ordinance of 1787 becameimportant achievements for the nationalgovernment under the Articles of Confed-eration. For the first time, a nation hadprovided an orderly way for its coloniesto become political equals. These lawsbecame models for developing otherlands into new states. Eventually fivestates arose from the Northwest Territory:Ohio (1803), Indiana (1816), Illinois(1818), Michigan (1837), and Wisconsin(1848).

� DANIEL BOONE ESCORTING PIONEERS THROUGH THE CUMBERLAND GAP by GeorgeCaleb Bingham, 1851–1852 In many of his paintings, George Caleb Binghamdepicted the pioneer spirit and life in new territories. What requirement existedto elect a territorial legislature?

History

A R TAND


★ A Failing EconomyAmerica in the 1770s and 1780s was a

divided and often troubled nation. Justfour years after the war, the new nationmoved dangerously close to bankruptcy.Business slowed down, and many peoplecould hardly pay their debts.

Worthless MoneyThe new nation’s financial situation

looked bleak. After the Revolution, theUnited States owed millions of dollars—money borrowed from foreign govern-

ments, states, and private citizens to payfor the war. Now the United States had topay that money back. Because the nation-al government did not have the power tocollect taxes, it had to rely on the individ-ual states to give it money. Between 1781and 1789 the states gave Congress onlyabout one-sixth of the money it requested.

During the Revolution, the Congresshad printed Continental dollars. Withoutgold or silver to back it up, this papermoney had very little value. Americanssoon began to describe any worthless itemas “not worth a Continental.” To makematters worse, each state printed money ofits own, too. The system caused much con-fusion. Was a dollar in Rhode Island equalto a dollar in Maryland? Some statesrefused to accept money from other states,while some claimed that their money wasmore valuable than anyone else’s.

Trade Among the StatesBecause of the unsettling financial situ-

ation, trade among the states became dif-ficult. Arguments arose among states thatrefused to trade with one another. Somepeople resorted to a system of barter,exchanging goods for other goods insteadof money. In North Carolina, for example,whiskey became a type of currency.

Some states taxed goods that camefrom other states. This encouraged peopleto buy their own state’s products and dis-couraged them from buying goods fromother states. Naturally, this policy enragedfarmers and merchants who producedand sold the goods.

Economic DepressionAmerican merchants saw their busi-

nesses decline. After the war, they stillstocked many British goods that theycould not sell. The nation had entered aneconomic depression. In an economicdepression, business activity slows downand unemployment increases.

� SHAYS’S REBELLION Daniel Shays’s rebel-lion led people to believe that the UnitedStates could not form or run an effectivegovernment. What set of laws governed thenation at the time of Shays’s Rebellion?

istoryPicturingH

Economics


To add to the problem, Great Britainhad passed laws making it difficult forAmerican merchant ships to enter itsports. Great Britain also made the BritishWest Indies off limits to any Americantraders. As a result, many American mer-chants went into debt. Shipbuilders andthe shipping industry suffered as well.

Difficult Times for FarmersFarmers experienced extreme hard-

ships during this time. Throughout thewar, demand for food had increased. Tokeep up, many farmers borrowed moneyfrom banks to buy more land and equip-ment. After the war, though, demand forfarm products decreased. Farmers grewmore food than they could sell and thencould not repay the money they had bor-rowed. The banks began taking the farm-ers’ lands away to pay their debts. WhenSpain closed its port of New Orleans atthe mouth of the Mississippi River, farm-ers could no longer ship their goods southto the Gulf of Mexico for export to Europe.

Shays’s RebellionIn Massachusetts the economic situa-

tion became explosive. Because somefarmers could not repay their debts,

authorities jailed them or seized theirproperty. These farmers viewed the newgovernment as another variety of tyranny.

In September 1786, the farmers’ discon-tent ignited a rebellion. Led by formerContinental Army captain Daniel Shays,the farmers attacked and closed the courtsin two Massachusetts counties, stoppingland confiscations. In early 1787 Shays ledmore than 1,000 disgruntled farmersagainst the Springfield arsenal. Massachu-setts raised a militia force strong enoughto meet Shays at Springfield.

Although the militia easily defeated theragged group of farmers, Shays’s Rebel-lion caused great alarm, and people whobelieved in orderly government becamefearful. Many people thought the Articlesof Confederation did not work andshould be rewritten. The United States didnot seem to be united. State leaders calledfor a convention to discuss ways of revis-ing the Articles of Confederation.

Checking for Understanding1. Define republic, economic depression.2. What were the reasons behind Shays’s

Rebellion?

Critical Thinking3. Identifying Problems Re-create the diagram

shown here, and list the problems the newnation faced under the Articles of Confederation.

4. Identifying Cause and Effect How did theNorthwest Ordinance encourage settlementof the western frontier?

Student Web ActivityVisit the American History: The Early Years to 1877 Website at ey.glencoe.com and click on Chapter 9—StudentWeb Activities for an activity about colonial farm life.

HISTORY


INTERDISCIPLINARY ACTIVITY5. Citizenship Imagine you are a United

States citizen in 1787. Write an editorialeither defending the current governmentor citing reasons a new government is needed.

Problems Under Articles of

Confederation

http://www.glencoe.com/sec/socialstudies/ushistory/ahey2001/chapter9/webact.html

“Here,” said Pierre Charles L’Enfant, “iswhere the two most important buildings inyour new capital city should be built.” TheFrench engineer pointed to the west end ofJenkins Heights. The land was high ground.Standing there a few days before, L’Enfantand President George Washington could seeall the way to the Potomac River. “[It] standsas a pedestal waiting for a monument,”L’Enfant said.

The young engineer presented his finalplans for the city of Washington, D.C., thenew capital city for the new United States ofAmerica, in 1791. The blueprints showed alarge rectangular grid broken by large“wheels.”

The Capitol and the President’s home(later called the White House) were the hubof the city. From the foot of the Capitolstretched the Mall. A large, L-shaped grassy

area, the Mall was about 400 feet (122 m)wide and about 1 mile (1.6 km) long.

L’Enfant carefully positioned other im-portant government buildings around thehub. He connected the buildings to eachother and to the hub with broad diagonalavenues, like the spokes of a wheel. Allother streets of the city were based on therectangular grid, running north to south andeast to west.

Making the Math Connection1. Around what buildings did L’Enfant

plan the city of Washington, D.C.?

2. What geometric shapes did L’Enfantuse in his plans?

3. What is the Mall?

ACTIVITY4. L’Enfant planned diagonal avenues to

shorten the distances between places.Draw a simple map of a route you takeregularly. Include diagonal lines to shorten the distance you must travel.

Planning Washington, D.C.

� THE CAPITOL, WASHINGTON, D.C., 1824

S C I E N C EE C O N O M I C S T H E A R T S G E O G R A P H Y

HistoryAND

M A T H

260

� L’ENFANT’S DRAWING OF WASHINGTON, D.C.

The Constitutional Convention★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★


SECTION 3

GUIDE TO READING

� BENJAMINFRANKLIN’S EYEGLASSESCannons fired and church bells rang

as thousands of people lined the cobble-stone streets of Philadelphia in May 1787.They stood expectantly, waiting for aglimpse of war hero George Washingtonand the other delegates as they rode by.

Philadelphia, the most modern city inthe United States, hosted the conventionthat would give birth to the Constitution.It became known as the ConstitutionalConvention. Washington and other lead-ers, though, arrived in Philadelphia withone goal in mind—to revise the Articles ofConfederation.

★ The Constitutional Convention

State leaders set the date for the meet-ing in Philadelphia as May 14, 1787, butthe delegates did not arrive until May 24.

Eventually delegates arrived to represent12 of the 13 states. Only Rhode Island didnot send a delegate. Its state leaders want-ed nothing to do with creating a strongercentral government.

The DelegatesFifty-five men attended one or more

sessions of the convention, which lastedfrom May to September. These “FoundingFathers,” as they have come to be known,included many of the most able politicalleaders in the United States. The dele-gates, though, did not reflect a cross-sec-tion of the American people. Most of thewhite male delegates made their livingsas lawyers or judges. Twenty-one had col-lege degrees, a high number for this timesince few people had formal educations.Nearly all of the delegates had practicalexperience in government. Most had

Read to Learn . . .★ why large and small states argued over

plans for the new Constitution.★ what compromises make up the United

States Constitution.

Terms to Know★ Constitutional Convention★ veto★ compromise

Main IdeaAfter much debate, American leaderscreated a new governing document,the United States Constitution.

I. Virginia PlanA.B.

II. New Jersey PlanA.B.

Reading StrategyTaking Notes As you read about the Con-stitutional Convention, use the outlineform shown here to list the provisions of each proposed plan.

helped write their state constitutions, andmore than half had participated in theContinental Congress. They had wit-nessed the unhappy consequences of aweak central government.

Many of the delegates had been activistsduring the Revolution and their nameswere well known. Some of the mostprominent figures of the time, however,did not attend the convention. ThomasJefferson, John Adams, and ThomasPaine had duties in Europe at the time andcould not attend. Patrick Henry had beenselected as a delegate from Virginia, but herefused to go. He feared the move towarda strong central government and wantedno part of the proceedings. Henry stayedaway, saying that he “smelled a rat inPhiladelphia, tending toward monarchy.”

Most of the delegates were in their 30sor 40s. Benjamin Franklin, the oldest del-egate at 81, suffered from poor health andcould not attend regularly. The conven-tion unanimously chose George Wash-ington to preside over the proceedings.First to arrive at the convention wasJames Madison, a Virginian; he broughtelaborate plans and research. He came toPhiladelphia with a draft of a completelynew framework of government.

Biography ★★★★

James Madison, a Key PlayerMadison brought an impressive back-

ground to the convention. He had been apart of the Virginia government and hadhelped to write that state’s constitution.Madison knew about the complicatedissues of forming a republic. He alsobrought a well-defined political philoso-phy. He considered the main purpose ofgovernment to be “to act upon and for theindividual citizen.”

Right from the start, Madison favoredwriting a new constitution instead of revis-ing the Articles of Confederation. Awarethat his ideas might be unpopular, Madisonprepared for the convention by arminghimself with all the knowledge he could.From Europe, Thomas Jefferson helped bysending boxes of books on history andpolitical thought. Madison’s notebooksoverflowed with information. A Georgiadelegate at the convention said of Madison:

[Of] the affairs of the UnitedStates, he perhaps, has themost correct knowledge of any man in the Union. . . .

By the time he arrived in Philadelphia,Madison was ready to defend his beliefs.

Madison played an active role at the con-vention. He attended every session, sittingnear the front so he would not miss a thing.His careful notes show that, in fact, hemissed very little. They provide a detailedrecord of this very important event and

”“

262 UNIT 3 A New Nation: 1776–1791262 UNIT 3 A New Nation: 1776–1791

Footnotes to HistoryThe Constitutional Convention NotesMadison worked out a personal system ofshorthand and then wrote a full accountfrom these notes immediately followingeach session of the Constitutional Conven-tion. Madison was very careful to keep hisnotes out of the public eye. His notes werefinally published in 1840.

� JAMES MADISON


remain the best source of information onwho said what during the meetings.

In addition to writing notes, Madisoncontributed greatly to the formation of thenew constitution. Many of his ideasbecame woven into the document. Madi-son’s contributions became so significantthat they earned him the nickname“Father of the Constitution.”

Madison’s role in American history didnot end with the Constitutional Conven-tion. He became a political party leader, amember of the first House of Representa-tives, a secretary of state and, eventually,President of the United States. ★★★

★ The Convention BeginsAt the beginning of the convention the

delegates agreed that “nothing spoken inthis House be printed or otherwise pub-lished.” The delegates had to decide on agovernment for free people. Why, then,did they think the proceedings should besecret?

The delegates expected intense debateand knew that arguments would erupt.They hoped to keep these disagreementsprivate so the distractions would notinfluence the people who would eventu-ally either accept or reject the finisheddocument.

To ensure their privacy, the delegatesagreed to sit, day by day, in a room withclosed windows and guards posted at thedoors. Temperatures soared that summer,making the delegates even more uncom-fortable. Still, they would continue todebate, argue, and compromise until theycompleted their job.

Besides agreeing to secrecy, the dele-gates agreed on other procedures. Thedelegates wanted to be able to changetheir minds. At the Constitutional Con-vention any subject could be brought upand voted on as many times as needed.The delegates also agreed to vote bystates, with each state having one vote.

It did not take long for the delegates torealize that they could not amend the Arti-cles of Confederation. Even those who mostopposed a strong central government hadto agree that the Articles were far too weakand could never hold a nation together. Thecountry needed a new constitution.

★ The Virginia PlanOn May 29, Virginia governor Edmund

Randolph—a more forceful speaker thanMadison—presented Madison’s proposal,now known as the Virginia Plan. The Vir-ginia Plan called for a strong national gov-ernment with three branches: legislative,executive, and judicial. The legislativebranch of government makes laws, theexecutive branch carries out the laws, andthe judicial branch determines if the lawsare carried out fairly.

The Virginia Plan also called for a two-house legislature. In both houses the number of members would be based on

� EDMUND RANDOLPH Ran-dolph’s Virginia Plan called fora strong national governmentwith three branches of govern-

ment and a two-house legislature based onpopulation. Why did the Virginia Plan upsetthe smaller states?

istoryPicturingH


population. Thus, large states would havemore representation than small ones. Thisdiffered from the Articles of Confedera-tion, which gave each state one vote inCongress regardless of population.

Concern Over RepresentationThe first provision of the Virginia Plan

upset the small states. If the plan basedrepresentation on population, all lawmak-ing would be controlled by the largestates. Small states would retain littlepower. Not only that, the small stateswould be subject to laws they would havevery little voice in creating.

On the other hand, delegates from largestates such as Virginia, Massachusetts,and Pennsylvania asked why a state likeDelaware with only about 59,000 peopleshould have the same power as Virginiawith almost 700,000 people.

The debate went back and forth. Dele-gates from Delaware, Maryland, and NewJersey, which had few people, argued thatthey would never give up the equal powerthey had enjoyed under the Articles of

Confederation. In fact, William Patersonfrom New Jersey exclaimed that his statewould “rather submit to a monarch, . . .than to such a fate.”

Weakened State PowerThe second provision of the Virginia

Plan threatened to take some power awayfrom the states. It declared that if two ormore states could not settle their differ-ences, the national legislature would stepin and do it for them. Furthermore, theVirginia Plan suggested that Congress,not the people, should choose the Presi-dent and national judges. The plan statedthat the President and courts would havethe power to veto, or reject, laws passedby Congress. The two houses of Congress,however, could turn around and overridethat veto.

The Virginia Plan provided a blueprintfor a very powerful centralized govern-ment. It appeared much too extreme formany delegates who still remembered theshackles of British rule. No one is certainwhy James Madison wrote a plan thatconcentrated so much power in thenational government. One theory is thatShays’s Rebellion and the other revoltsgoing on in the states led him to advocatea strong government that could deal effec-tively with any threat to the country.

★ The New Jersey PlanThe small states wasted no time in

responding to the Virginia Plan. On June15, New Jersey delegate William Patersonpresented a counterproposal called theNew Jersey Plan. It, too, provided forthree branches of government. It kept thesingle-body Congress, though, as set forthin the Articles of Confederation. No mat-ter how large, each state would have onevote in the legislature. Congress wouldkeep the powers it had in the Articles, butwould gain new powers to tax and to reg-ulate trade among the states.

� GEORGE WASHINGTON


Most large-state delegates favoredMadison’s Virginia Plan and its nationalgovernment with separate executive, leg-islative, and judicial branches and statessubordinate to the national government.Most small-state delegates favored theNew Jersey Plan, which continued theConfederation and left the states supreme.

Bitter debate raged over these differ-ences for two weeks. Lacking a middleground where the two sides could meet,the convention seemed in danger of col-lapsing. Washington wrote a friend,remarking

I find but little ground onwhich the hope of a goodestablishment can beformed. . . . I almost despairof seeing a favorable issue[end] to the proceedings of our Convention. . . .

Washington continued the letter, addingthat he regretted having anything to dowith the convention. Franklin, also feel-ing downhearted, proposed that eachsession be opened with prayer, askingdivine guidance in finding an acceptablecompromise.

★ The Great CompromiseOn July 2, the convention selected a

“grand committee” made up of one dele-gate from each state to work toward asolution. Franklin agreed to chair thecommittee. The committee struggledthrough even more debate and negotia-tion before agreeing on a compromise. Acompromise is an agreement in whicheach side agrees to give up something togain something more important. The com-mittee’s compromise became known asthe Great Compromise.

The plan called for Congress to bemade up of two houses. Members of theupper house, called the Senate, would bechosen by state legislatures. Each state,

large or small, would have two senators.When presented with this part of the plan,the small states approved, pleased thatthey would keep as much power as theyhad under the Articles of Confederation.

The large states liked the second part ofthe plan. This stated that in the lowerhouse, called the House of Representa-tives, the number of seats available toeach state would be based on population.Voters in each state would directly chooseeach member. This idea closely resembledthe one presented in the Virginia Plan. TheGreat Compromise passed in a very closevote on July 16, 1787.

With this matter settled, the delegatescould turn their attention to another, per-haps more complicated, issue. This, too,centered around representation. If astate’s population would determine thenumber of votes it had in the House ofRepresentatives, could enslaved personsbe counted as part of that population?

★ The Three-Fifths Compromise

Delegates disagreed bitterly on thisissue. States from the North hadeconomies that differed greatly fromthose in the South. Manufacturing andtrade made up the economy in the North,where workers were mostly free men andwomen. The South was primarily agricul-tural. Enslaved African American menand women worked on its plantations.

The Southern states wanted to countenslaved persons as part of their popula-tion. By doing this, they could have morerepresentatives in Congress. They did notwant to count enslaved persons as a basisfor paying taxes to the national govern-ment, though. This would make theirtaxes higher. The Northern states, on theother hand, thought enslaved personsshould be counted for tax purposes, butnot for representation in the House.

”

“


A SolutionTo solve the problem, the delegates

finally agreed to the Three-Fifths Com-promise. According to the terms of thiscompromise, only three-fifths of theenslaved people in Southern states wouldbe counted for both representation andtaxation. The Northern states agreed, eventhough the Confederation Congress hadearlier banned slavery in the NorthwestTerritory. The Northern states did notwant to risk stalling the convention again.

Other compromises on slavery occurredat the convention. Northerners agreed thatCongress could not outlaw the slave tradefor 20 years. They also agreed that no statecould stop an escaped slave from beingreturned to a slaveholder. Although somedelegates criticized these compromises,their desire to establish an effective nation-al government outweighed their desire toact against slavery.

★ Signing the ConstitutionAfter four months of hard work, the

delegates completed the new Constitution.Thirteen delegates had returned home; theremaining 42 named a committee to writethe final draft. On September 17, 1787, 39 delegates signed the document.

Three refused to sign: George Mason ofVirginia, who opposed the Constitutionuntil his death; Edmund Randolph fromVirginia, who eventually supported itsapproval by the states; and ElbridgeGerry from Massachusetts. Now the newConstitution would go to the states,where at least 9 of the 13 states wouldhave to ratify it before it could becomethe law of the land.

Their work concluded, the delegatesreviewed their efforts. No one seemedcompletely happy with the final plan, butmost agreed it presented a vast improve-ment on the Articles they hoped it wouldreplace. Madison recorded the reaction ofthe United States’s most eminent citizen,Benjamin Franklin:

Doctor Franklin, lookingtoward the President’s chair, at the back of which a rising sun happened to be painted . . . ‘I have,’ saidhe, ‘often and often in thecourse of the Session . . .looked at that [sun] behindthe President without beingable to tell whether it wasrising or setting; but now, atlength I have the happinessto know it is a rising and not a setting Sun.’ ”

“

Checking for Understanding1. Define Constitutional Convention, veto,

compromise.2. What was the major difference between the

Virginia Plan and the New Jersey Plan?

Critical Thinking3. Drawing Conclusions The delegates at the

Constitutional Convention were careful tokeep the proceedings private. Why?

4. Summarizing Re-create the chart shownhere, and describe the debate and solutionsurrounding each issue.

INTERDISCIPLINARY ACTIVITY


5. Citizenship Imagine you are at the Consti-tutional Convention. Write an account of acompromise you witness.

Issue

Representation

Slavery

Debate Solution

A More Perfect Union★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★★


SECTION 4

GUIDE TO READING

The delegates at the ConstitutionalConvention laid down the principles ofgovernment that have served Americansfor generations. The document they creat-ed has outlived every other constitutionin the world, clearly standing the test oftime.

★ Ideas Behind the Constitution

As the delegates began to write the newConstitution, they drew from a variety ofsources—from the governments of othernations, British law, European thinkers,and from their own state constitutions.

� CELEBRATING THECONSTITUTION

Reading StrategyClassifying Information As you readabout the workings of the Constitution,use a chart such as the one shown here,and list what ideas the creators of theConstitution took from each.

Read to Learn . . .★ how the Constitution divides

power between federal and state governments.

★ how ideas from the Enlightenment helped shape the Constitution.

Terms to Know★ separation of powers★ federalism ★ electoral college★ checks and balances★ impeachment★ amendment

Main IdeaThe Constitution helped bring unityand stability to the new nation.

Iroquois League:

Magna Carta:

Locke:

Montesquieu:

Ideas

The Iroquois LeagueOne model for the Constitution origi-

nated close to home. Around 1570, thevarious nations of Iroquois united. In theIroquois League, member nations eachgoverned their own affairs but joinedtogether for defense.

Europe’s InfluenceIdeas from Europe also influenced the

Framers of the Constitution. The idea oflimiting the power of a ruler was taken fromEngland’s Magna Carta of 1215. The ideaof representative government also camefrom England. Its Parliament had madelaws for the country since the mid-1200s.


The Framers also looked to Enlighten-ment philosophers for ideas. Enlighten-ment thinkers believed that people couldimprove society by using reason. Some ofthe Framers had read the works of JohnLocke and the Baron de Montesquieu(MAHN•tuhs•KYOO).

In 1690 Locke had outlined his ideas inTwo Treatises on Government. He believedall people had natural rights to life, liber-ty, and property. He also believed thatgovernment should function as a contractbetween the ruler and the ruled. If a rulershould violate the rights of the people, thepeople had a right to rebel, Locke thought.

Years later, Montesquieu had proposedanother revolutionary concept. In 1748 hepublished The Spirit of Laws, in which hesuggested limiting the power of govern-ment by separating the governing bodies.This concept is known as the separationof powers. Montesquieu thought a gov-ernment’s power should be shared amongthree branches—legislative, executive,and judicial. He believed in clearly defin-ing rules of law. This would prevent indi-viduals or groups from using thegovernment for their own purposes.

★ A Stronger NationalGovernment

The division of power proved to be oneof the biggest differences between theArticles of Confederation and the newConstitution. The debate over who shouldretain the most power—the national orstate governments had been carried on fora long time. Basic economic and socialissues were at stake. Under the Articles,the states had more power than thenational government. Under the newConstitution, the states delegated, or gaveup, some of those powers to the nationalgovernment. At the same time, the statesreserved, or kept, other powers.

The division of power between thenational government and the states iscalled federalism, leading some people torefer to the national government as thefederal government. Federalism gives theUnited States a flexible system of govern-ment. Citizens elect both state and nation-al officials. The national government hasthe power to act for the country as awhole, and states have power over manylocal matters.

The Articles of Confederation and theUnited States Constitution

The Constitutionextended federalpowers beyondthose grantedunder the Articlesof Confederation.Which documentallowed thegovernment toorganize statemilitias?

Articles ofConfederation

United StatesConstitution

Powers of FederalGovernment

• •Declare war; make peace

• •Coin money

• •Manage foreign affairs

• •Establish a postal system

•Impose taxes

•Regulate trade

•Organize a court system

•Call state militia for service

•Protect copyrights

•Take other necessary actions to runthe federal government


Powers of the Federal GovernmentUnder the Articles of Confederation, the

balance of power had been lopsided. Thestates had so much power that the nation-al government became ineffective. To helpkeep the government’s power in check, theConstitution outlines the powers of thefederal government. These powers includethe power to declare war, to issue money,to regulate trade with other countries andamong the states, and to make treaties.

Powers of the State GovernmentsThe Constitution provides that powers

not specifically given to the federal gov-ernment nor denied to the states arereserved to the states or the people. Stateshave the power to regulate trade withintheir borders; to establish local govern-ments; to conduct local elections anddetermine qualifications of voters in stateelections; to establish public schools; andto provide for the safety, health, and wel-fare of their citizens.

Powers That OverlapUnder the Constitution, the state and

federal governments share some powers.Both have the power to tax, to try crimi-nals in court, and to build roads.

Supreme Law of the LandWhen states and the federal govern-

ment disagree, the Constitution is consid-ered the supreme law of the land. Thismeans that the national government hasmore power than the state governmentswhen there is a conflict between the two.

★ Separation of Powers The Constitution provided for a strong

federal government. To keep it frombecoming too powerful, the Framersfound it necessary to separate the powers

into three different branches. They did notbelieve a single body should make thelaws, enforce the laws, and interpret thelaws. They created three branches of gov-ernment—the legislative, the executive,and the judicial—and defined the powersof each.

The Legislative BranchThe legislative branch of the national

government is called the United StatesCongress. It is made up of the Senate andthe House of Representatives. The mainresponsibility of this branch is to makelaws. It also has the power to declare warand form armies, collect taxes, and setguidelines for trade among states andwith other countries. Article I of the Con-stitution lists these powers.

Members of the House, called represen-tatives, are elected by the people. The num-ber of representatives in each state is basedon that state’s population. Representativesserve two-year terms. Members of the Sen-ate, called senators, were once selected bythe state legislatures. That changed in 1913,and now both representatives and senatorsare elected by voters. Each state has twosenators who serve six-year terms.

The Executive BranchArticle II of the Constitution calls for

an executive branch to carry out the lawspassed by the legislative branch. Thisbranch includes the Chief Executive—thePresident—and also the Vice Presidentand any advisers. The President is com-mander in chief of the armed forces andis responsible for relations with othercountries.

The Judicial BranchArticle III provides for the judicial

branch. This branch includes the SupremeCourt, the highest court of the land. TheSupreme Court and other federal courts


hear cases that involve constitutionalrights, disputes between states, and lawspassed by Congress.

★ Electing the PresidentInstead of allowing the people to elect

the President directly, the writers of theConstitution developed the idea of anelectoral college.

The electoral college is made up ofpeople called electors who represent thevoters in each state. The number of elec-tors is the same as the total number of sen-ators and representatives in that state.According to the Constitution, the electorsmet every four years to vote on a Presi-dent. The candidate who received themost votes was elected President. Theperson who received the second highestnumber became Vice President.

We still use the electoral college today.In 1804, however, the Constitution waschanged to allow the electors to vote sepa-rately for the President and Vice President.

★ Checks and BalancesThe writers built safeguards into the

Constitution to keep each branch fromassuming too much authority. This systemof safeguards is called checks and bal-ances. It gives each branch control overthe other branches.

For example, after Congress passes abill, that bill cannot go into effect until thePresident signs it into law. This gives theexecutive branch a check on the legislativebranch. The President can either sign thebill or veto it. If it is vetoed the Congresscan override the veto with a two-thirdsvote by both houses of Congress.

Besides overriding a veto, the Congresscan check the President’s power in otherways. The President possesses the powerto make treaties with other countries, butthe Senate must approve the treaty with atwo-thirds vote. If a President behaves irre-

sponsibly or breaks a law while serving inoffice, the Congress can take the Presidentto court. This process is called impeach-ment. An impeachment charge may lead tothe removal of the President from office.

Both the President and Congress haveways to check the powers of the courts.The President is responsible for appoint-ing all the federal judges, but the judgesmust then be approved by the Senate. Likethe President, the judges can be removedfrom office by Congress if they break a lawor behave in an irresponsible way.

★ Ratifying the Constitution

The Framers of the Constitution antici-pated that ratification would be difficult.Rhode Island, which had boycotted theconvention, certainly would not approvethe document. It seemed foolish to insiston unanimous approval. Instead, the Con-stitution provided that ratification by 9 ofthe 13 states would be sufficient.

Heated debates soon spread throughoutthe states. Americans divided into twogroups. Federalists favored the Constitu-tion and the strong national government itcreated. Anti-Federalists did not want theConstitution to replace the Articles of Con-federation.

Federalists and Anti-Federalists

James Madison, AlexanderHamilton, and John Jay becamethe best-known Federalists.Using pen names, they wrotea series of essays, calledThe Federalist papers,defending the Consti-tution and urging oth-ers to support it.

� CHAIR USED BY WASHINGTON

AT THE CONSTITUTIONAL

CONVENTION


Federalists pointed out that the weak-nesses of the Articles of Confederationactually weakened the entire country.They stressed that only unity among thestates would ensure protection againstthreats to peace from inside as well as out-side the country.

Anti-Federalists included John Han-cock, Samuel Adams, and Patrick Henry.They attacked almost everything aboutthe Constitution and complained that itfailed to protect basic liberties. Because ofthis, they reasoned, the governmentunder the Constitution could easily takethese rights away. In addition, theyargued that the delegates had beencharged with repairing the Articles ofConfederation, not writing an entirelynew document. The delegates had donefar more than they had had a right to do.

Responding to one of the Anti-Federal-ist objections, Federalists promised that ifthe states ratified the Constitution,

amendments, or additions and changes,would be made to provide a bill of rightsto protect the people.

The VoteRatification was to be decided by spe-

cial conventions to be called in each state.This process was supported by the Decla-ration of Independence which stated thatgovernments “derive their just powersfrom the consent of the governed.”

As the doors of the state conventionsopened in the fall of 1787, the debatesbegan. By the year’s end, Delaware, Penn-sylvania, and New Jersey had ratified theConstitution. The next three states, Geor-gia, Connecticut, and Massachusetts, gavetheir votes of approval early in 1788. With-in months Maryland and South Carolinaalso approved the Constitution.

New Hampshire ratified the Constitu-tion in June 1788—the ninth state to do so.

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DancingFrom rural farms to urban

mansions, dance in colonialAmerica was often a commonrecreation.

Then Colonial Dance

During the colonial period,the minuet, a gliding dance in3/4 time, dominated Europeansocial dancing. Couples per-formed line dances such as thereel to the accompaniment of afiddler. The reel soon gave wayto a more daring dance calledthe cotillion, a dance importedfrom the courts of France. Thisdance was the forerunner ofmodern square dancing.

NowModern Forms

During the twentieth century,American popular music incorpo-rated African American, Cuban,

and South American rhythms tocreate new dances. Just as theminuet characterized its era,such dances as the Charleston,the tango, the samba, and thebossa nova dominated differenteras during the twentieth centu-ry. Eventually, the new formscombined to produce today’shighly individualized and free-moving dancing.

Linking Past and Present

� DANCING

THE MINUET

� MODERN

DANCERS


The Constitution could now go into effect.The new government could not hope tosucceed, however, without the participa-tion of its two largest states—Virginia andNew York. By the end of June, both hadratified the document by narrow margins.

By the end of 1788, only two states hadyet to ratify the Constitution. Both NorthCarolina and Rhode Island waited untilthe new government began to functionbefore they voted for ratification. NorthCarolina voted in 1789. Rhode Island,which had also refused to participate inthe convention, became the very last stateto ratify in 1790.

★ Adding a Bill of RightsThe first Congress served in many

ways as a continuation of the Constitu-tional Convention. Its most importanttask was adding a bill of rights to the Con-stitution. Congress approved 12 amend-ments on September 25, 1789. Ten of themwere ratified by the states by the end of1791. We know these amendments todayas the Bill of Rights.

You will learn more about the Bill ofRights, the Constitution, and the rights andresponsibilities of citizens in the CitizenshipHandbook that follows this chapter.

Checking for Understanding1. Define separation of powers, federalism,

electoral college, checks and balances,impeachment, amendment.

Critical Thinking2. Making Inferences Why was it important

that New York and Virginia ratify the Constitution even though it had already beenapproved by nine states?

3. Analyzing Issues Re-create the diagram shownhere, and list how the Constitution dividespower between the national and state governments.

� SUPPORT FOR RATIFICATION A Pro-Federalist cartoon celebrates Virginia andNew York’s becoming the tenth and eleventh states to ratify the Constitution in1788. From the cartoon, which state was first to ratify the Constitution?istory

PicturingH

INTERDISCIPLINARY ACTIVITY4. The Arts Create a chart comparing

the Articles of Confederation with the Constitution of the United States.


National Government State Government

Constitution

Distinguishing Fact From Opinion

Suppose a friend says, “Our school’sbasketball team is awesome. That’s a fact.”Actually, it is not a fact; it is an opinion.

Learning the SkillIf your friend had said, “We have the

highest-ranking team in the state,” thatcould be a fact. Facts answer specific ques-tions such as what happened, who did it,when and where did it happen, and why didit happen? Statements of fact can be checkedfor accuracy and proven. The first statementabout the basketball team cannot be proven.We can look up the rankings of state teams,though, and determine whether the secondstatement is a fact.

Opinions express beliefs and feelings.Although they may truly reflect someone’sthoughts, we cannot prove or disprove them.Opinions often begin with phrases such as Ibelieve, I think, probably, it seems to me, or in myopinion. They often contain words such asmight, could, should, and ought and superla-tives such as best, worst, and greatest.

To distinguish between fact and opinion,ask yourself these questions: Does this state-ment give specific information about anevent? Can I check the accuracy of this state-

ment? Does this statement express some-one’s feelings or beliefs? Does it includewords such as I believe or superlatives suchas the greatest?

Facts and opinions both contribute valu-able information about history. Facts providespecific information about events. Opinionsreflect how people feel about events.

Practicing the SkillRead each statement below. Write F foreach fact and explain how you couldcheck its accuracy. Write O for eachopinion and identify words and phrasesthat indicate it is an opinion.

1. The Articles of Confederation set upa one-house legislature in whicheach state had a single vote.

2. During the Confederation period,the national government could notraise money through taxes.

3. The Articles of Confederation was atotal disaster for the new Americanstates.

4. The central government should beweak so that states have more power.

5. We ought to scrap the Articles ofConfederation and make a new planfor the government.

273

Critical Thinking SkillsBUILDING SKILLSBUILDING SKILLS

APPLYING THE SKILL6. Create a sales pitch for a product or

service. Use an actual product or ser-vice or create one of your own. Includeat least five facts and five opinions inyour sales pitch and present it to theclass. Have students identify the factsand opinions.

� HIGH SCHOOL BASKETBALL TEAM

Glencoe’s Skillbuilder InteractiveWorkbook, Level 1 provides in-struction and practice in key socialstudies skills.

CHAPTER 9 ★ ASSESSMENT


Using Key VocabularyUse the vocabulary words below to complete

the following sentences.

veto federalismAnti-Federalists ratify

1. At least 9 of the 13 states had to _________ theConstitution before it could go into effect.

2. The President can _________ decisions madeby the legislature.

3. The division of power between national andstate governments is called _________.

4. The _________ tried to keep the states fromratifying the Constitution.

Reviewing Facts1. Why was the Northwest Ordinance neces-

sary?

2. What was the Three-Fifths Compromise?

3. What powers are given to both federal andstate governments?

Understanding ConceptsAmerican Democracy1. Why were many Americans afraid of a strong

central government?

2. Use a diagram such as the one shown here tolist the similarities and differences betweenthe Articles of Confederation and the Consti-

tution with regard to the owers granted to thefederal government.

Civil Rights and Liberties3. In what ways were the delegates to the Con-

stitutional Convention representative of thepeople? In what ways were they not represen-tative?

4. What powers does the Supreme Court have toprotect the rights of citizens?

Critical Thinking1. Hypothesizing Why was a powerful nation-

al government necessary to unite the 13states?

2. Drawing Conclusions Why did the North-ern states agree to the Three-Fifths Compro-mise and other compromises on slavery?

3. Analyzing Information Why did the Framersof the Constitution call for ratification by only9 of 13 states, and not all? Do you think thiswas wise or foolish? Why?

4. Predicting Consequences If the Baron deMontesquieu read the new Constitution of theUnited States, what do you think he wouldsay about it? Would he have signed it? Why orwhy not?

History and GeographyCommunication

By 1790 Philadelphia was one of the informa-tion capitals of the United States. The map onpage 275 shows the number of days it took fornewspapers in Philadelphia to publish eventsthat occurred elsewhere. Study the map and thenanswer the questions that follow.

Self-Check QuizVisit the American History: The Early Years to1877 Web site at ey.glencoe.com and click onChapter 8—Self-Check Quizzes to prepare forthe chapter test.

HISTORYArticles of

Confederation Constitution

http://www.glencoe.com/sec/socialstudies/ushistory/ahey2001/quiz.shtml?BOOK=002&CHAPTER=9&TITLE=Creating+a+Nation

CHAPTER 9 ★ ASSESSMENT

1. Movement How long did it take informationfrom Pittsburgh to reach Philadelphia?

2. Region What effect do you think this informa-tion time lag might have had on differentregions of the country?

Interdisciplinary Activity:Language Arts

In a small group write a television script. Doresearch to come up with interview questionsfocusing on the new Constitution. Have one student be the host who asks questions and

makes comments. The other students shouldplay the roles of a wealthy merchant, a poorfarmer, a Southern plantation owner, a NativeAmerican, and an enslaved African American.

Practicing SkillsDistinguishing Fact From Opinion

The sentences below are taken from a speech byPatrick Henry opposing adoption of the Constitu-tion. For each numbered sentence, write F if it is afact and O if it is an opinion.

[1] “. . . you ought to be extremely cautious,watchful, jealous of your liberty; [2] for instead ofsecuring your rights, you may lose them forever.[3] If a wrong step be now made, the republic maybe lost forever. . . . [4] I have the highest respect forthose gentlemen who formed the convention. . . .

Technology ActivityUsing E-mail

Search the Internet foryour state’s two U.S.senators. Find the E-mail address of one ofthem and send your senator an electronic letterexpressing your opinion about a local or nation-al matter.

Cooperative

Learning


Using Your JournalWrite a diary entrythat Benjamin Franklinmight have written afterone of his sessions atthe Constitutional Convention. Refer to yourchapter notes.

History

WritingABOUT

22 days

15 days

10 days

34days

23days

31days

31days

10 days

Charleston, S.C.

Columbia, S.C.

Richmond, Va.

Pittsburgh, Pa.Philadelphia, Pa.

Boston, Mass.

Windsor, Vt.

Norfolk, Va.

Savannah, Ga.

Ohio

River

35° N

30° N

75° W

80° W

85° W

40° N

45° N

St. LawrenceRiver

HudsonRiver

ATLANTICOCEAN

Numbers indicate the average number ofdays between the occurrence of an eventin a location and the published report ofthe event in a Philadelphia newspaper.

0

0 150 300 kilometers

150 300 miles

News Distance to Philadelphia, 1790

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

Documents

CHAPTER 9 Creating a Nation - Davenport · PDF fileAmericans successfully met the challenge of establishing state governments and a ... CHAPTER 9 Creating a Nation: 1776–1791 251