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Chapter 8
ANTARCTICA
HUMANITIES 2
160
Antarctica is one of the most desolate and
harsh environments on Earth. Yet it is a land
that is considered special. Antarctica is special
because of its pristine environment. It is also
unique because it has no indigenous people and
because it does not belong to any one country.
Modern technology has enabled people to
have more access to Antarctica than ever before.
Its wealth in natural resources has encouraged
nations to send teams of people to this cold
place. Antarctica is facing increasing pressures
from human activity, but it still remains the
last chance for humans to preserve an entire
continent as a wilderness area.
Geographical knowledge and understanding• Use a variety of geographic tools and skills to
investigate regions of Australia and those
surrounding it: Antarctica.
• Explore how human and physical environments
interact over time to change characteristics of
regions.
• Investigate environmental issues, and suggest and
evaluate policies for their effective management
and the sustainable use of resources.
Geospatial skills• Construct overlay theme maps using conventions
of scale, legend, title and north point.
• Apply knowledge and understanding of scale, grid
references, legend and direction to use maps as
sources of spatial information.
• Use photographs, satellite images and text from
electronic media as sources of spatial information.
• Use a range of techniques to collect, process,
present and analyse data.
• Recognise that parts of the Earth’s surface can be
represented in various ways, at different scales and
from different perspectives. Antarctica — the world’s last remaining wilderness is the coldest, windiest and driest place on Earth.
CHAPTER 8: ANTARCTICA
161
Antarctic Treaty: a formal agreement between nations
to protect Antarctica and its resources
blizzard: a snowstorm accompanied by strong winds
chlorofluorocarbon gases: CFC gases mainly produced
from spray cans and airconditioners. They are the main
cause of ozone depletion
circumnavigate: to sail around one of the main
landmasses of the world
continent: one of the seven main landmasses of the
Earth
crevasse: a deep crack in the ice, which usually
develops where an iceshelf meets land
ecosystem: the interaction of living organisms, such as
plants, animals and humans, with their physical
environment such as soil, water and rocks
extinction: the disappearance of a species
frostbite: the freezing of human skin and underlying
tissue by exposure to severe cold
glacier: a river of slow-flowing ice
global warming: the warming of the atmosphere, which
many scientists believe is caused by the burning of fossil
fuels
iceberg: a large floating mass of ice that has broken off a
glacier or iceshelf
icecap: a large area of ice that completely covers more
than 50 000 square kilometres of land. It is also known
as an icesheet
icesheet: see icecap
iceshelves: the floating edges of icesheets that spill out
onto the sea; composed of freshwater ice
katabatic winds: strong polar winds that are created as
cold air descends from the polar plateaus
krill: tiny shrimp-like crustaceans found in Antarctic
waters
ozone layer: a layer of gases that surrounds the Earth
and filters out dangerous ultraviolet light from the sun
pack-ice: an area of loose ice floating on the sea
pelts: animal skins
phytoplankton: microscopic plants that live in the ocean
sastrugi: shapes in the ice, which have been sculptured
by the action of wind and water
scientific base: site of temporary human habitation, set
up for the purpose of scientific research and experiments
scurvy: a disease caused by a lack of vitamin C
sea ice: frozen ocean water
South Pole: there are two South Poles. The Earth’s
geographical South Pole is the furthest point south of the
Equator, while the magnetic South Pole is the exact
location of south on a magnetic compass. The magnetic
North and South poles move due to the rotation of the
Earth.
territorial claim: the right to treat an area of land as
being legally under the control of a country
ultraviolet rays: invisible solar rays that can penetrate
a thinning ozone layer
wilderness: an unchanged natural area remote from
human settlement
HUMANITIES 2
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8.1
THE ANTARCTIC CONTINENT
80°W
100°W
120°W
140°W160°W180°
140°E 160°E
120°E
100°E
80°E
J K
40°E 20°E 0° 20°W 40°W
60°W
60°E
Ronne En
trance
IN
DI
AN
O
CE
AN
PA
CI
FI
C
O
CE
AN
SO
UT
H
ER
N
OC
EA
N
Pine Island Bay
Getz Ice Shelf
Ross Ice Shelf
Porpoise Bay
Voyeykov Ice Shelf
Shackleton Ice Shelf
WestIce Shelf
Amery Ice Shelf
Larsen Ice Shelf
Ronne
Ice Shelf
Ice Shelf
Fimbull
Pass
age
Dra
ke
Venable IceShelf
Vincennes Bay
Colvocoresses Bay
MertzGlacier
R O S S S E A
D A V I S
S E A
A T L A N T I C O C E A N
AMUNDSEN SEA
HAAKON VII SEA
WEDDELL SEA
SCOTIA SEA
BELLINGSHAUSEN SEA
Mt Menzies 3355 m
Mt Bentley 4247 m
Vinson Massif 5140 m
Mt Seelig 3022 m
Mt Erebus 3795 m
Mt Markham 4282 m
Mt Kirkpatrick 4528 m
Mt McClintock 3492 m
Mt Minto 4163 m
MOUNTAINS
South Pole
TR
AN
SA
NTA
RC
TIC
Cape Goodenough
Cape Mose
Cape Ann
Cape Norvegia
Cape Washington
Cape HornCape Boothby
Cape Flying Fish
CoatsLand
PalmerLand
Graham Land
Oates LandGeorge V
Land
E d w a r d V l lL a n d
W i l k e s L a n d
A d e l i eL a n d
Q u e e n M a r y L a n d
W i l h e l m I l L a n d
M a c R o b e r t s o n
L a n d
Q u e e n M a u d L a n d
Antarctic
Peninsula
G r e a t e r
A n t a r c t i c a
L e s s e r
A n t a r c t i c a
V i c t o r i a
L a n d
M a r i e B y r d L a n d
E l l s w o r t hL a n d
P r i n c e s sE l i z a b e t h
L a n d
K e m p L a n d
E n d e r b yL a n d
Berkner
Island
Masson Island
White Island
South OrkneyIslands Falkland
Islands
Rothschild Island
Smyley IslandCharcot Island
Thurston Island
Wright Island
Siple Island
Ross Island
Roosevelt Island
Coulman Island
Carney Island
Farwell Island
South GeorgiaCrozet Islands
Alexander Island
South SandwichIslands
Tasmania
Stewart Island
Macquarie Island
Auckland Islands
Campbell Island
Antipodes Islands
A U S T R A L I A
Kerguelen Islands
80°S
80°S
60°S
60°S
Antarctic Circle
1
N
N
NEW ZEALAND
C H I L E
ARGENTINA
Commonwealth Bay
Lambert-Fisher Glacier
NinnesGlacier
Mawson Glacier
N
Heard Island
Cross-section lineA
B
Ronne En
trance
Ross
Island
Blue whales
Humpback whales
Sei whales
Killer whales
Emperor penguin rookeries
Adelie penguin rookeries
Seal breeding area
Krill concentration
Ice shelf
Maximum extent of sea ice
Minimum extent of sea ice
Island
Mountain
Country border
Country nameC H I L E
Mt Minto4163 m
0 400 800 1200 1600 km
Antarctica is the coldest, iciest, windiest and driestplace on the planet. It is located south of the 65ºparallel of latitude and is surrounded by theIndian, Pacific and Atlantic oceans. (The southern-most parts of these oceans that encircle Antarcticaare referred to as the Southern Ocean.) At 14million square kilometres, Antarctica is roughlytwice the size of Australia. In winter it doubles inarea as the surrounding oceans freeze.
An icecap covers 98 per cent of the Antarcticcontinent, making it one of the harshestenvironments on Earth. Vegetation, mostlylichens and mosses, occurs only in some smallareas along the coast. However, the surroundingoceans contain an abundance of wildlife,including whales, seals, penguins and krill,which is the main source of food for manymarine animals.
Antarctica — natural environment
CHAPTER 8: ANTARCTICA
163
Antarctica once formed part ofthe supercontinent Gondwana. When Gondwana broke up about 40 million years ago, Australia, Africa, India and South America separated and drifted northwards. Antarctica drifted southwards and became the continent we call Antarctica today.
The ice that covers Antarctica has an averagethickness of about 2500 metres. The weight of theice over millions of years has depressed the land-mass, with much of it now lying below sea level.
Antarctica was the last continent to be discov-ered. In the 1770s, James Cook circumnavi-gated Antarctica without sighting land. Heconcluded that if land was to be found beyond thesea of ice, ‘the world would not be benefited by it’.We now know much more about the value of Ant-arctica, including the fact that its icesheets helpkeep the world’s climate and sea levels steady.
Understand
1. Use the map of Antarctica on the opposite page to answer the following questions: (a) Describe the location of Antarctica.(b) Name the countries that are Antarctica’s
closest neighbours.(c) In which direction would you travel from
Antarctica to reach each of Antarctica’s neighbours?
(d) Use the scale to calculate the distance from the most southerly point of Australia to the Antarctic coastline.
(e) Name two species of whale found in Antarctic oceans.
(f) Describe the location of two Adelie penguin rookeries.
(g) Where are most of the emperor penguin rookeries located?
(h) Name three seal breeding areas.2. Study the diagram of Gondwana.
(a) Name the four continents that once made up Gondwana.
(b) When did the four continents drift apart?(c) In what direction did Antarctica drift when
Gondwana broke up?
Think
3. Why do you think Cook was unable to sight land when he circumnavigated Antarctica in the 1770s?
SKILLS essentials
Reading a cross-section
Cross-sections give you the opportunity to imagine what it would be like to walk from point A to point B on a map.
Look at the cross-section of Antarctica below. It shows the continent as if it had been sliced along the cross-section line on the map opposite. The relation-ship between the land and the icesheet can be seen in the cross-section below.
1. Where is the ice thickest?
2. Estimate the average thickness of ice between theRoss Ice Shelf and the Ronne Entrance?
3. At what points along the cross-section would rockshow on the surface?
4. Describe the height of the land under the LesserAntarctica ice sheet. Why might the land behigher if it was not covered by ice?
5. What is the distance from A to B along the cross-section? (Hint: Use the scale on the map.)
Sea level 200500
1000
2000
200
2000
Height ofthe land(metres)
Bedrock
Icesheet
Sea
TransantarcticMountains
Ross Ice Shelf
Greater Antarctica
Lesser Antarctica
EllsworthLand Ronne
EntranceIcesheet
Bedrock
ColvocoressesBay
A B
Cross-section from Colvocoresses Bay to Ronne Entrance (A–B), Antarctica
ON
THE CD-R
OM
wiZdom
HUMANITIES 2
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8.2
A LAND OF ICE
It covers 98 per cent of Antarctica. Some of it ismillions of years old and five kilometres thick. Itcrushes mountain ranges, breaks ships, andreflects so much heat that it keeps the planetcooler. It stores 68 per cent of the world’s freshwater, but to have a drink you have to spendhours melting it. It’s so heavy it holds down Ant-arctica’s mountains. It’s ice — frozen water —and it’s the most powerful force in Antarctica.The amount of ice on Antarctica is staggering —30 million cubic kilometres.
Ice covers the continent of Antarctica to anaverage depth of about 2500 metres. It has builtup over millions of years. Any snow that falls onthe surface never melts, and is turned into ice. IfAntarctica’s two icesheets melted, Antarcticawould be about half its current size; however, sealevels around the world would then be about60 metres higher, because the melting ice wouldflow into the oceans.
Scientists are able to measure the thickness ofthe ice and the shapes of the land below usingradar. They have found ice to a maximum depthof 4800 metres near Australia’s Casey Station.
The incredible weight of the Antarctic icesheetsforces them to spread outward. Faster movingareas, known as ice streams or glaciers, movetowards the ocean. As they move, glaciers twist,stretch and crack into dangerous crevasses hun-dreds of metres deep. A thin covering of snowmay hide the opening to a crevasse.
At the shores of Antarctica, icesheets and gla-ciers spill out over the surface of the ocean. Herethey form giant stretches of floating freshwater icethat are still anchored to the land. These floatingicesheets are called iceshelves, and they make up11 per cent of Antarctica’s total area.
Icebergs form when chunks break off fromglaciers and iceshelves. The biggest icebergs aremassive sections of iceshelf. The largest icebergever was about 32 000 square kilometres —
THE ANTARCTIC ICESHEETS
GLACIERS, SHELVES, CREVASSES AND BERGS
bigger than Belgium! It has been suggested thaticebergs could be towed to areas in need of freshwater and that their massive store of fresh watercould be harvested.
As the temperature drops in March each year,the seas around Antarctica freeze solid on thesurface. This is called sea ice. It effectively dou-bles the area of Antarctica each winter.
Sea ice has only about one-tenth the salinity ofsea water. The salt is forced out as the waterfreezes so that only small amounts remain,caught in pockets within the ice. This trappedsalt migrates down through the ice due to theeffects of gravity.
Understand
1. What is the average depth of the ice in Antarctica?
2. Explain the differences between an iceshelf and sea ice.
3. Explain what is meant by the old saying ‘just the tip of the iceberg’.
Think
4. Predict what would happen if all the ice in Antarctica melted.
5. Do you think fresh water could be obtained by melting sea ice or icebergs? Explain.
6. The satellite image at right shows the Lambert Glacier in Antarctica. How wide is the glacier at the point shown in the image?
7. What are the physical dimensions of the Lambert Glacier?
Design and create
8. Use desktop publishing software to design a sign warning visitors about the dangers posed by crevasses. Your sign must include pictures and labels.
9. Use the Internet to find out the name of the fastest moving glacier and where it is located. Create a visual display for your classroom.
Worksheets
8.1 Professor of Ice
SEA ICE
CHAPTER 8: ANTARCTICA
165
As only one-fifth of an iceberg is visible above the sea, they are a significant shipping hazard. On 14 April 1912, the passenger ship Titanic struck an iceberg in the north Atlantic Ocean and sank, with a loss of 1523 lives.
Satellite image of the Lambert Glacier and Mawson Escarpment. The Lambert Glacier is the largest glacier in the world. It is about 400 km long, up to 80 km wide and has a depth of approximately 2500 m. It moves only a few metres each day.
Copyright © Commonwealth of Australia (1989)
Ribbon lake
Horn
Arête
Cirque
(ridge)
Crevasse
Lateral
Hangingvalley
moraine
Medialmoraine
Outwashplain
Meltwaterstreams
Meltwatertunnels
Terminal moraine
Terminalmoraine
ErraticsSnout
Mountain or valley glacier
0 10 20 km
Scale
ICT
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HUMANITIES 2
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8.3
ANTARCTIC PACK-ICE
When summer comes, the sea ice that had frozensolid on the surface of the seas around Antarcticaduring the winter begins to break up. Older,thicker slabs, or floes, of broken-up sea ice arecalled pack-ice. Sometimes these slabs floatseparately; sometimes they are pushed together bywinds or currents. If a ship becomes caught in thisclose pack-ice, and winds blow the floes together,the ship can become stuck and even crushed.
In the satellite image (opposite and below) theicebergs are being broken off, or calved, from the
Filchner Ice Shelf in the Weddell Sea. The iceshelfis hundreds of metres thick and appears as thewhite shape in the lower left of the satellite image.The pack-ice between the icebergs appears on theimage as light blue and the water appears as black.
The Ross Ice Shelf is actually formed of pack-ice. It extends from the coastline into the RossSea and reaches its maximum extent in Sep-tember. Cracks in the iceshelf can create ice-bergs. An iceberg covering 31 000 squarekilometres broke off the Ross Ice Shelf in 1956.
SKILLS essentials
Estimating the area of features on a map or photograph
The area of a rectangle is worked out by multiplying its width (say 5 centimetres) by its height (say 3 centimetres); the area in this case is 15 square centimetres. It is even easier for a square, as the height and width are the same. However, the area of most things you might want to estimate on a map or photograph will rarely be squares or rectangles. So geographers divide an image up into a grid of small squares. The length of the side of each square in the grid relates to the scale in the map or photograph. Here’s how it’s done.
Study the grid map of the satellite image of pack-ice. The iceshelf appears as the white shape in the lower left of the satellite image. The pack-ice appears on the image as light blue and the water appears as black.
1. Is the yellow iceberg more than twice the size of the green iceberg?2. A small iceberg has been pushed on top of the yellow one (see satellite image at right for closer detail).
Estimate the small iceberg’s size and suggest how it got there. Use the scale on the satellite image to estimate the length of the longest side of the small iceberg.
Grid map of satellite image of pack-ice. One grid square equals one square kilometre.
The scale shown on the image or map is used to work out the dimensions in the grid pattern. In this case, the side of each square in the grid represents one kilometre.
First count the number of squares that are completely filled with what is being measured. For the piece of ‘green’ ice, this is 13 squares. Each full grid square has an area of 1 km2
(1 km × 1 km).
Now add up the number of squares that are only partly filled (either a little or a lot). In the case of the green ice, this is 16 squares. Each grid square is assumed to have an area of 0.5 km2.
The area of the piece of ‘green’ ice:
= area covered by full squares + area covered by partly filled squares
= (13 × 1 km2) + (16 × 0.5 km2)= 13 km2 + 8 km2
= 21 km2.
SPOT Satellite Imagery supplied courtesy Raytheon Australia © CNES, 2004
CHAPTER 8: ANTARCTICA
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Satellite image of Antarctic pack-ice in the Weddell Sea
0 1 2 3 4 5 kms
Scale
HUMANITIES 2
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8.4
COLD, DRY AND WINDY
Antarctica is a land of extremes. It is not onlythe most isolated continent and the last to bediscovered, but also the coldest, windiest anddriest place on Earth. The main reason for theseclimatic extremes is Antarctica’s location at thevery bottom of the world.
On 29 July 1983, Russian scientists at VostokBase, high on Antarctica’s polar plateau, recordeda temperature of −89.6° Celsius, a world record.During the coldest months (July to August), theaverage temperature at the South Pole is −60°
Celsius. During the warmest months (December toJanuary), it rises to a balmy −28° Celsius. Atthese temperatures your breath freezes and youcan see your sneezes fall to the ground as ice!
Why is Antarctica so cold?
There are three main answersto this question:1. Antarctica’s position on the
globe means that the sun’srays have to heat much moreof the Earth’s surface than atother places on the globe. Ant-arctica’s position on the globealso means that for severalmonths of the year (duringthe southern hemisphere’ssummer) the sun never sets,
HOW COLD IS COLD?
resulting in twenty-four hours of sunlight. Atthe other end of the scale (during the southernhemisphere’s winter) Antarctica experiences anendless night, where the sun never rises.
2. Most of the sun’s heat that reaches Antarcticais reflected back into space by the white icethat covers the continent. This also explainswhy you must always wear sunglasses orgoggles in Antarctica.
3. Antarctica is surrounded by the cold waters ofthe Southern Ocean and this stops warmerwater reaching its shores.
Most places in Antarctica receive no rain orsnow at all. This is because the very cold aircontains hardly any of the water vapour needed
to create rain or snow. Somevalleys have had no rain fortwo million years. Snowfallsare only slightly higher thanrainfall in the Sahara Desert.This means that Antarctica isthe world’s biggest desert. Alldrinking water in Antarcticacomes from melting the ice.Firefighting becomes very diffi-cult indeed and this is whysmoking is banned in mostAntarctic bases.
HOW DRY IS DRY?
Blizzard conditions in Antarctica
But down here each
ray has to heat twice asmuch of the Earth's surface.
Here at the Equator theSun’s ray has to heat onlya small piece of the Earth.a small piece of the Earth.a small piece of the Earth.
CHAPTER 8: ANTARCTICA
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Australia’s greatest polar explorer, DouglasMawson, called Antarctica the home of the bliz-zard. He should know. He lived in a wooden hutin the strongest winds ever recorded for two com-plete Antarctic winters. Mawson’s measurementsrevealed an average wind speed of over 70 kilo-metres per hour and gusts of over 300 kilometresper hour! His men always carried an ice axe withthem to avoid being blown into the sea. One ofthem, Eric Webb, reported in his diary of having‘lain down flat on the sastrugi field, hanging onwith fur mitts and fur boots as close as possibleto mother Earth and being blown downwind’.
Why is Antarctica so windy?
As the air over the polar plateau becomes colder,it becomes denser. Finally, gravity pulls it downoff the plateau towards the Antarctic coast. Thiscreates very strong winds, called katabaticwinds. These can blow continually for weeks onend and carry small pellets of ice. They make lifemiserable for any human visitor. When thesewinds are combined with the severe cold, theycan be fatal. At −20° Celsius, exposed humanflesh begins to freeze when the wind reaches only14 kilometres per hour.
The winds also change the shape of the ice overwhich they blow, carving it into weird shapescalled sastrugi. These shapes range in height from150 millimetres to two metres. Travelling acrosssastrugi is extremely difficult because it breakssledges — and spirits.
HOW WINDY IS WINDY?
Interpreting a climatic graph
Climatic graphs or climographs are a combination of a bar graph and a line graph, and are used to show the climate of a place over a 12-month period. The line graph section always showsaverage monthly temperature and the bar graph represents average monthly rainfall. Be careful to read from the correct scale when observing climatic graphs.
Observe the climatic graph for Mawson Station.1. What is the average
temperature of the warmest month?
2. What is the average temperature of the coldest month?
3. What is the average annual rainfall? Give reasons for your answer.
4. Do you want to know what the weather conditions are right now at the South Pole? Visit the website for this book and click on the Antarctic Weather weblink for this chapter (see ‘Weblinks’, page xii).
SKILLS essentials
–20
–10
0
20
–40
–30
30
30
40
0
100
200
400
300
Mawson Station
DNOSAJJMAMFJ
mm°C
Average monthly temperatureand rainfall
Climatic graph for Mawson Station, Antarctica, 67˚S, 62˚E
Sastrugi tend to lie in the direction of the prevailing wind. They certainly remove any idea that Antarctic ice is flat and easy to travel across.
Understand
1. What is the coldest temperature recorded in Antarctica and where did this occur?
2. Find out what the temperature is inside your freezer. How much colder is the coldest temperature recorded in Antarctica compared to that of your freezer?
3. Why is Antarctica described as a desert when 98 per cent of it is covered in ice?
4. Why is smoking banned in most Antarcticbases?
Think
5. Explain why Antarctica is: (a) so cold, (b) so dry and (c) so windy.
6. Compare the Antarctic climate with your local climate.
Communicate
7. Write a series of diary entries that illustrate what it would be like to experience a twenty-four-hour night or day. You may wish to use word-processing software to create your diary.
8. With the aid of a diagram, explain why at certain times of the year the sun never rises and at others never sets in Antarctica. (Hint: Think about the tilt of the Earth.)
ICT
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HUMANITIES 2
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8.5
LIVING IN A FREEZER
While Antarctica is the world’s largest desert,mainly empty of life, the waters that surround itsupport one of the biggest collections of life on theplanet. This is because the very cold waters holdgases such as oxygen much better than warmerwaters further north. Also, the windy conditionskeep minerals suspended in the water where tinyplants, including phytoplankton, can use them.These plants are eaten by tiny animals. These tinyanimals are eaten by bigger animals, which inturn are eaten by bigger animals. The world’s big-gest animals, the great whales, feed and flourishin these waters. This system, formed by the inter-actions of the living organisms (plants andanimals) and physical elements of environments,is called an ecosystem.
To survive in Antarctic waters, animals andbirds must be fully protected against the freezingconditions. A human falling into these waterswould be dead in minutes. Yet other mammalssurvive their entire lives here. Antarctic animalssurvive by:
• having a special layer of fur or feathers to keepthem dry
• having a layer of thick fat to keep them warm
• having special chemicals in their blood to stoptheir blood freezing
• leaving Antarctica (migrating) when itbecomes too cold. In fact, only one creaturestays on the continent all winter — theamazing emperor penguin (and a few humans,too).
The most numerous of the penguins, the chinstrap penguin nests on the first rocks to become ice-free each spring.
Like all penguins,Adelie penguins aredesigned for life inthe sea. Their waterproof feathers, insulating layer of fat, heavy bones andflipper-like wings allow them to hunt for krill.
The leopard seal eats penguins, other seals, fish and squid. It uses both sonar (sound) and radar (movement) to find food. Its whiskers detect movement, allowing it to find prey in complete darkness.
The crab-eater seal accounts for over half of all of the world’s seals. It actually eats very few crabs, preferring krill.
Poorly adapted to Antarctica, with no blubber and very little fur, humans rely on food and shelter brought in from other places in the world. Largely migratory, most flee north for the winter.
Ruthless scavengers, skua prey heavily on the eggs and chicks of penguins and other birds.
Sperm whales are toothed whales that feed on squid, fish and octopuses. They are the world’s deepest-diving mammal, reaching depths of two kilometres.
Virtually all Antarctica’s wildlifedepends onkrill directlyor indirectly. A singlekrill isabout six centimetreslong and looks a bit like a shrimp.It feeds on tiny plants suspended in the water.
CHAPTER 8: ANTARCTICA
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Understand
1. List two reasons why Antarctic waters have one of the largest collections of animals on the planet.
2. Explain how animals survive in the harsh conditions of the Antarctic.
Think
3. All animals in Antarctica are linked by what is called a food web. Each animal eats another, and in most cases is food for another. Copy an enlarged version of the following diagram and place these animals into the relevant empty boxes: killer whale, emperor penguin, sperm whale, crab-eater seal and snow petrel. Now add the skua (box and label) to your web.
4. One of the main reasons there are so many crab-eater seals is that humpback whales were hunted almost to extinction. Use your diagram to explain this.
5. Suggest what could happen if krill were to become extinct.
6. Choose one of the animals in the food web diagram above. Use other information in this spread to sketch it in your notebook. Add labels to show how this animal has adapted to life in Antarctica.
7. Visit the website for this book and click on the Australian Whaling History weblink for this chapter (see ‘Weblinks’, page xii).Describe how whales passing coastal Australia are now managed differently.
Worksheets
8.2 Survival in the Antarctic
Humpbackwhale
HumpbackHumpback
Leopard seal
Squidand fishSquidSquid Adelie
penguin
Krill
Killer whales are toothed whales that feed on
seals, penguins and even much larger whales. They hunt in packs called pods.
Penguins are the only birds that migrate byswimming. Magellanic penguins migrate as far north as Rio de Janeiroin Brazil and Tetas Point near Antofagasta in northern Chile.
The emperor penguinis the only bird that breeds in Antarctica during thewinter. The male incubatesthe egg by resting it onhis feet, huddlingtogether with other males for nine weeks. When the female returns from the sea, the male travelsover 100 kilometresto the ocean to feedon squid and fish.
With a huge wingspanof 3.5 metres, wandering
albatrosses have been known to travel 15 000 kilometresin a single flightin search offood.
Like most of Antarctica’sflying birds, the southerngiant petrel scavenges for food at sea, ripping apart seal and whale carcasses as well as feeding on krill.
Snow petrels breed up to180 kilometres away from thesea (their feeding ground) on mountain peaks that poke through the icesheet. Their preferred food is krill.
Arctic terns migrate between the polar regions each year, making a journey of 20 000 kilometres each summer — the longest journey made by any bird.
Humpback whales have plates of baleen (rather than teeth), which act like a food sieve. They feed on fish and swim circles
around schools of krill to
produce a ‘bubble net’. When
the krill are forced into a small area, the
whales lungein with mouths open.
The only Antarctic dolphin, the hourglass dolphin lives in schools of up to 40 animals.
HUMANITIES 2
172
8.6
EXPLORING ANTARCTICA
Antarctica has always been a hazardous place tovisit. The history of the discovery and explor-ation of Antarctica is filled with tales of courage,fame and success, and also with tales of star-vation, struggle and death. It is not only theextreme cold and short summer that make anyvisit to Antarctica such a trial. It is also the sur-rounding seas, the strong winds, blinding sun,lack of water and food, the vast distances, diffi-
culty of navigation and other lessobvious factors such as loneliness,
isolation and fear. However, thephysical and mental challengeinvolved in exploring Antarcticahas drawn adventurers for hun-dreds of years.
Captain Cook crossed theAntarctic Circle in 1773 andpredicted that there was land
near the South Pole. However, it
was not until 1820 that the first sightings of theAntarctic continent were made.
In 1907, the British explorer Ernest Shack-leton visited Antarctica. With him were severalAustralians, including a young geologist namedDouglas Mawson. Mawson led a small party thatbecame the first to climb Mount Erebus, and toreach the South Magnetic Pole. He returned in1911 as the head of the first Australasian Ant-arctic Expedition, which mapped over 3000 kilo-metres of the coastline for the first time.
This image of Sir Douglas Mawson was chosen as part of the design of the Australian $100 note.
From 1910–12, the attentionof the world was focused ontwo men: Roald Amundsenfrom Norway and England’sRobert Scott and their raceto reach the South Pole. Thesaga of Scott’s epic journeyhas become the stuff oflegend while Amundsen isless well known. This iscurious as Scott’s journeywas marked by poor judge-ment, failure, suffering anddeath. Amundsen, however,through patience and plan-ning, reached the pole first,without suffering a singlecasualty.
‘THE RACE TO THE POLE’
Roald Amundsen
Explorers’ routes
P AC
I FI C
OC
EA
N
177
3 C
ook
1915
Sh
ac
kle
t o n
19
11
Sc
ott
1909 Mawson, Edgeworth David and Mackay
1912 Mawson, Ninnis and Mertz
191
1
Am
un
dse
n
1909 South Magnetic Pole
South Pole
Dra
kePa
ssag
e
Fimbull Ice Shelf
Amery Ice Shelf
WestIce Shelf
ShackletonIce Shelf
Moscow UniversityIce Shelf
Voyeykov Ice Shelf
Ross IceShelf
Getz Ice Shelf
Venable Ice Shelf
Larsen Ice Shelf
RonneIce Shelf
SCOTIA SEA
WEDDELL SEA
HAAKON VII SEA
DAVISSEA
ROSS SEA
AMUNDSEN SEA
BELLINGSHAUSEN SEA
IND
IAN
OC E AN
S O U T H E R N O C EAN
S O U T H E R N O C E A N
BerknerIsland
South OrkneyIslands
Rothschild Island
Smyley IslandCharcot Island
AdelaideIsland
AnversIsland
Thurston Island
Wright Island
Siple Island
Ross Island
Roosevelt Island
Carney Island
Farwell Island
Alexander Island
0 500 1000 km
N
N
N
N
180°150°E
120°E
90°E
60°E
30°E 0° 30°W
60°W
90°W
120°W
150°W
60°S
60°S
80°S
80°S
CHAPTER 8: ANTARCTICA
173
Both Scott and Amundsen intended to establishbases during the summer of 1910–11, to then‘winter over’, and to attempt to reach the pole inthe summer of 1911–12. Amundsen put his faithin dogs to haul men and equipment. Scott broughtdogs, tractors and 19 Siberian ponies.
After months of darkness, both teams startedout for the pole in October 1911. The Norwegianparty made good time and reached the polesafely on 14 December. By 25 January they wereback at their coastal base and sailed for home.
In contrast, Scott’s journey was far from troublefree. Within 50 kilometres from the start, the trac-tors had broken down and the ponies, burdenedwith the extra load, gradually weakened and werekilled. Scott sent the dog teams back to the base,and the men began man-hauling their equipmentup the 3000-metre climb onto the Antarcticplateau. The final support group then returned tobase, but Scott decided to take an extra man tothe pole: five rather than the four originallyplanned. After 10 weeks of struggle and insuf-ficient food, the party’s spirits were dealt a mortalblow when they arrived at the South Pole only tofind a tent and a Norwegian flag: the date was 16January 1912. Scott wrote in his diary on the day‘Great God! This is an awful place.’
Scott reaches the South Pole.
The trip back to the coast was to prove evenworse. Frostbite, injury, snowblindness, exhaus-tion, scurvy and, ultimately, inadequate foodwere to take their toll. One man, Evans, died of abrain haemorrhage, and another, Oates, took hisown life so that the remaining three might sur-vive. It was not to be. Only 18 kilometres short ofa food depot that would have saved their lives,they were trapped by a blizzard and perished.
Understand
1. Use the map to answer the following:(a) How close did Cook come to Antarctica in
1773?(b) Where did the Mawson expedition travel to
in 1909? How far did they travel?(c) Identify the seas named after explorers.
Think
2. Why do you think Scott’s journey has become almost legendary while Amundsen is relatively unknown outside his own country?
3. List the various problems that Scott encountered. Beside each problem suggest how each might have been avoided. Which problem do you feel was the most costly in terms of the final result of the mission?
4. Look at the photograph of Scott and his team at the South Pole. Write a paragraph describing their general appearance and how they might be feeling.
Dig deeper
5. Sir Douglas Mawson is not only Australia’s but also one of the world’s greatest polar explorers. Find out why and present your findings on a page. Include at least one picture.
Shackleton returned to attempt the first
crossing of the Antarctic continent in 1914. His ship
the Endurance became stuck in pack-ice and was slowly crushed. But Shackleton and his men survived the winter and then
sailed a lifeboat 1300
kms to a whaling station on South
Georgia Island.
HUMANITIES 2
174
8.7
ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
1. Store2. Sleeping and
medical quarters3. Vehicle shelter4. Clean air laboratory
5. Satellite
communications
building6. Workshop7. Carpentry workshop
8. Power generator9. Fuel farms
10. Wharf11. Three helipads12. Hangar
13. Waste treatmentplant
14. Balloon building15. Operations hut
1514
13
12
11
9
10
5
43
2
1
6
7
8
9
Antarctica has no government, no currency, nopostage stamps and no permanent inhabitants. Forcenturies, the continent lay isolated and protectedfrom the outside world by its remote location.
In the middle of the twentieth century, severalcountries explored Antarctica. These includedAustralia, New Zealand, Norway, France, UnitedKingdom, Chile and Argentina. These countriesdeclared territorial claims to certain parts ofAntarctica. Other nations undertook scientificresearch or fished in the area. It was thought thatvaluable minerals such as coal and oil may liebeneath the frozen land surface. People also beganto realise that this unique wilderness deserved tobe protected from exploitation.
In 1959, agreement was reached between twelvecountries to preserve Antarctica. This was calledthe Antarctic Treaty, which came into force23 June, 1961. The treaty covers the area south of60˚S latitude and remains in force indefinitely.Today, the treaty has 45 signatories, which rep-resent 80 per cent of the world’s population.
THE ANTARCTIC TREATY
The preservation and conservation of livingresources in Antarctica has been one of the mainaims of the treaty. The Antarctic Treaty:• prohibits military activity• protects the environment of Antarctica• fosters scientific research• recognises the need to protect Antarctica from
uncontrolled destruction and interference bypeople.
It is only recently that people have had animpact on Antarctica. Scientific researchers prob-ably have the most impact on Antarctica today.In summer, there are nearly 4000 scientists andsupport staff living in Antarctica.
Many countries maintain scientific bases inAntarctica. There are more than 50 scientific basesand each base occupies about two square kilo-metres. Scientists gather evidence of what theEarth’s climate, vegetation and animals were likemany thousands of years ago by drilling cores downinto the ice. Scientists also study the effects ofpresent-day human activities on the environmentincluding the ozone layer and global warming.
SCIENTIFIC BASES
Mawson Station is one of the three permanent bases that Australia operates in Antarctica. Most bases in Antarctica are located on the coast so that people and supplies can be brought in by boat and helicopter.
CHAPTER 8: ANTARCTICA
175
Bases are located in ice-free areas on the coast.These sites are the most suitable for people, build-ings and the storage of fuels. However, these arethe same sites where most of Antarctica’s wildlifenest and breed. The bases on these sites mayinterfere, directly, with the native flora and fauna.
Bases also produce waste, including sewage,chemicals and rubbish. There is the risk that fuelto power vehicles, heat buildings, cook food andgenerate electricity could spill or leak. This couldhave a major effect on Antarctica’s wildlife. In1989, an Argentine ship, carrying supplies andtourists to an Argentine base, sank three kilo-metres off the coast of Antarctica. Over onemillion litres of diesel spilled into the sea,affecting krill and seabird populations.
Scientists have discovered that there has been adrastic thinning of the ozone layer overAntarctica. The ozone layer shields living thingsfrom the sun’s ultraviolet rays. Since the 1980s,the hole in the ozone over Antarctica has at timescovered an area larger than Australia. Chlo-rofluorocarbon (CFC) gases are the majorcause of ozone depletion. They are mainly pro-duced by spray cans, air conditioners and foamplastics. An increase in ultraviolet light reachingthe oceans may kill krill, which would be disas-trous for Antarctica’s food web.
In 1987, a meeting of more than 100 nations inMontreal, Canada, agreed to cut back productionof CFCs. However, it will take a long time tosolve the problem, as CFCs already in the atmos-phere have a life of well over 100 years.
OZONE DEPLETION
Global warming is the warming of the atmosphere,which many scientists believe is caused by burningfossil fuels such as coal, oil and gas. This warmingcould have a disastrous effect on Antarctica and theworld: if Antarctica’s ice melts, sea levels aroundthe world will rise significantly. Scientists are alsoinvestigating the effects of warmer air and oceantemperatures on krill, penguins and other marinelife.
Understand
1. Name the seven countries that claim territory in Antarctica.
2. What does the Antarctic Treaty aim to do?
Think
3. Do you think individual countries should own territory in Antarctica? Give reasons.
4. Why do you think people are interested in preserving Antarctica?
5. Describe the ideal location for a scientific base in Antarctica.
6. Examine the photograph of Mawson Station.(a) One of the largest buildings is the store. Why
do you think this is the case and what items do you think are stored in the building?
(b) Would you like to work in this environment? Give three reasons.
(c) At what time of the year was this photograph taken? Give reasons.
7. What is causing ozone depletion over Antarctica? What is being done about it?
8. What serious consequences does the hole in the ozone layer have for you in Australia?
9. Create a table showing the arguments for and against scientific bases in Antarctica.
Use ICT
10. Work in groups to create a web page about the possible effects of global warming on Antarctica. To find out more, search the Internet or visit the website for this book and click on the Global Warming weblinks for this chapter (see ‘Weblinks’, page xii).
11. Create a PowerPoint or multimedia presentation about what it would be like to work as a scientist in Antarctica. For more information, search the Internet or visit the website for this book and click on the Antarctic Scientists weblink for this chapter (see ‘Weblinks’, page xii).
GLOBAL WARMING
October 1979 October 1997
AverageLow High
Ozone
hole
South
America
Australia
Antarctica
Africa
Ozone values in Dobson Units
Depletion of the ozone layer over the Antarctic, 1979–97
ICT
MADE EA
SY
www.jaconline.com.au/ict-meWeb pages
HUMANITIES 2
176
8.8
ANTARCTIC RESOURCES
Sealers and whalers were the first people torealise that the oceans surrounding Antarcticawere a rich and valuable resource. Fur seals andelephant seals were killed for their pelts andtheir blubber. The first Antarctic whaling stationbegan operating in 1904. Over time, severalspecies of seals and whales were hunted to nearextinction.
Whales were used to make many products.Whale blubber was melted down to produce oil toburn in lamps. Before electricity, huge quantitiesof whale oil were used to provide public and pri-vate lighting, including lighthouse lamps. Whaleoil was used to make lubricants, cooking oil, can-dles and soap. These uses have been replaced bypetroleum and vegetable oils. Baleen plates(elastic, bone-like plates in the mouths of tooth-less whales through which the whale strains itsfood) were used to make corsets and hoops forwomen’s skirts. Whale meat was eaten, and stillis in some countries including Japan.
Whaling is now allowed in Antarctica only for‘scientific purposes’. However, Japan and someother countries still kill hundreds of whales eachyear. They claim the whales are caught for scien-tific purposes but anti-whaling groups suspectthey end up in fish markets.
ANTARCTICA’S OCEAN RESOURCES
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
1945/4
6
1950/5
1
1955/5
6
1960/6
1
1965/6
6
1970/7
1
1975/7
6
1980/8
1
1985/8
6
1990/9
1
1995/9
6
1999/0
0
Year
Catc
h (
000s)
Minke
Blue
Sei
Catch numbers of selected whales in the Antarctic since 1945
Source: Derived from
International Fisheries Bulletin
Today, overfishing and krill harvesting have
emerged as major problems. Some fish species,
such as the Patagonian toothfish, have been
hunted almost to extinction. Around 400 000
tonnes of krill are being taken from Antarctica
each year to be used mainly for animal feed. This
could impact on Antarctic animals such as
whales, penguins and seals because krill is their
main food source.
Antarctica offers one of the last frontiers for tour-
ists. It is being seen, increasingly, as a destination
that is both different and challenging. It is the last
real wilderness area in the world. Antarctic
tourism started about 35 years ago. The number of
tourists visiting Antarctica is increasing each year.
Most tourists reach Antarctica by cruise ship
from Chile, Argentina and, in recent years, from
New Zealand and Australia. About 7500 tourists
visit Antarctica each year by ship. The most
frequent type of air
tourism is chartered
flights over Antarctica
for sight-seeing. There
are other flights from
Chile which land in the
South Shetland group of
islands and visitors stay
in an 80-bed hotel where
they can visit wildlife
sites on the island.
A sperm whale breaching
ANTARCTIC TOURISM
Tourists to Antarctica
YearTourist
numbers
1998–99
1999–2000
2000–2001
2001–2002
2002–2003
2003–2004
2004–2005
10 014
14 762
12 248
11 588
13 571
19 886
22 712
CHAPTER 8: ANTARCTICA
177
Antarctica has extensive mineral resources.Coal, iron ore and oil have been discovered insignificant quantities. Of these, oil is by far themost sought-after resource. Extracting Antarc-tica’s mineral or energy resources would be verydifficult, due to the depth of the ice cover and theextreme coldness of the region. The risk ofenvironmental damage would also be very high.
The Antarctic Treaty, signed in 1959, did notcontrol mining activities. In 1982, the treatynations started developing a Convention on theRegulation of Antarctic Mineral Resource Activi-ties (CRAMRA). Discussions centred around whoowned the mineral resources and how environ-mental damage from mining could be contained.The environmental group Greenpeace supportedthe view that mining in Antarctica should bebanned altogether.
In 1988, it was agreed that any moneyearned from mining in Antarctica would beshared among the treaty members and used tofund research. Australia and France refused toagree to the convention findings, and represen-tatives of both countries lobbied the othertreaty partners to accept no mining in Antarc-tica. In 1991, the Protocol to the AntarcticTreaty on Environmental Protection was signedin Madrid. The Madrid Protocol prohibits allmining activities for 50 years, other than forscientific research.
The number of tourists visiting Antarctica has been rapidly increasing in recent years.
ANTARCTICA’S MINERAL AND ENERGY RESOURCES
Potential sources of mineral and energy resources, Antarctica © Geography Teachers Association
Understand
1. Name three ocean resources exploited in Antarctica.
2. How were whales used in the past?3. Find out why krill are so vital. Visit the website for
this book and click on the Krill weblink for this chapter (see ‘Weblinks’, page xii).
Think
4. Study the graph of whale catches. The easiest species to catch were hunted first until their numbers declined, then the next species was targeted. The International Whaling Commission called for a moratorium (temporary stop) on commercial whaling in 1986 and established The Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary in 1994.(a) How many blue whales were taken in 1950–51?(b) What then happened to blue whale catches?
5. If tourism developed unchecked in Antarctica, how might it change the region’s characteristics?
6. Draw a line graph using the data in the table of tourist numbers. Extend your graph out to 2010 in line with the trend. How many tourists do you think there will be in 2010?
7. Look at the map of Antarctica’s resources.(a) Why do you think most known deposits are
close to the coast?(b) Can the minerals be mined? Explain.
Worksheets8.3 How do you feel?
Antarctic Circle
TR
AN
SA
NTA
RC
TIC
MTS
Ag Au Mn MoCu
Cu
CuCu
Cu
CrNi
Co
Au AgFe
FeFe
Fe
Cr Ni
Co Pt
U
Fe
Mo
Fe Mo
Mn
Mo
MoSn
FePbZn
0 500 1000 km
80°S
80°S
60°S
60°W
80°W
140°W
160°W180°140°E 160°E
120°E
100°E
80°E
20°E 0° 20°W
40°E
60°E
60°S
40°W
Minerals
Energy resources
Potential offshore oil/gas areas
Coal-bearing areas
CrCoCuAuFePbMnMoNiPtAgSnUZn
ChromiumCobaltCopperGoldIronLeadManganeseMolybdenumNickelPlatinumSilverTinUraniumZinc
Ronne
Ross Ice Shelf
WEDDELL SEA
AMUNDSEN SEA
ROSS SEA
Ice Shelf
N
N
N
N
HUMANITIES 2
178
8.9ANTARCTIC PATTERNS:
OVERLAY MAPS
SKILLS essentials
Drawing an overlay map
An overlay map is a useful technique for comparing two different features on a map. It is really two maps in one — a base map drawn on paper and an overlay map drawn on tracing paper.1. Use the map opposite and a blank map of Antarctica
to construct a base map of Antarctica. For the blank map, visit the website for this book and click on the Antarctic Map weblink for this chapter (see ‘Weblinks’, page xii). Refer to the tips in the box below. On your base map, locate and label territorial claims and scientific stations (e.g. Davis).
2. On a sheet of tracing paper, construct your overlay map, referring to the tips below. On your overlay map, locate and shade in areas of mineral deposits. (Refer to the map on page 177.)
3. Stick your maps together and complete BOLTSS: border, orientation, legend (or key), title, scale, source.
4. Use the information on your completed overlay map to answer the following questions:(a) Which country claims the largest ‘slice’ of Ant-
arctica as its territory?
(b) What advantage does this country have over many others when administering its territory?
(c) Compare the claims of Argentina, Chile and the United Kingdom, both in size and location.
(d) Describe the location of most of the known mineral and energy resources.
(e) Which countries operate more than one scientific base in Antarctica? Identify the country with the most bases.
(f) What do you notice about the number of scientific stations in those areas with known mineral resources?
5. Using the map of Antarctica opposite, shade in the maximum extent of the sea ice on your overlay map. Add this to your legend.
6. Which countries have scientific bases near or on iceshelves?
7. Using the map of Antarctica opposite, list all the iceshelves. Put the three largest iceshelves at the top of your list. Use the scale on the map to estimate the area of these large iceshelves (see page 166 for how to estimate the area of features on a map).
WEDDELL SEA
AMUNDSEN SEA
ROSS SEA
TR
AN
SA
NTA
RC
TIC
0 500 1000 km
Base map key
Bases
Claims
MTS
��
ㄴみ�
ㄲみ�
��Mineral depositsMineral deposits
Overlay map keyOverlay map key
Mineral deposits
N
N
NN
Base mapmust have a title.
Base map
Overlay sheet (tracing paper)
There is no need to trace theoutline of the map onto the overlay
as it can be seen through theoverlay.
Use light colours on theoverlay map.
Place the overlay map key at theopposite corner to the base map
key.
Sticky tape as hinge
Overlay map must have a title.
Only the base map needs to have north arrow/s, scale and border.
Use dark colours on the base map.
Territorial claims and scientific bases
CHAPTER 8: ANTARCTICA
179
Antarctic Circle
ADELAIDE
MELBOURNE
Durban
Hobart
Port Elizabeth
Dunedin
McMurdo (U.S.A.)
Casey (Aust.)
Vostok (Russia)
Davis (Aust.)
Mirny (Russia)
Mawson (Aust.)
Molodezhnaya (Russia)Syowa (Japan)
Sanae (Sth Africa)
Halley (U.K.)
Belgrano II (Arg.)
Orcadas (Arg.)
Palmer (U.S.A.)
Scott Base (N.Z.)
Esperanza (Arg.)
Marambio (Arg.)Capitan Arturo Prat (Chile)
Novolazarevskaya (Russia)
Amundsen-Scott (U.S.A.)
Dumont d’Urville (Fr.)
Rothera (U.K.)San Martin (Arg.)
General Bernardo O’Higgins (Chile)
South Pole
South Magnetic Pole
Davis (Aust.)
Vernadsky (Ukraine)
Terra Nova (Italy)
Progress (Russia)
Zhong Shan (China)
Maitri (India) Neumayer (Germany)Stanley
Porpoise Bay
Voyeykov Ice ShelfMoscow University
Ice Shelf
Vincennes Bay
Shackleton Ice Shelf
WestIce Shelf
Amery Ice Shelf
Drake
Pass
age
Larsen Ice Shelf
RonneIce Shelf
Pine Island Bay
Venable Ice Shelf
Ross Ice Shelf
Getz Ice Shelf
I N D I A N
O C E A N
P A C I F I C
O C E A N
A T L A N T I CO C E A N
Commonwealth Bay
Lambert Glacier
DAVISSEA
HAAKON VII SEA
WEDDELL SEA
SCOTIA SEA
BELLINGSHAUSEN SEA
AMUNDSEN SEA
ROSS SEA
Mt Sandow 1445 m
Mt Menzies
3355 m
Mt Bentley 4247 mVinson Massif 5140 m
Mt Seelig 3022 m
Mt Erebus 3795 m
Mt Markham 4282 m
Mt Kirkpatrick 4528 m
Mt McClintock 3492 m
Mt Minto 4163 m
TR
AN
SA
NTA
RC
TIC
MTS
Cape Adare
South East Cape
Cape Goodenough
Cape Mose
Cape Poinsett
Cape of Good Hope
Cape Darnley
Cape Ann
Cape Norvegia
Cape Colbeck
Cape Washington
Cape HornCape Boothby
Cape Flying Fish
SOUTH AFRICA
NEW ZEALANDAUSTRALIA
Berkner
Island
South Sandwich Islands
Tasmania
Macquarie Island
Campbell Island
Auckland Islands
Stewart Island
South Island
Bounty Islands
Antipodes Islands
Mill Island
Masson Island
Bouvet Island
Tristan da Cunha
Gough Island
Heard Island
Gillock Island
White Island
South OrkneyIslands
Falkland
Islands
Rothschild Island
Smyley IslandCharcot Island
Adelaide Island
Anvers Island
Thurston Island
Wright Island
Siple Island
Ross Island
Roosevelt Island
Coulman Island
Carney Island
Farwell Island
South Georgia
Kerguelen Islands
Prince Edward Islands
Crozet Islands
Alexander Island
Country border
Country nameC H I L E United KingdomArgentina
Australia
Chile
France
New Zealand
NorwayPermanent ice shelf
0 500 1000 1500 2000 km
Maximum extent of sea ice
Minimum extent of sea iceYear-round scientific station
(operating country)
20°E 0°
40°S
60°S
20°W
80°S
80°S
60°S
40°S
40°W
60°W
80°W
100°W
120°W
140°W160°W180°160°E140°E
120°E
100°E
80°E
60°E
40°E
Countries with territorial claims
ARGENTINA
CHILE
S OU T H E R N O C E A N
S OU T H E R N O C E A N
N
NN
N
Territorial claims and scientific bases in Antarctica
HUMANITIES 2
180
Check & Challenge
Mawson Station
CHARACTERISTICS OF A
SIGNIFICANT REGION
1. Antarctica is different from other continents because:
(a) it receives the most rain
(b) it has no vegetation
(c) nearly all the land is permanently covered in ice
(d) it is completely surrounded by ocean.
2. Only two continents lie completely in the Southern Hemisphere. They are Antarctica and:
(a) South America
(b) New Zealand
(c) Africa
(d) Australia.
3. Much of the Antarctic landmass is below the level of the sea due to:
(a) deep water
(b) the weight of the icesheet
(c) volcanic activity
(d) weathering.
4. Why does the South Pole receive no sunshine for 182 days each year?
5. What is a glacier?
6. What is special about the Lambert Glacier in Antarctica?
7. Study the 3D terrain model of Antarcticaat the bottom of the page and the photo at bottom left. Answer the following questions:(a) Where does the Lambert Glacier end?(b) What happens to glaciers when they reach
the sea?(c) What mountain range divides Greater and
Lesser Antarctica?(d) What is the name of the highest peak on
Antarctica?
PLANNING FOR THE
FUTURE
1. Use ‘ozone hole’ and ‘global warming’ as key search words on the Internet. Give an example of one management plan suggested to deal with either of these threats.
2. Prepare a visual display on A3 poster paper to show how change has affected an endangered whale species. On your poster make sure you include the following:• a brief description of the whale• where it can be found• how and why its population has changed• the actions taken to protect the species• your own drawing of the whale.
Ronne Ice Shelf
ROSS SEA
WEDDELL SEA
South Pole
Lambert Glacier
T RA N S A N T A R C T I C M O U N T A I N S
G r e a t e r
A n t a r c t i c a
L e s s e r
A n t a r c t i c a
Amery Ice Shelf
Antarctic
Peninsula
ROSS SEA
WEDDELL SEA
Lambert Glacier
Vinson Massif 5140 m
Ross Ice
Shelf
Amery Ice Shelf
Mertz Glacier
Tabular icebergs split off glaciers as they flow into the sea. These icebergs have broken off the Mertz Glacier in Adelie Land and will be carried by currents northward and westward until they meet warmer water and melt.
CHAPTER 8: ANTARCTICA
181
HUMAN AND PHYSICAL
INTERACTIONS
1. The right-hand photograph on the opposite page shows Mawson Station. A large photograph can be found on page 174.
(a) Describe the problems associated with living and working in this environment. To find out more about life at Mawson Station, visit the website for this book and click on the Mawson Station weblink for this chapter (see ‘Weblinks’, page xii).
(b) What impacts do you think this human settlement might have (or potentially have) on the environment?
2. Read the article below and answer the following questions.
(a) Describe the scene in the photograph below. Include an outline of the emotions you think the Greenpeace activists would be experiencing and how the people on the Japanese ship would feel about what is happening.
(b) In pairs, list the threats to Antarctica’s natural environment mentioned in the article. Decide on a possible solution for each threat.
(c) Which threat do you think is the most serious? Give three reasons.
(d) Choose one threat and design a bumper sticker or fridge magnet to make people aware of it. Your sticker or magnet should contain no more than 30 words and include a picture.
Greenpeace activists protesting against Japanese whaling acticity in Antarctic waters
being prosecuted. These captains are modern-day pirates.Some have been known to catch 12 times the legal fishinglimit. In addition, thousands of sea birds, such as the wan-dering albatross, become entangled in fishing lines each yearand drown.
Leaving the Greenpeace activists behind, I join a cruise shipalong the Antarctic Peninsula. Landing on a rocky beach, I wasstartled by the shuddering sound of a helicopter bringing pas-sengers from another cruise ship. Many penguins also ran forcover. In such a vast wilderness I was amazed to see so manytourists visiting this one beach. The many empty penguinnesting sites made it obvious that tourists and wildlife do notalways go together.
Back on board we were shown a film about globalwarming. Scientists in Antarctica have found that tempera-tures in the ocean to the west of the Antarctic Peninsula haverisen by more than a degree since the 1960s. Air tempera-tures have also risen. These climate changes could havesevere impacts on wildlife such as penguins, whales, sealsand krill.
A great roar made us run outonto the deck. Huge pieces of icewere breaking off the end of a gla-cier into the sea.
Returning to my bunk-room atMawson Station, I began to wonderabout Antarctica’s future. Alongwith the problems I have seentoday — and others such asmining, a depleted ozone layer, oilspills and waste from scientificstations — the fragile beauty ofthis amazing place is under threat.Perhaps Peter Scott, son of thefamous Antarctic explorer RobertScott, summed up my feelingsbest: ‘I believe we should have thewisdom to know when to leave aplace alone.’
Threats aboundThe inflatable boat pitched wildly in the swell as we drewalongside the Japanese whaling boat. A freshly harpoonedminke whale was tied to the side of the boat. My twoGreenpeace companions were determined to try to stopwhaling in Antarctic waters. Despite being sprayed with high-pressure hoses, they tied themselves to the carcass until a Japa-nese sailor cut them loose.
These people put themselves in such danger to highlight tothe world the whaling and overfishing that occurs in Antarcticwaters. Japanese whaling boats kill around 400 Antarcticwhales each year. The Japanese claim they catch them for‘scientific purposes’, but Greenpeace maintains that they endup in Japanese fish markets.
Other fishing fleets have hunted some fish species such asthe Patagonian toothfish almost to extinction. In order to avoidthe international rules regarding fishing, some ships’ captainspay to register their ships in foreign countries in return for not
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