Appealing to Your ReadersChapter. 8 From Ethos to Logos

Ethos- appeals from character.

Pathos- appeals to emotion.

Logos- appeals to reason.

The rhetorical triangle (figure 8.1/p. 200) visually represents the relationship among the three appeals.

-Pathos (Which of their emotions do we appeal to?)

-Ethos (How can we come across as fair, credible, and just?)

-Logos (How can we arrange our words to make our case?)

Three Kinds of Appeals to Your Readers

Three strategies for evoking a sense of ethos:

(1) Establish that you have good judgment.

(2) Convey to readers that you are knowledgeable,

(3) Show that you understand the complexity of the issue.

(1) Appealing to Ethos

Identify an issue your readers will agree is worth addressing, and demonstrate that you are fair-minded and have the best interests of your readers in mind when you address it.

(Ex. Loewen paragraph 1/p. 201)

Establish That You Have Good Judgment

Support your claims with credible evidence that shows you have read widely on, thought about, and understand the issue.

(Ex Loewen paragraph 7/p. 203)

Convey to Readers That You Are Knowledgeable

Demonstrate that you understand the variety of viewpoints your readers may bring – or may not be able to bring – to the issue.

(Ex Loewen paragraphs 5 & 11)

Show That You Understand The Complexity of The Issue

Appeals are indirect.

Three steps to appealing pathos:

(1) Show that you know what your readers value.

(2) Use illustrations and examples that appeal to reader’s emotions.

(3) Consider how your tone may affect your audience.

(2) Appealing To Pathos

Start from your own values and imagine what assumptions and principles would appeal to your readers. What common ground can you imagine between your values and theirs? How will it need to be adjusted for different kinds of readers?

(Ex Loewen paragraph 7/p. 203)

Show That You Know What Your Readers Value

Start from your own emotional position. What examples and illustrations resonate most with you? How can you present them to have the most emotional impact on your readers? How would you adjust them for different kinds of readers?

(Ex Loewen paragraphs 6-9/p. 203-204)

Use Illustrations and Examples That Appeal to Readers’ Emotions

Be wary of using loaded, exaggerated, and intemperate language that may put off your readers; and be careful in your use of irony and sarcasm.

Tone- your use of language that communicates your attitude toward yourself, your material, and your readers.

Irony- the use of language to say one thing while meaning quite another.

Sarcasm- the use of heavy-handed irony to ridicule or attack someone or something.

Consider How Your Tone May Affect Your Audience

Terms to be familiar with:

Premise- an assumption that you expect your readers to agree with, a statement that is either true or false. “Alaska is cold in the winter.”

Deductive argument- an argument in which the premises support (or appear to support) the conclusion.

Syllogism- when you join two premises to produce a conclusion that is taken to be true. (Ex/p. 214)

Inductive argument- relies on evidence and observation to reach a conclusion. (Ex/p. 215)

(3) Appealing To Logos: Using Reason And Evidence To Fit The Situation

Three steps:

(1) State the premises of your argument.

(2) Use credible evidence.

(3) Demonstrate that the conclusion follows from the premises.

The Process of Constructing An Inductive Argument

Establish what you have found to be true and what you want readers to accept as well.

(Ex Loewen paragraph 6/p. 203)

(1) State The Premises Of Your Argument

Lead your readers from one premise to the next, making sure your evidence is sufficient and convincing and your inferences are logical and correct.

(Ex paragraphs Loewen 3-5 & 7-9)

(2) Use Credible Evidence

In particular, use the right words to signal to your readers how the evidence and inferences lead to your conclusion.

(Ex: consequently, finally, as a result, etc)

(3) Demonstrate That The Conclusion Follows From The Premises

Flaws in the chain of reasoning that lead to a conclusion that does not necessarily follow from the premises.

The following 15 flaws in logic should be watched out for:

(1) Erroneous appeal to authority.

(2) Ad Hominem.

(3) Shifting the issue.

(4) Either/or fallacy.

(5) Sweeping generalizations.

Recognizing Logical Fallacies

(6) Bandwagon.

(7) Begging the question.

(8) False analogy.

(9) Technical jargon.

(10) Confusing cause & effect.

(11) Appeal to fear.

(12) Fallacy of division.

(13) Hasty generalization.

(14) The straw man argument.

(15) Fallacy of the middle ground.

15 Flaws (Continued)

(1) Erroneous appeal to authority- the claim might be true, but the fact that an unqualified person is making the claim means there is no reason for readers to accept the claim is true.

(2) Ad Hominem- focuses on the person making a claim instead of on the claim itself. Does not have a bearing on truth or the quality of a claim.

(3) Shifting the issue- when an author draws attention away from the issue instead of offering evidence that will enable people to draw their own conclusions about the soundness of an argument. (ex p.219)

Fallacies (1-15)

(4) Either/or fallacy- when an author takes two extreme positions to force readers to make a choice between two seemingly contradictory positions. One position should not exclude another.

(5) Sweeping generalizations- when an author attempts to draw a conclusion without providing sufficient evidence to support the conclusion or examining possible counterarguments. (Ex p. 220)

(6) Bandwagon- when an author urges readers to accept an idea because a significant amount of people support it. (Ex p. 220)

Fallacies (Continued)

(7) Begging the question- advancing a circular argument that asks readers to accept a premise that is also the conclusion readers are expected to draw. (Ex p. 220)

(8) False analogy- authors often try to persuade us that something is true by using a comparison. (Ex p. 221)

(9) Technical jargon- trying to persuade somebody to buy or accept something through fancy words related to the product. (Ex p. 221)

(10) Confusing cause & effect- when authors assume cause & effect when two factors are simply associated with each other. (Ex p. 221)

Fallacies (Continued)

(11) Appeal to fear- makes an appeal to readers’ irrational fears and prejudices, preventing them from dealing squarely with a given issue and often confusing cause & effect. (Ex p. 221)

(12) Fallacy of division- suggests that what is true of the whole must also be true of its parts. (Ex p. 222)

(13) Hasty generalization- when a person draws a conclusion about a group based on a sample that is too small to be representative. (Ex p. 222)

(14) The straw man argument- makes a generalization about what a group believes without actually citing a specific writer or work. (Ex p. 222)

Fallacies (Continued)

(15) Fallacy of the middle ground- assumes that the middle ground between two extreme positions must be correct. (Ex p. 222)

Fallacies (Continued)

Figure 8.2 and questions 1-3.

Things to consider about advertisements:

(1) Notice where the ad appears- What is the target audience? To what extent does the placement of the ad in a magazine or newspaper or on a billboard determine the potential viewers of the ad?

(2) Identify what draws your attention- Where does your eye go? To an image, some text, some old juxtaposition?

Analyzing Visual Rhetoric: Advertisements

(3) Reflect on what draws your attention- Is there something startling or shocking about the image or text, about the situation depicted? Something puzzling that holds you attention? Something about the use of color, the size of the image or text, or the font that catches your eye.

(4) Consider the ethos of the ad- evaluate the legitimacy, or ethos, of the ad’s sponsor. What do you know about the corporation or institution sponsoring the ad? To what extent do you share its values?

(5) Analyze the pathos in the ad- How do the images and text appeal to your emotions? What does the image or text make you feel or think about?

Advertisements (Continued)

(6) Understand the logos of the ad- What is the logic of the ad? Taken together; what do the cluster of images and text convey? How are the different images and text related to the claim that the ad is making?

Advertisements (Continued)

The End

Working with Peer GroupsChapter. 10 From Revising to Editing

Revising- making changes to a paper to reflect new thinking or conceptualizing.

Editing- minor changes to what will be the final draft of a paper- replacing a word here and there, correcting misspellings, or substituting dashes for commas to create emphasis.

Revising Versus Editing

(1) The writer distributes copies of the draft to each member of the writing group (group shouldn’t exceed four people).

(2) The writer distributes a cover letter, setting an agenda for each member of the group.

(3) The members read the cover letter.

(4) The writer then reads the draft aloud, while members follow along, underlining passages and making notes to prepare themselves to discuss the draft.

(5) Members ask questions that help the writer identify concepts that need further elaboration or clarification.

Steps in the Peer Editing Process

(6) Discussion focuses on the strengths and weaknesses of the draft appropriate to the stage of writing and the writer’s concerns.

Steps in Peer Editing (Continued)

(1) Understand the writer’s responsibilities.

(2) Understand the reader’s responsibilities.

(3) Analyze an early draft.

Working With Early Drafts

Focus on top concerns such as situation, issue, thesis, and audience.

See figure 10.2 p. 279

(1) Understand The Writer’s Responsibilities

Tasked with taking notes directly on the draft copy, circling or underlining sections you find confusing or have questions about.

See figure 10.3 p. 280.

(2) Understand The Reader’s Responsibilities

Taylor draft p. 282 1-5.

(3) Analyze an Early Draft

(1) Understanding the writer’s responsibilities.

(2) Understanding the reader’s responsibilities.

(3) Analyze a later draft.

Working With Later Drafts

Should be able to state your thesis more definitely than you did in the earlier draft supported with clear evidence and counterarguments.

See figure 10.4 p. 283.

(1) Understanding The Writer’s Responsibilities

Focus on midlevel concerns such as places in the writer’s text that are confusing, that require better transitions, or that could use more sources more effectively.

See figure 10.5 p. 284.

(2) Understanding The Reader’s Responsibilities

Revisiting Taylor’s draft.

Read p. 285-287.

Then questions 1-5 p. 288.

(3) Analyze a Later Draft

(1) Understand the writer’s responsibilities.

(2) Understand the reader’s responsibilities.

(3) Analyze a near final draft.

Working With Final Drafts

Focus is on editing not revising. Errors in style and grammar in the text.

See figure 10.6 p. 288.

(1) Understand The Writer’s Responsibilities

Details become important. Focus on errors in style and grammar.

Figure 10.7 p. 289.

(2) Understand the Reader’s Responsibilities

Revisit Taylor’s draft.

Read p. 289-293.

Questions p. 293-294, 1-5.

(3) Analyze a Near-Final Draft

End of Presentation