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Chapter 7Packet-Switching
NetworksNetwork Services and Internal Network
OperationPacket Network Topology
Datagrams and Virtual CircuitsRouting in Packet Networks
Shortest Path RoutingATM Networks
Traffic Management
Chapter 7Packet-Switching
Networks
Network Services and Internal Network Operation
Network Layer
Network Layer: the most complex layerRequires the coordinated actions of multiple, geographically distributed network elements (switches & routers)Must be able to deal with very large scales
Billions of users (people & communicating devices)Biggest Challenges
Addressing: where should information be directed to?Routing: what path should be used to get information there?
t0 t1
Network
Packet Switching
Transfer of information as payload in data packetsPackets undergo random delays & possible lossDifferent applications impose differing requirements on the transfer of information
End system
βPhysicallayer
Data linklayer
Physicallayer
Data linklayerEnd
systemα
Networklayer
Networklayer
Physicallayer
Data linklayer
Networklayer
Physicallayer
Data linklayer
Networklayer
Transportlayer
Transportlayer
Messages Messages
Segments
Networkservice
Networkservice
Network Service
Network layer can offer a variety of services to transport layerConnection-oriented service or connectionless serviceBest-effort or delay/loss guarantees
Network Service vs. OperationNetwork Service
ConnectionlessDatagram Transfer
Connection-OrientedReliable and possibly constant bit rate transfer
Internal Network OperationConnectionless
IPConnection-Oriented
Telephone connectionATM
Various combinations are possibleConnection-oriented service over Connectionless operationConnectionless service over Connection-Oriented operationContext & requirements determine what makes sense
1
13 3 21 22
3 2 11 22 1
21
Medium
A B
3 2 11 221
C
2 1
21
2 14 1 2 3 4
End systemα
End systemβ
Network1
2
Physical layer entity
Data link layer entity 3 Network layer entity
3 Network layer entity
Transport layer entity4
Complexity at the Edge or in the Core?
The End-to-End Argument for System Design
An end-to-end function is best implemented at a higher level than at a lower level
End-to-end service requires all intermediate components to work properlyHigher-level better positioned to ensure correct operation
Example: stream transfer serviceEstablishing an explicit connection for each stream across network requires all network elements (NEs) to be aware of connection; All NEs have to be involved in re-establishment of connections in case of network faultIn connectionless network operation, NEs do not deal with each explicit connection and hence are much simpler in design
Network Layer FunctionsEssential
Routing: mechanisms for determining the set of best paths for routing packets requires the collaboration of network elementsForwarding: transfer of packets from NE inputs to outputsPriority & Scheduling: determining order of packet transmission in each NE
Optional: congestion control, segmentation & reassembly, security
Chapter 7Packet-Switching
Networks
Packet Network Topology
End-to-End Packet NetworkPacket networks very different than telephone networksIndividual packet streams are highly bursty
Statistical multiplexing is used to concentrate streamsUser demand can undergo dramatic change
Peer-to-peer applications stimulated huge growth in traffic volumes
Internet structure highly decentralizedPaths traversed by packets can go through many networks controlled by different organizationsNo single entity responsible for end-to-end service
AccessMUX
Topacketnetwork
Access Multiplexing
Packet traffic from users multiplexed at access to network into aggregated streamsDSL traffic multiplexed at DSL Access MuxCable modem traffic multiplexed at Cable Modem Termination System
OversubscriptionAccess Multiplexer
N subscribers connected @ c bps to muxEach subscriber active r/c of timeMux has C=nc bps to networkOversubscription rate: N/nFind n so that at most 1% overflow probability
Feasible oversubscription rate increases with size
5.54.43.32.53.310N/n
1896431n
100 lightly loaded users0.1100
40 lightly loaded users0.140
20 lightly loaded users0.120
10 lightly loaded users0.110
10 very lightly loaded user0.0510
10 extremely lightly loaded users0.0110r/cN
•• •
Nr Nc
rr
r nc•• •
Home LANs
Home RouterLAN Access using Ethernet or WiFi (IEEE 802.11)Private IP addresses in Home (192.168.0.x) using Network Address Translation (NAT)Single global IP address from ISP issued using Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)
HomeRouter
Topacketnetwork
WiFi
Ethernet
LAN Concentration
LAN Hubs and switches in the access network also aggregate packet streams that flows into switches and routers
Switch/ Router
RR
RRS
SS
s
s s
s
ss
s
ss
s
R
s
R
Backbone
To Internet or wide area network
Organization Servers
Departmental Server
Gateway
Campus Network
Only outgoing packets leave LAN through router
High-speed campus backbone net connects dept routers
Servers have redundant connectivity to backbone
Interdomain level
Intradomain level
Autonomoussystem ordomain
Border routers
Border routers
Internet service provider
s
ssLAN
Connecting to Internet Service Provider
CampusNetwork
network administeredby single organization
National Service Provider A
National Service Provider B
National Service Provider C
NAP NAP
Private peering
Internet Backbone
Network Access Points: set up during original commercialization of Internet to facilitate exchange of trafficPrivate Peering Points: two-party inter-ISP agreements to exchange traffic
RA
RB
RC
Route
Server
NAP
National Service Provider A
National Service Provider B
National Service Provider C
LAN
NAP NAP
(a)
(b)
Private peering
Key Role of RoutingHow to get packet from here to there?
Decentralized nature of Internet makes routing a major challenge
Interior gateway protocols (IGPs) are used to determine routes within a domain Exterior gateway protocols (EGPs) are used to determine routes across domainsRoutes must be consistent & produce stable flows
Scalability required to accommodate growthHierarchical structure of IP addresses essential to keeping size of routing tables manageable
Chapter 7Packet-Switching
Networks
Datagrams and Virtual Circuits
The Switching FunctionDynamic interconnection of inputs to outputsEnables dynamic sharing of transmission resourceTwo fundamental approaches:
ConnectionlessConnection-Oriented: Call setup control, Connection control
Backbone Network
Access Network
Switch
Packetswitch
Network
Transmissionline
User
Packet Switching Network
Packet switching networkTransfers packets between usersTransmission lines + packet switches (routers)Origin in message switching
Two modes of operation:ConnectionlessVirtual Circuit
Message switching invented for telegraphyEntire messages multiplexed onto shared lines, stored & forwardedHeaders for source & destination addressesRouting at message switchesConnectionless
Switches
Message
Destination
Source
Message
Message
Message
Message Switching
t
t
t
t
Delay
Source
Destination
T
τ
Minimum delay = 3τ + 3T
Switch 1
Switch 2
Message Switching Delay
Additional queueing delays possible at each link
Long Messages vs. Packets
Approach 1: send 1 MbitmessageProbability message arrives correctly
On average it takes about 3 transmissions/hopTotal # bits transmitted ≈6 Mbits
1 Mbitmessage source dest
BER=p=10-6 BER=10-6
How many bits need to be transmitted to deliver message?
Approach 2: send 10 100-kbit packetsProbability packet arrives correctly
On average it takes about 1.1 transmissions/hopTotal # bits transmitted ≈2.2 Mbits
3/1)101( 11010106 666
≈=≈−= −−− −
eePc 9.0)101( 1.01010106 655
≈=≈−=′ −−− −
eePc
Packet Switching - DatagramMessages broken into smaller units (packets)Source & destination addresses in packet headerConnectionless, packets routed independently (datagram)Packet may arrive out of orderPipelining of packets across network can reduce delay, increase throughputLower delay that message switching, suitable for interactive traffic
Packet 2
Packet 1
Packet 1
Packet 2
Packet 2
t
t
t
t
Delay
31 2
31 2
321
Minimum Delay = 3τ + 5(T/3) (single path assumed)Additional queueing delays possible at each linkPacket pipelining enables message to arrive sooner
Packet Switching DelayAssume three packets corresponding to one message traverse same path
t
t
t
t
31 2
31 2
321
3τ + 2(T/3) first bit received
3τ + 3(T/3) first bit released
3τ + 5 (T/3) last bit released
Lτ + (L-1)P first bit received
Lτ + LP first bit released
Lτ + LP + (k-1)P last bit releasedwhere T = k P
3 hops L hops
Source
Destination
Switch 1
Switch 2
τ
Delay for k-Packet Message over L Hops
Destinationaddress
Outputport
1345 12
2458
70785
6
12
1566
Routing Tables in Datagram Networks
Route determined by table lookupRouting decision involves finding next hop in route to given destinationRouting table has an entry for each destination specifying output port that leads to next hopSize of table becomes impractical for very large number of destinations
Example: Internet RoutingInternet protocol uses datagram packet switching across networks
Networks are treated as data linksHosts have two-port IP address:
Network address + Host addressRouters do table lookup on network address
This reduces size of routing tableIn addition, network addresses are assigned so that they can also be aggregated
Discussed as CIDR in Chapter 8
Packet Switching – Virtual Circuit
Call set-up phase sets ups pointers in fixed path along networkAll packets for a connection follow the same pathAbbreviated header identifies connection on each linkPackets queue for transmissionVariable bit rates possible, negotiated during call set-upDelays variable, cannot be less than circuit switching
Virtual circuit
Packet PacketPacket
Packet
SW 1
SW 2
SW n
Connect request
Connect request
Connect request
Connect confirm
Connect confirm
Connect confirm
…
Connection Setup
Signaling messages propagate as route is selectedSignaling messages identify connection and setup tables in switchesTypically a connection is identified by a local tag, Virtual Circuit Identifier (VCI)Each switch only needs to know how to relate an incoming tag in one input to an outgoing tag in the corresponding output Once tables are setup, packets can flow along path
t
t
t
t
31 2
31 2
321
Release
Connect request
CR
CR Connect confirm
CC
CC
Connection Setup Delay
Connection setup delay is incurred before any packet can be transferredDelay is acceptable for sustained transfer of large number of packetsThis delay may be unacceptably high if only a few packets are being transferred
InputVCI
Outputport
OutputVCI
15 15
58
13
13
7
27
12 44
23
16
34
Virtual Circuit Forwarding Tables
Each input port of packet switch has a forwarding tableLookup entry for VCI of incoming packetDetermine output port (next hop) and insert VCI for next linkVery high speeds are possibleTable can also include priority or other information about how packet should be treated
31 2
31 2
321
Minimum delay = 3τ + Tt
t
t
tSource
Destination
Switch 1
Switch 2
Cut-Through switching
Some networks perform error checking on header only, so packet can be forwarded as soon as header is received & processedDelays reduced further with cut-through switching
Message vs. Packet Minimum Delay
Message:L τ + L T = L τ + (L – 1) T + T
PacketL τ + L P + (k – 1) P = L τ + (L – 1) P + T
Cut-Through Packet (Immediate forwarding after header)
= L τ + T
Above neglect header processing delays
Example: ATM Networks
All information mapped into short fixed-length packets called cellsConnections set up across network
Virtual circuits established across networksTables setup at ATM switches
Several types of network services offeredConstant bit rate connectionsVariable bit rate connections
Chapter 7Packet-Switching
Networks
Datagrams and Virtual CircuitsStructure of a Packet Switch
Packet Switch: Intersection where Traffic Flows Meet
1
2
N
1
2
N
•• •
•• •
Inputs contain multiplexed flows from access muxs & other packet switchesFlows demultiplexed at input, routed and/or forwarded to output portsPackets buffered, prioritized, and multiplexed on output lines
•• •
Controller
12
3
N
Line card
Line card
Line card
Line card
Inte
rcon
nect
ion
fabr
ic
Line card
Line card
Line card
Line card
12
3
N
Input ports Output ports
Data path Control path (a)
…………
Generic Packet Switch “Unfolded” View of Switch
Ingress Line CardsHeader processingDemultiplexingRouting in large switches
ControllerRouting in small switchesSignalling & resource allocation
Interconnection FabricTransfer packets between line cards
Egress Line CardsScheduling & priorityMultiplexing
Inte
rcon
nect
ion
fabr
ic
Transceiver
Transceiver
Framer
Framer
Networkprocessor
Backplanetransceivers
Tophysical
ports
Toswitchfabric
Tootherline
cards
Line Cards
Folded View1 circuit board is ingress/egress line cardPhysical layer processingData link layer processingNetwork header processingPhysical layer across fabric + framing
1
2
3
N
1
2
3
N
…
SharedMemory
QueueControl
Ingress Processing
ConnectionControl
…
Shared Memory Packet SwitchOutput
Buffering
Small switches can be built by reading/writing into shared memory
1
2
3
N
1 2 3 N
Inputs
Outputs
(a) Input buffering
38
3…
…
1
2
3
N
1 2 3 N
Inputs
Outputs
(b) Output buffering
…
…
Crossbar Switches
Large switches built from crossbar & multistage space switchesRequires centralized controller/scheduler (who sends to whom when)Can buffer at input, output, or both (performance vs complexity)
0
1
2
Inputs Outputs
3
4
5
6
7
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3
Self-Routing Switches
Self-routing switches do not require controllerOutput port number determines route101 → (1) lower port, (2) upper port, (3) lower port
Chapter 7Packet-Switching
Networks
Routing in Packet Networks
1
2
3
4
5
6
Node (switch or router)
Routing in Packet Networks
Three possible (loopfree) routes from 1 to 6:1-3-6, 1-4-5-6, 1-2-5-6
Which is “best”?Min delay? Min hop? Max bandwidth? Min cost? Max reliability?
Creating the Routing Tables
Need information on state of linksLink up/down; congested; delay or other metrics
Need to distribute link state information using a routing protocol
What information is exchanged? How often?Exchange with neighbors; Broadcast or flood
Need to compute routes based on informationSingle metric; multiple metricsSingle route; alternate routes
Routing Algorithm Requirements
Responsiveness to changesTopology or bandwidth changes, congestion Rapid convergence of routers to consistent set of routesFreedom from persistent loops
OptimalityResource utilization, path length
RobustnessContinues working under high load, congestion, faults, equipment failures, incorrect implementations
SimplicityEfficient software implementation, reasonable processing load
Centralized vs Distributed RoutingCentralized Routing
All routes determined by a central nodeAll state information sent to central nodeProblems adapting to frequent topology changesDoes not scale
Distributed RoutingRoutes determined by routers using distributed algorithmState information exchanged by routersAdapts to topology and other changesBetter scalability
Static vs Dynamic RoutingStatic Routing
Set up manually, do not change; requires administrationWorks when traffic predictable & network is simpleUsed to override some routes set by dynamic algorithmUsed to provide default router
Dynamic RoutingAdapt to changes in network conditionsAutomatedCalculates routes based on received updated network state information
1
2
3
4
5
6AB
CD
1
5
2
3
7
1
8
54 2
3
6
5
2
Switch or router
HostVCI
Routing in Virtual-Circuit Packet Networks
Route determined during connection setupTables in switches implement forwarding that realizes selected route
Incoming OutgoingNode VCI Node VCIA 1 3 2A 5 3 33 2 A 13 3 A 5
Incoming OutgoingNode VCI Node VCI1 2 6 71 3 4 44 2 6 16 7 1 26 1 4 24 4 1 3
Incoming OutgoingNode VCI Node VCI3 7 B 83 1 B 5B 5 3 1B 8 3 7
Incoming OutgoingNode VCI Node VCIC 6 4 34 3 C 6
Incoming OutgoingNode VCI Node VCI2 3 3 23 4 5 53 2 2 35 5 3 4
Incoming OutgoingNode VCI Node VCI4 5 D 2D 2 4 5
Node 1
Node 2
Node 3
Node 4
Node 6
Node 5
Routing Tables in VC Packet Networks
Example: VCI from A to DFrom A & VCI 5 → 3 & VCI 3 → 4 & VCI 4→ 5 & VCI 5 → D & VCI 2
2 23 34 45 26 3
Node 1
Node 2
Node 3
Node 4
Node 6
Node 5
1 12 44 45 66 6
1 32 53 34 35 5
Destination Next node1 13 14 45 56 5
1 42 23 44 46 6
1 12 23 35 56 3
Destination Next node
Destination Next node
Destination Next node
Destination Next nodeDestination Next node
Routing Tables in Datagram Packet Networks
0000 0111 1010 1101
0001 0100 1011 1110
0011 0101 1000 1111
0011 0110 1001 1100
R1
1
2 5
4
3
0000 1 0111 1 1010 1 … …
0001 4 0100 4 1011 4 … …
R2
Non-Hierarchical Addresses and Routing
No relationship between addresses & routing proximityRouting tables require 16 entries each
0000 0001 0010 0011
0100 0101 0110 0111
1100 1101 1110 1111
1000 1001 1010 1011
R1 R2
1
2 5
4
3
00 1 01 3 10 2 11 3
00 3 01 4 10 3 11 5
Hierarchical Addresses and Routing
Prefix indicates network where host is attachedRouting tables require 4 entries each
Flat vs Hierarchical RoutingFlat Routing
All routers are peersDoes not scale
Hierarchical RoutingPartitioning: Domains, autonomous systems, areas... Some routers part of routing backboneSome routers only communicate within an areaEfficient because it matches typical traffic flow patternsScales
Specialized Routing
FloodingUseful in starting up networkUseful in propagating information to all nodes
Deflection RoutingFixed, preset routing procedureNo route synthesis
Flooding
Send a packet to all nodes in a networkNo routing tables availableNeed to broadcast packet to all nodes (e.g. to propagate link state information)
ApproachSend packet on all ports except one where it arrivedExponential growth in packet transmissions
1
2
3
4
5
6
Flooding is initiated from Node 1: Hop 1 transmissions
1
2
3
4
5
6
Flooding is initiated from Node 1: Hop 2 transmissions
1
2
3
4
5
6
Flooding is initiated from Node 1: Hop 3 transmissions
Limited Flooding
Time-to-Live field in each packet limits number of hops to certain diameterEach switch adds its ID before flooding; discards repeatsSource puts sequence number in each packet; switches records source address and sequence number and discards repeats
Deflection RoutingNetwork nodes forward packets to preferred portIf preferred port busy, deflect packet to another portWorks well with regular topologies
Manhattan street networkRectangular array of nodesNodes designated (i,j) Rows alternate as one-way streetsColumns alternate as one-way avenues
Bufferless operation is possibleProposed for optical packet networksAll-optical buffering currently not viable
0,0 0,1 0,2 0,3
1,0 1,1 1,2 1,3
2,0 2,1 2,2 2,3
3,0 3,1 3,2 3,3
Tunnel from last column to first column or
vice versa
0,0 0,1 0,2 0,3
1,0 1,1 1,2 1,3
2,0 2,1 2,2 2,3
3,0 3,1 3,2 3,3
busy
Example: Node (0,2)→(1,0)
Chapter 7Packet-Switching
Networks
Shortest Path Routing
Shortest Paths & Routing
Many possible paths connect any given source and to any given destinationRouting involves the selection of the path to be used to accomplish a given transferTypically it is possible to attach a cost or distance to a link connecting two nodesRouting can then be posed as a shortest path problem
Routing MetricsMeans for measuring desirability of a path
Path Length = sum of costs or distancesPossible metrics
Hop count: rough measure of resources usedReliability: link availability; BERDelay: sum of delays along path; complex & dynamicBandwidth: “available capacity” in a pathLoad: Link & router utilization along pathCost: $$$
Shortest Path Approaches
Distance Vector ProtocolsNeighbors exchange list of distances to destinationsBest next-hop determined for each destinationFord-Fulkerson (distributed) shortest path algorithm
Link State ProtocolsLink state information flooded to all routersRouters have complete topology informationShortest path (& hence next hop) calculated Dijkstra (centralized) shortest path algorithm
San Jose 392
San Jose 596
San Jose 294
San Jose 250
Distance VectorDo you know the way to San Jose?
Distance VectorLocal Signpost
DirectionDistance
Routing TableFor each destination list:
Next NodeDistance
Table SynthesisNeighbors exchange table entriesDetermine current best next hopInform neighbors
PeriodicallyAfter changes
dest next dist
Shortest Path to SJ
ij
SanJose
Cij
Dj
Di If Di is the shortest distance to SJ from iand if j is a neighbor on the shortest path, then Di = Cij + Dj
Focus on how nodes find their shortest path to a given destination node, i.e. SJ
i only has local infofrom neighbors
Dj"
Cij”
i
SanJose
jCij
Dj
Di j"
Cij'
j'Dj'
Pick current shortest path
But we don’t know the shortest paths
Why Distance Vector Works
SanJose1 Hop
From SJ2 HopsFrom SJ3 Hops
From SJ
Accurate info about SJripples across network,
Shortest Path Converges
SJ sendsaccurate info
Hop-1 nodescalculate current (next hop, dist), &send to neighbors
Bellman-Ford AlgorithmConsider computations for one destination dInitialization
Each node table has 1 row for destination dDistance of node d to itself is zero: Dd=0Distance of other node j to d is infinite: Dj=∝, for j≠ dNext hop node nj = -1 to indicate not yet defined for j ≠ d
Send StepSend new distance vector to immediate neighbors across local link
Receive StepAt node j, find the next hop that gives the minimum distance to d,
Minj { Cij + Dj }Replace old (nj, Dj(d)) by new (nj*, Dj*(d)) if new next node or distance
Go to send step
Bellman-Ford AlgorithmNow consider parallel computations for all destinations dInitialization
Each node has 1 row for each destination dDistance of node d to itself is zero: Dd(d)=0Distance of other node j to d is infinite: Dj(d)= ∝ , for j ≠ dNext node nj = -1 since not yet defined
Send StepSend new distance vector to immediate neighbors across local link
Receive StepFor each destination d, find the next hop that gives the minimum distance to d,
Minj { Cij+ Dj(d) }Replace old (nj, Di(d)) by new (nj*, Dj*(d)) if new next node or distance found
Go to send step
3
2
1
(-1, ∞)(-1, ∞)(-1, ∞)(-1, ∞)(-1, ∞)Initial
Node 5Node 4Node 3Node 2Node 1Iteration
31
5
46
2
2
3
4
2
1
1
2
3
5SanJose
Table entry @ node 1for dest SJ
Table entry @ node 3for dest SJ
3
2
(6,2)(-1, ∞)(6,1)(-1, ∞)(-1, ∞)1
(-1, ∞)(-1, ∞)(-1, ∞)(-1, ∞)(-1, ∞)Initial
Node 5Node 4Node 3Node 2Node 1Iteration
SanJose
D6=0
D3=D6+1n3=6
31
5
46
2
2
3
4
2
1
1
2
3
5
D6=0D5=D6+2n5=6
0
2
1
3
(6,2)(3,3)(6, 1)(5,6)(3,3)2
(6,2)(-1, ∞)(6, 1)(-1, ∞)(-1, ∞)1
(-1, ∞)(-1, ∞)(-1, ∞)(-1, ∞)(-1, ∞)Initial
Node 5Node 4Node 3Node 2Node 1Iteration
SanJose
31
5
46
2
2
3
4
2
1
1
2
3
50
1
2
3
3
6
(6,2)(3,3)(6, 1)(4,4)(3,3)3
(6,2)(3,3)(6, 1)(5,6)(3,3)2
(6,2)(-1, ∞)(6, 1)(-1, ∞)(-1, ∞)1
(-1, ∞)(-1, ∞)(-1, ∞)(-1, ∞)(-1, ∞)Initial
Node 5Node 4Node 3Node 2Node 1Iteration
SanJose
31
5
46
2
2
3
4
2
1
1
2
3
50
1
26
3
3
4
3
2
(6,2)(3,3)(4, 5)(4,4)(3,3)1
(6,2)(3,3)(6, 1)(4,4)(3,3)Initial
Node 5Node 4Node 3Node 2Node 1Iteration
SanJose
31
5
46
2
2
3
4
2
1
1
2
3
50
1
2
3
3
4
Network disconnected; Loop created between nodes 3 and 4
5
3
(6,2)(5,5)(4, 5)(4,4)(3,7)2
(6,2)(3,3)(4, 5)(4,4)(3,3)1
(6,2)(3,3)(6, 1)(4,4)(3,3)Initial
Node 5Node 4Node 3Node 2Node 1Iteration
SanJose
31
5
46
2
2
3
4
2
1
1
2
3
50
2
5
3
3
4
7
5
Node 4 could have chosen 2 as next node because of tie
(6,2)(5,5)(4, 7)(4,6)(3,7)3
(6,2)(5,5)(4, 5)(4,4)(3,7)2
(6,2)(3,3)(4, 5)(4,4)(3,3)1
(6,2)(3,3)(6, 1)(4,4)(3,3)Initial
Node 5Node 4Node 3Node 2Node 1Iteration
SanJose
31
5
46
2
2
3
4
2
1
1
2
3
5 0
2
5
57
4
7
6Node 2 could have chosen 5 as next node because of tie
3
5
46
2
2
3
4
2
1
1
2
3
51
(6,2)(5,5)(4, 7)(4,6)(2,9)4
(6,2)(5,5)(4, 7)(4,6)(3,7)3
(6,2)(2,5)(4, 5)(4,4)(3,7)2
(6,2)(3,3)(4, 5)(4,4)(3,3)1
Node 5Node 4Node 3Node 2Node 1Iteration
SanJose
0
77
5
6
9
2
Node 1 could have chose 3 as next node because of tie
31 2 41 1 1
31 2 41 1
X
(a)
(b)
…………(2,7)(3,8)(2,7)5
(2,7)(3,6)(2,7)4
(2,5)(3,4)(2,5)2
(2,5)(3,6)(2,5)3
(2,3)(3,4)(2,3)1
(2,3)(3,2)(2,3)After break
(4, 1)(3,2)(2,3)Before break
Node 3Node 2Node 1Update
Counting to Infinity ProblemNodes believe best path is through each other(Destination is node 4)
Problem: Bad News Travels SlowlyRemedies
Split HorizonDo not report route to a destination to the neighbor from which route was learned
Poisoned ReverseReport route to a destination to the neighbor from which route was learned, but with infinite distanceBreaks erroneous direct loops immediatelyDoes not work on some indirect loops
31 2 41 1 1
31 2 41 1
X
(a)
(b)
Split Horizon with Poison Reverse
Nodes believe best path is through each other
(-1, ∞)
(-1, ∞)
(-1, ∞)(4, 1)
Node 3
Node 1 finds there is no route to 4(-1, ∞)(-1, ∞)2
Node 1 advertizes its route to 4 to node 2 as having distance infinity; node 2 finds there is no route to 4
(-1, ∞)(2, 3)1
Node 2 advertizes its route to 4 to node 3 as having distance infinity; node 3 finds there is no route to 4
(3, 2)(2, 3)After break(3, 2)(2, 3)Before break
Node 2Node 1Update
Link-State AlgorithmBasic idea: two step procedure
Each source node gets a map of all nodes and link metrics (link state) of the entire network Find the shortest path on the map from the source node to all destination nodes
Broadcast of link-state informationEvery node i in the network broadcasts to every other node in the network:
ID’s of its neighbors: Ni=set of neighbors of iDistances to its neighbors: {Cij | j ∈Ni}
Flooding is a popular method of broadcasting packets
Dijkstra Algorithm: Finding shortest paths in order
s
w
w"
w'
Closest node to s is 1 hop away
w"
x
x'
2nd closest node to s is 1 hop away from s or w”
xz
z'
3rd closest node to s is 1 hop away from s, w”, or xw'
Find shortest paths from source s to all other destinations
Dijkstra’s algorithmN: set of nodes for which shortest path already foundInitialization: (Start with source node s)
N = {s}, Ds = 0, “s is distance zero from itself”Dj=Csj for all j ≠ s, distances of directly-connected neighbors
Step A: (Find next closest node i) Find i ∉ N such thatDi = min Dj for j ∉ NAdd i to NIf N contains all the nodes, stop
Step B: (update minimum costs)For each node j ∉ NDj = min (Dj, Di+Cij)Go to Step A
Minimum distance from s to j through node i in N
Execution of Dijkstra’s algorithm
35423{1,2,3,4,5,6}535423{1,2,3,4,6}435423{1,2,3,6}337423{1,2,3}23∝423{1,3}1∝∝523{1}InitialD6D5D4D3D2NIteration
1
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331
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Shortest Paths in Dijkstra’sAlgorithm
1
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3 23
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3 31
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Reaction to FailureIf a link fails,
Router sets link distance to infinity & floods the network with an update packetAll routers immediately update their link database & recalculate their shortest pathsRecovery very quick
But watch out for old update messages Add time stamp or sequence # to each update messageCheck whether each received update message is newIf new, add it to database and broadcastIf older, send update message on arriving link
Why is Link State Better?
Fast, loopless convergenceSupport for precise metrics, and multiple metrics if necessary (throughput, delay, cost, reliability)Support for multiple paths to a destination
algorithm can be modified to find best two paths
Source RoutingSource host selects path that is to be followed by a packet
Strict: sequence of nodes in path inserted into headerLoose: subsequence of nodes in path specified
Intermediate switches read next-hop address and remove addressSource host needs link state information or access to a route serverSource routing allows the host to control the paths that its information traverses in the networkPotentially the means for customers to select what service providers they use
1
2
3
4
5
6A
B
Source host
Destination host
1,3,6,B
3,6,B 6,B
B
Example
Chapter 7Packet-Switching
Networks
ATM Networks
Asynchronous Tranfer Mode (ATM)
Packet multiplexing and switchingFixed-length packets: “cells”Connection-orientedRich Quality of Service support
Conceived as end-to-endSupporting wide range of services
Real time voice and videoCircuit emulation for digital transportData traffic with bandwidth guarantees
Detailed discussion in Chapter 9
ATMAdaptation
Layer
ATMAdaptation
Layer
ATM Network
Video PacketVoiceVideo PacketVoice
ATM Networking
End-to-end information transport using cells53-byte cell provide low delay and fine multiplexing granularitySupport for many services through ATM Adaptation Layer
TDM vs. Packet Multiplexing
Packet
TDM
Header & packet processing required
EfficientVariableEasily handled
Minimal, very high speed
InefficientLow, fixedMultirateonly
ProcessingBurst trafficDelayVariable bit rate
*
*In mid-1980s, packet processing mainly in software and hence slow; By late 1990s, very high speed packet processing possible
MUX
Wasted bandwidth
ATM
TDM3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1
4 3 1 3 2 2 1
Voice
Data packets
Images
1
2
3
4
ATM: Attributes of TDM & Packet Switching
• Packet structure gives flexibility & efficiency
• Synchronous slot transmission gives high speed & density
Packet Header
2
3
N
1
Switch
N
1
5
6
video
video
voice
data
2532
3261
7567
3967
N1
32
video 75
voice
data
video
……
…
32
25 32
61
39
67
67
ATM SwitchingSwitch carries out table translation and routing
ATM switches can be implemented using shared memory,shared backplanes, or self-routing multi-stage fabrics
Virtual connections setup across networkConnections identified by locally-defined tagsATM Header contains virtual connection information:
8-bit Virtual Path Identifier16-bit Virtual Channel Identifier
Powerful traffic grooming capabilitiesMultiple VCs can be bundled within a VP Similar to tributaries with SONET, except variable bit rates possible
Physical link
Virtual paths
Virtual channels
ATM Virtual Connections
ATMSw1
ATMSw4
ATMSw2
ATMSw3
ATMcross-
connect
abc
de
VPI 3 VPI 5
VPI 2
VPI 1
a
bc
de
Sw = switch
VPI/VCI switching & multiplexing
Connections a,b,c bundled into VP at switch 1Crossconnect switches VP without looking at VCIsVP unbundled at switch 2; VC switching thereafter
VPI/VCI structure allows creation virtual networks
MPLS & ATMATM initially touted as more scalable than packet switchingATM envisioned speeds of 150-600 MbpsAdvances in optical transmission proved ATM to be the less scalable: @ 10 Gbps
Segmentation & reassembly of messages & streams into 48-byte cell payloads difficult & inefficientHeader must be processed every 53 bytes vs. 500 bytes on average for packetsDelay due to 1250 byte packet at 10 Gbps = 1 μsec; delay due to 53 byte cell @ 150 Mbps ≈ 3 μsec
MPLS (Chapter 10) uses tags to transfer packets across virtual circuits in Internet
Chapter 7Packet-Switching
Networks
Traffic Management Packet Level
Flow LevelFlow-Aggregate Level
Traffic Management Vehicular traffic management
Traffic lights & signals control flow of traffic in city street systemObjective is to maximize flow with tolerable delaysPriority Services
Police sirensCavalcade for dignitariesBus & High-usage lanesTrucks allowed only at night
Packet traffic managementMultiplexing & access mechanisms to control flow of packet trafficObjective is make efficient use of network resources & deliver QoSPriority
Fault-recovery packetsReal-time trafficEnterprise (high-revenue) trafficHigh bandwidth traffic
Time Scales & GranularitiesPacket Level
Queueing & scheduling at multiplexing pointsDetermines relative performance offered to packets over a short time scale (microseconds)
Flow LevelManagement of traffic flows & resource allocation to ensure delivery of QoS (milliseconds to seconds)Matching traffic flows to resources available; congestion control
Flow-Aggregate LevelRouting of aggregate traffic flows across the network for efficient utilization of resources and meeting of service levels“Traffic Engineering”, at scale of minutes to days
1 2 NN – 1
Packet buffer
…
End-to-End QoS
A packet traversing network encounters delay and possible loss at various multiplexing pointsEnd-to-end performance is accumulation of per-hop performances
Scheduling & QoSEnd-to-End QoS & Resource Control
Buffer & bandwidth control → PerformanceAdmission control to regulate traffic level
Scheduling Conceptsfairness/isolationpriority, aggregation,
Fair Queueing & VariationsWFQ, PGPS
Guaranteed Service WFQ, Rate-control
Packet Droppingaggregation, drop priorities
FIFO Queueing
All packet flows share the same bufferTransmission Discipline: First-In, First-OutBuffering Discipline: Discard arriving packets if buffer is full (Alternative: random discard; pushouthead-of-line, i.e. oldest, packet)
Packet buffer
Transmissionlink
Arrivingpackets
Packet discardwhen full
FIFO QueueingCannot provide differential QoS to different packet flows
Different packet flows interact stronglyStatistical delay guarantees via load control
Restrict number of flows allowed (connection admission control)Difficult to determine performance delivered
Finite buffer determines a maximum possible delayBuffer size determines loss probability
But depends on arrival & packet length statisticsVariation: packet enqueueing based on queue thresholds
some packet flows encounter blocking before othershigher loss, lower delay
Packet buffer
Transmissionlink
Arrivingpackets
Packet discardwhen full
Packet buffer
Transmissionlink
Arrivingpackets
Class 1discard
when full
Class 2 discardwhen threshold
exceeded
(a)
(b)
FIFO Queueing with Discard Priority
HOL Priority Queueing
High priority queue serviced until emptyHigh priority queue has lower waiting timeBuffers can be dimensioned for different loss probabilitiesSurge in high priority queue can cause low priority queue to saturate
Transmissionlink
Packet discardwhen full
High-prioritypackets
Low-prioritypackets
Packet discardwhen full
Whenhigh-priorityqueue empty
HOL Priority FeaturesProvides differential QoSPre-emptive priority: lower classes invisibleNon-preemptive priority: lower classes impact higher classes through residual service timesHigh-priority classes can hog all of the bandwidth & starve lower priority classesNeed to provide some isolation between classes
Del
ay
Per-class loads
(Note: Need labeling)
Earliest Due Date Scheduling
Queue in order of “due date”packets requiring low delay get earlier due datepackets without delay get indefinite or very long due dates
Sorted packet buffer
Transmissionlink
Arrivingpackets
Packet discardwhen full
Taggingunit
Each flow has its own logical queue: prevents hogging; allows differential loss probabilitiesC bits/sec allocated equally among non-empty queues
transmission rate = C / n(t), where n(t)=# non-empty queues
Idealized system assumes fluid flow from queuesImplementation requires approximation: simulate fluid system; sort packets according to completion time in ideal system
Fair Queueing / Generalized Processor Sharing
C bits/second
Transmissionlink
Packet flow 1
Packet flow 2
Packet flow n
Approximated bit-levelround robin service
… …
Buffer 1at t=0
Buffer 2at t=0
1
t1 2
Fluid-flow system:both packets served at rate 1/2
Both packetscomplete serviceat t = 2
0
1
t1 2
Packet-by-packet system:buffer 1 served first at rate 1;then buffer 2 served at rate 1.
Packet from buffer 2being served
Packet frombuffer 1 being
served
Packet frombuffer 2 waiting
0
Buffer 1at t=0
Buffer 2at t=0
2
1
t3
Fluid-flow system:both packets served at rate 1/2
Packet from buffer 2 served at rate 1
0
2
1
t1 2
Packet-by-packet fair queueing:buffer 2 served at rate 1
Packet frombuffer 1 served at rate 1
Packet frombuffer 2 waiting
0 3
Buffer 1at t=0
Buffer 2at t=0 1
t1 2
Fluid-flow system:packet from buffer 1served at rate 1/4;
Packet from buffer 1 served at rate 1
Packet from buffer 2served at rate 3/4 0
1
t1 2
Packet from buffer 1 served at rate 1
Packet frombuffer 2 served at rate 1
Packet frombuffer 1 waiting
0
Packet-by-packet weighted fair queueing:buffer 2 served first at rate 1;then buffer 1 served at rate 1
Packetized GPS/WFQ
Compute packet completion time in ideal systemadd tag to packetsort packet in queue according to tagserve according to HOL
Sorted packet buffer
Transmissionlink
Arrivingpackets
Packet discardwhen full
Taggingunit
Bit-by-Bit Fair QueueingAssume n flows, n queues1 round = 1 cycle serving all n queuesIf each queue gets 1 bit per cycle, then 1 round = # active queuesRound number = number of cycles of service that have been completed
If packet arrives to idle queue:Finishing time = round number + packet size in bitsIf packet arrives to active queue:
Finishing time = finishing time of last packet in queue + packet size
rounds Current Round #
Buffer 1Buffer 2
Buffer n
Number of rounds = Number of bit transmission opportunities
Rounds
Packet of lengthk bits beginstransmissionat this time
Packet completestransmissionk rounds later
…
Differential Service: If a traffic flow is to receive twice as much bandwidth as a regular flow, then its packet completion time would be half
F(i,k,t) = finish time of kth packet that arrives at time t to flow iP(i,k,t) = size of kth packet that arrives at time t to flow iR(t) = round number at time t
Fair Queueing:F(i,k,t) = max{F(i,k-1,t), R(t)} + P(i,k,t)
Weighted Fair Queueing:F(i,k,t) = max{F(i,k-1,t), R(t)} + P(i,k,t)/wi
roundsGeneralize so R(t) continuous, not discrete
R(t) grows at rate inverselyproportional to n(t)
Computing the Finishing Time
WFQ and Packet QoS
WFQ and its many variations form the basis for providing QoS in packet networksVery high-speed implementations available, up to 10 Gbps and possibly higherWFQ must be combined with other mechanisms to provide end-to-end QoS (next section)
Buffer ManagementPacket drop strategy: Which packet to drop when buffers fullFairness: protect behaving sources from misbehaving sourcesAggregation:
Per-flow buffers protect flows from misbehaving flowsFull aggregation provides no protectionAggregation into classes provided intermediate protection
Drop priorities: Drop packets from buffer according to prioritiesMaximizes network utilization & application QoSExamples: layered video, policing at network edge
Controlling sources at the edge
Early or Overloaded Drop
Random early detection:drop pkts if short-term avg of queue exceeds thresholdpkt drop probability increases linearly with queue lengthmark offending pktsimproves performance of cooperating TCP sourcesincreases loss probability of misbehaving sources
Random Early Detection (RED)Packets produced by TCP will reduce input rate in response to network congestionEarly drop: discard packets before buffers are fullRandom drop causes some sources to reduce rate before others, causing gradual reduction in aggregate input rate
Algorithm:Maintain running average of queue lengthIf Qavg < minthreshold, do nothingIf Qavg > maxthreshold, drop packetIf in between, drop packet according to probabilityFlows that send more packets are more likely to have packets dropped
Average queue length
Pro
babi
lity
of p
acke
t dro
p
1
0minth maxth full
Packet Drop Profile in RED
Chapter 7Packet-Switching
Networks
Traffic Management at the Flow Level
4
8
63
2
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5 7
CongestionCongestion occurs when a surge of traffic overloads network resources
Approaches to Congestion Control:• Preventive Approaches: Scheduling & Reservations• Reactive Approaches: Detect & Throttle/Discard
Offered load
Thro
ughp
ut Controlled
Uncontrolled
Ideal effect of congestion control: Resources used efficiently up to capacity available
Open-Loop Control
Network performance is guaranteed to all traffic flows that have been admitted into the networkInitially for connection-oriented networksKey Mechanisms
Admission ControlPolicingTraffic ShapingTraffic Scheduling
Time
Bits
/sec
ond
Peak rate
Average rate
Typical bit rate demanded by a variable bit rate information source
Admission ControlFlows negotiate contract with networkSpecify requirements:
Peak, Avg., Min Bit rateMaximum burst sizeDelay, Loss requirement
Network computes resources needed
“Effective” bandwidthIf flow accepted, network allocates resources to ensure QoS delivered as long as source conforms to contract
PolicingNetwork monitors traffic flows continuously to ensure they meet their traffic contractWhen a packet violates the contract, network can discard or tag the packet giving it lower priorityIf congestion occurs, tagged packets are discarded firstLeaky Bucket Algorithm is the most commonly used policing mechanism
Bucket has specified leak rate for average contracted rateBucket has specified depth to accommodate variations in arrival rateArriving packet is conforming if it does not result in overflow
Leaky Bucket algorithm can be used to police arrival rate of a packet stream
water drains ata constant rate
leaky bucket
water pouredirregularly Leak rate corresponds to
long-term rate
Bucket depth corresponds to maximum allowable burst arrival
1 packet per unit timeAssume constant-length packet as in ATM
Let X = bucket content at last conforming packet arrivalLet ta – last conforming packet arrival time = depletion in bucket
Arrival of a packet at time ta
X’ = X - (ta - LCT)
X’ < 0?
X’ > L?
X = X’ + ILCT = ta
conforming packet
X’ = 0
Nonconformingpacket
X = value of the leaky bucket counterX’ = auxiliary variable
LCT = last conformance time
Yes
No
Yes
No
Depletion rate: 1 packet per unit time
L+I = Bucket Depth
I = increment per arrival, nominal interarrival time
Leaky Bucket Algorithm
Interarrival timeCurrent bucketcontent
arriving packetwould cause
overflow
empty
Non-empty
conforming packet
I
L+I
Bucketcontent
Time
Time
Packetarrival
Nonconforming
* * * * * * * **
I = 4 L = 6
Non-conforming packets not allowed into bucket & hence not included in calculations
Leaky Bucket Example
Time
MBS
T L I
T = 1 / peak rateMBS = maximum burst sizeI = nominal interarrival time = 1 / sustainable rate
Policing Parameters
⎥⎦⎤
⎢⎣⎡
−+=
TILMBS 1
Tagged or dropped
Untagged traffic
Incomingtraffic
Untagged traffic
PCR = peak cell rateCDVT = cell delay variation toleranceSCR = sustainable cell rateMBS = maximum burst size
Leaky bucket 1SCR and MBS
Leaky bucket 2PCR and CDVT
Tagged or dropped
Dual leaky bucket to police PCR, SCR, and MBS:
Dual Leaky Bucket
Network CNetwork ANetwork B
Traffic shaping Traffic shapingPolicing Policing
1 2 3 4
Traffic Shaping
Networks police the incoming traffic flowTraffic shaping is used to ensure that a packet stream conforms to specific parametersNetworks can shape their traffic prior to passing it to another network
Incoming traffic Shaped trafficSize N
Packet
Server
Leaky Bucket Traffic Shaper
Buffer incoming packetsPlay out periodically to conform to parametersSurges in arrivals are buffered & smoothed outPossible packet loss due to buffer overflowToo restrictive, since conforming traffic does not need to be completely smooth
Incoming traffic Shaped trafficSize N
Size K
Tokens arriveperiodically
Server
Packet
Token
Token Bucket Traffic Shaper
Token rate regulates transfer of packetsIf sufficient tokens available, packets enter network without delayK determines how much burstiness allowed into the network
An incoming packet must have sufficient tokens before admission into the network
The token bucket constrains the traffic from a source to be limited to b + r t bits in an interval of length t
b bytes instantly
t
r bytes/second
Token Bucket Shaping Effect
b + r t
bR
b R - r
(b) Buffer occupancy at 1
0
Empty
tt
Buffer occupancy at 2
A(t) = b+rt
R(t)
No backlog of packets
(a)
1 2
Packet transfer with Delay Guarantees
Token Shaper
Bit rate > R > re.g., using WFQ
Assume fluid flow for informationToken bucket allows burst of b bytes 1 & then r bytes/second
Since R>r, buffer content @ 1 never greater than b byteThus delay @ mux < b/R
Rate into second mux is r<R, so bytes are never delayed
Delay Bounds with WFQ / PGPSAssume
traffic shaped to parameters b & rschedulers give flow at least rate R>r H hop pathm is maximum packet size for the given flowM maximum packet size in the networkRj transmission rate in jth hop
Maximum end-to-end delay that can be experienced by a packet from flow i is:
∑=
+−
+≤H
j jRM
RmH
RbD
1
)1(
Scheduling for Guaranteed Service
Suppose guaranteed bounds on end-to-end delay across the network are to be providedA call admission control procedure is required to allocate resources & set schedulersTraffic flows from sources must be shaped/regulated so that they do not exceed their allocated resourcesStrict delay bounds can be met
ClassifierInputdriver Internet
forwarder
Pkt. scheduler
Output driver
RoutingAgent
ReservationAgent
Mgmt.Agent
AdmissionControl
[Routing database] [Traffic control database]
Current View of Router Function
Closed-Loop Flow ControlCongestion control
feedback information to regulate flow from sources into networkBased on buffer content, link utilization, etc.Examples: TCP at transport layer; congestion control at ATM level
End-to-end vs. Hop-by-hopDelay in effecting control
Implicit vs. Explicit FeedbackSource deduces congestion from observed behaviorRouters/switches generate messages alerting to congestion
Source Destination
Feedback information
Packet flow
Source Destination
(a)
(b)
End-to-End vs. Hop-by-Hop Congestion Control
Traffic EngineeringManagement exerted at flow aggregate levelDistribution of flows in network to achieve efficient utilization of resources (bandwidth)Shortest path algorithm to route a given flow not enough
Does not take into account requirements of a flow, e.g. bandwidth requirementDoes not take account interplay between different flows
Must take into account aggregate demand from all flows
4
63
2
1
5 8
7 4
63
2
1
5 8
7
(a) (b)
Shortest path routing congests link 4 to 8
Better flow allocation distributes flows more uniformly