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Weygandt Managerial 6e Chapter 8 Who does a company sell their products to? You might think this is a crazy question since the obvious answer is that companies sell to customers. While this is true, many assume these customers to be only external to the company. Customers are often external, but they can also be internal to the organization. So how does a company determine a price for the sale of its products to these internal and external users? We will discuss pricing techniques such as target costing, costplus pricing, variable cost pricing and time and materials pricing. Each of these is commonly used today for pricing products to external customers. Internal sales pricing techniques include negotiated transfer pricing, cost based transfer pricing, and market based transfer pricing. Think for a moment what you would take into consideration if you were in the position of having to decide product or service pricing. Perhaps some considerations would be research and development costs, patent protection, price sensitivity, pricing objectives, and the economic and competitive market. Target costing is a technique used when a product or service is provided in a highly competitive and price sensitive marketplace. Since the market of a product cannot be significantly changed, it can be more effective to focus on managing the costs associated with bringing that product to market. Target cost is calculated by taking the difference between the market price and the desired profit. In assuming the product can be provided at its target cost and that it will be in demand by consumers, the company will achieve its profit objective. The costplus pricing technique uses a percentage markup from its manufacturing or acquisition cost in arriving at the target selling price. This approach can be used when the product or service is provided in a market that is either less competitive or noncompetitive. The markup from cost must cover not only direct material, direct labor and overhead costs but also selling and administrative expenses as well. This pricing approach focuses most on the costrelated issues and not so much on the market demands for the product or service. What happens to pricing when sales volume suddenly drops or increases? Obviously adjustments would be necessary in order to meet profit objectives. Variable cost pricing involves pricing using a markup from variable costs, rather than from total overall costs as is used with cost plus and target costing. The theory is that this avoids the problem of using uncertain cost information related to fixed cost per unit calculations. It can be most helpful in situations where there are special orders or when excess capacity exists. The risk in this approach is that pricing will be set too low and that fixed costs will not be covered, resulting in losses. A variation of cost plus pricing is time and materials pricing. This pricing strategy focuses on establishing pricing for labor and materials. The labor rate is expressed as an amount per hour and includes direct labor costs, fringe benefits, selling and administrative overhead costs and a certain amount of desired profit. The materials rate needs to include materials cost, costs related to receiving, handling and storing of materials, and a certain amount of desired profit. Time and materials pricing is commonly used by service industries including professional services such as law, engineering, accounting and consulting. Remember that we said that product and service sales occur not only externally, but also internally as well. Transfer pricing refers to the price charged by one segment of an organization to another. Although the main objective is to maximize the return of sales of the whole company, each division is keenly aware of the importance in demonstrating successful sales trends. There are three approaches

Chapter 8 Summary Transcript

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AF108 notes for the week 9 semester 2 the year 2015.

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Page 1: Chapter 8 Summary Transcript

Weygandt Managerial 6e Chapter 8  Who does a company sell their products to?  You might think this is a crazy question since the obvious answer is that companies sell to customers.  While this is true, many assume these customers to be only external to the company.  Customers are often external, but they can also be internal to the organization.   So how does a company determine a price for the sale of its products to these internal and external users?  We will discuss pricing techniques such as target costing, cost‐plus pricing, variable cost pricing and time and materials pricing.  Each of these is commonly used today for pricing products to external customers.  Internal sales pricing techniques include negotiated transfer pricing, cost based transfer pricing, and market based transfer pricing.  Think for a moment what you would take into consideration if you were in the position of having to decide product or service pricing.   Perhaps some considerations would be research and development costs, patent protection, price sensitivity, pricing objectives, and the economic and competitive market.  Target costing is a technique used when a product or service is provided in a highly competitive and price sensitive marketplace.  Since the market of a product cannot be significantly changed, it can be more effective to focus on managing the costs associated with bringing that product to market.  Target cost is calculated by taking the difference between the market price and the desired profit.   In assuming the product can be provided at its target cost and that it will be in demand by consumers, the company will achieve its profit objective.  The cost‐plus pricing technique uses a percentage markup from its manufacturing or acquisition cost in arriving at the target selling price.  This approach can be used when the product or service is provided in a market that is either less competitive or non‐competitive.  The markup from cost must cover not only direct material, direct labor and overhead costs but also selling and administrative expenses as well.  This pricing approach focuses most on the cost‐related issues and not so much on the market demands for the product or service.  What happens to pricing when sales volume suddenly drops or increases? Obviously adjustments would be necessary in order to meet profit objectives.  Variable cost pricing involves pricing using a markup from variable costs, rather than from total overall costs as is used with cost plus and target costing.  The theory is that this avoids the problem of using uncertain cost information related to fixed cost per unit calculations.  It can be most helpful in situations where there are special orders or when excess capacity exists.  The risk in this approach is that pricing will be set too low and that fixed costs will not be covered, resulting in losses.  A variation of cost plus pricing is time and materials pricing.  This pricing strategy focuses on establishing pricing for labor and materials.  The labor rate is expressed as an amount per hour and includes direct labor costs, fringe benefits, selling and administrative overhead costs and a certain amount of desired profit.  The materials rate needs to include materials cost, costs related to receiving, handling and storing of materials, and a certain amount of desired profit.    Time and materials pricing is commonly used by service industries including professional services such as law, engineering, accounting and consulting.  Remember that we said that product and service sales occur not only externally, but also internally as well.  Transfer pricing refers to the price charged by one segment of an organization to another.  Although the main objective is to maximize the return of sales of the whole company, each division is keenly aware of the importance in demonstrating successful sales trends.  There are three approaches 

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to determining a transfer price; negotiated transfer prices, cost based transfer prices and market based transfer prices.  We will look at each of these approaches.    Negotiated transfer prices are prices that have been negotiated and established by management in advance of sales.   Pricing can only be effectively established when the capacity of the division is known and whether there is excess capacity.  If there is no excess capacity, what costs would need to be recovered?  Certainly variable costs associated with the product plus any lost contribution margin, otherwise known as opportunity cost. Remember that contribution margin is calculated by taking sales per unit less any variable cost per unit.   If there IS excess capacity, the minimum transfer price would be equal to its variable cost since there is no opportunity cost.   Negotiated transfer pricing requires the selling division to establish a minimum transfer price, while the purchasing division establishes a maximum transfer price since they will not pay more than what it would cost them to obtain the item from an outside supplier.  Cost based transfer pricing may be based on the variable costs incurred to produce the goods or services or based on variable costs plus fixed costs.  The final determination of which basis to use is often related to the level of the seller’s capacity.  The objective should be, given excess capacity, to simply pass along the cost of producing the product or service to the buyer.    Market based transfer pricing is based on existing market conditions and is often considered to be the best approach since it is objective, and factors in the proper economic incentives.   The seller charges current market prices and loses no contribution margin, and the buyer pays current market prices.  Of course if excess capacity exists, this can lead to over‐pricing by the seller.  Finally, as more companies “globalize” their operations, it’s important to have an understanding of the issues involved in transferring goods between divisions in different countries. For example, companies must pay income tax in the country where they generate the income. In order to maximize income and minimize income tax, many companies prefer to report more income in countries with low tax rates, and less income in countries with high tax rates. This is accomplished by adjusting the transfer prices they use on internal transfers between divisions located in different countries.