CHAPTER 7 Networks of Communication and Exchange 300 B.C.E.–1100 C.E

CHAPTER 7CHAPTER 7Networks of Networks of

Communication and Communication and ExchangeExchange

300 B.C.E.–1100 C.E.300 B.C.E.–1100 C.E.

The Silk RoadThe Silk Road

Origins and OperationsOrigins and Operations

The Silk Road was an overland route The Silk Road was an overland route that linked China to the that linked China to the Mediterranean world via Mediterranean world via Mesopotamia, Iran, and Central Asia Mesopotamia, Iran, and Central Asia

There were two periods of heavy use There were two periods of heavy use of the Silk Road: of the Silk Road: • (1) 150 B.C.E.–907 C.E. (1) 150 B.C.E.–907 C.E. • (2) The thirteenth through seventeenth (2) The thirteenth through seventeenth

centuries C.E. centuries C.E.


The origins of the Silk Road trade may The origins of the Silk Road trade may be located in the occasional trading of be located in the occasional trading of Central Asian nomads Central Asian nomads

Regular, large-scale trade was Regular, large-scale trade was fostered by the Chinese demand for fostered by the Chinese demand for western products (particularly horses). western products (particularly horses).

Trade was also increased by the Trade was also increased by the Parthian state in northeastern Iran and Parthian state in northeastern Iran and its control of the markets in its control of the markets in Mesopotamia. Mesopotamia.


New CropsNew Crops• In addition to horses, China imported In addition to horses, China imported

alfalfa, grapes, and a variety of other alfalfa, grapes, and a variety of other new crops as well as medicinal products, new crops as well as medicinal products, metals, and precious stones metals, and precious stones

• China exported peaches and apricots, China exported peaches and apricots, spices, and manufactured goods spices, and manufactured goods including silk, pottery, and paper including silk, pottery, and paper

Nomadism in Central and Inner AsiaNomadism in Central and Inner Asia SythiansSythians

• The Silk Road depended on pastoral nomads to The Silk Road depended on pastoral nomads to provide animals, animal handlers, and provide animals, animal handlers, and protection.protection.

• Herodotus describes the Scythians who were Herodotus describes the Scythians who were superb riders, herdsmen, and hunters.superb riders, herdsmen, and hunters.

• They were located in the lands to the north of They were located in the lands to the north of the Black and Caspian Seas.the Black and Caspian Seas.

• They moved around regularly and efficiently to They moved around regularly and efficiently to prevent overgrazing.prevent overgrazing.

• Their homes were felt fabric spread over a Their homes were felt fabric spread over a lightweight framework.lightweight framework.

Nomadism in Central and Inner AsiaNomadism in Central and Inner Asia

The Nomadic LifestyleThe Nomadic Lifestyle• Nomads knew and used the products grown by Nomads knew and used the products grown by

farmers, but ideally desired self-sufficiency.farmers, but ideally desired self-sufficiency.• As a result the foods required for this self-As a result the foods required for this self-

sufficiency were primarily milk and meat.sufficiency were primarily milk and meat.• Clothing was made from felt, leather, and furs.Clothing was made from felt, leather, and furs.• Nomads were dependent on settled regions for Nomads were dependent on settled regions for

bronze or iron used in bridles, stirrups, cart bronze or iron used in bridles, stirrups, cart fittings, and weapons.fittings, and weapons.

The Silk Road and the Spread of ReligionThe Silk Road and the Spread of Religion

The Sasanid EmpireThe Sasanid Empire• Sasanids defeated the Parthians around 224 Sasanids defeated the Parthians around 224

C.E.C.E.• The Sasanids then confronted the Romans, and The Sasanids then confronted the Romans, and

later after 330, the Byzantines.later after 330, the Byzantines.• These rival empires frequently attacked each These rival empires frequently attacked each

other across the frontier between the 340s and other across the frontier between the 340s and 628.628.

• In peacetime, exchange and trade flourished In peacetime, exchange and trade flourished between the two empires.between the two empires.


• Arab pastoralists in the desert between Arab pastoralists in the desert between Syria and Mesopotamia provided the Syria and Mesopotamia provided the camels and guides to extend the Silk camels and guides to extend the Silk Road from the Euphrates River all the Road from the Euphrates River all the way to the Mediterranean coast.way to the Mediterranean coast.

• The development of the militarily efficient The development of the militarily efficient camel saddle by the third century B.C.E. camel saddle by the third century B.C.E. caused the virtual disappearance of caused the virtual disappearance of wheeled vehicles by the sixth century wheeled vehicles by the sixth century C.E.C.E.


Warrior NoblesWarrior Nobles• Cousins of the Shah, or powerful nobles ruled Cousins of the Shah, or powerful nobles ruled

the mountains and plateaus of Iran.the mountains and plateaus of Iran.• Society revolved around a local aristocracy Society revolved around a local aristocracy

that lived in rural estates.that lived in rural estates.• Though this aristocracy dominated, a long-Though this aristocracy dominated, a long-

lasting political fragmentation like that of lasting political fragmentation like that of medieval Europe did not develop.medieval Europe did not develop.

• No folk migration occurred like that of the No folk migration occurred like that of the Germanic tribes who defeated Roman armies Germanic tribes who defeated Roman armies to overtake Roman territoryto overtake Roman territory


Zoroastrians and ChristiansZoroastrians and Christians

Nestorius’ view was that Jesus was made up of two persons with two distinct natures instead of one person with two mystically unified natures. Jesus technically was not the “Son of God” or “Logos,” rather, the Son of God dwelled in Jesus.

Nestorian ChristianityNestorian Christianity

Nestorian ChristianityNestorian Christianity Nestorius calls Mary Nestorius calls Mary christotokoschristotokos (Christ-bearer (Christ-bearer

or mother of Christ) instead of or mother of Christ) instead of theotokostheotokos (God- (God-bearer or mother of God) the term used in bearer or mother of God) the term used in Orthodox Christianity and Catholicism.Orthodox Christianity and Catholicism.

The Orthodox bishops saw this as denying the full The Orthodox bishops saw this as denying the full divinity of Jesus, and declared Nestorius a heretic.divinity of Jesus, and declared Nestorius a heretic.

Yet Nestorian Christianity spread across the silk Yet Nestorian Christianity spread across the silk road to the east.road to the east.

The political fallout was that Nestorian Christians The political fallout was that Nestorian Christians moved toward the east and were welcomed by moved toward the east and were welcomed by the Sasanid emperors. They were happy to the Sasanid emperors. They were happy to declare allegiance to the east rather than to declare allegiance to the east rather than to Constantinople.Constantinople.


ManicheaismManicheaism


Religion and the Silk RoadReligion and the Silk Road


Turkic-Speaking Nomads and Turkic-Speaking Nomads and BuddhismBuddhism

The Impact of the Silk Road on Technology The Impact of the Silk Road on Technology

Turkic nomads, who became the Turkic nomads, who became the dominant pastoralist group in Central dominant pastoralist group in Central Asia, benefited from the trade Asia, benefited from the trade

Their elites constructed houses, lived Their elites constructed houses, lived settled lives, and became interested settled lives, and became interested in foreign religions including in foreign religions including Christianity, Buddhism, and Christianity, Buddhism, and (eventually) Islam (eventually) Islam

The Indian Ocean Maritime System The Indian Ocean Maritime System

The Indian Ocean maritime system linked The Indian Ocean maritime system linked the lands bordering the Indian Ocean the lands bordering the Indian Ocean basin and the South China Sea basin and the South China Sea

Trade took place in three distinct regions:Trade took place in three distinct regions: (1) the South China Sea, dominated by (1) the South China Sea, dominated by

Chinese and Malays Chinese and Malays (2) Southeast Asia to the east coast of (2) Southeast Asia to the east coast of

India, dominated by Malays and Indians India, dominated by Malays and Indians (3) The west coast of India to the Persian (3) The west coast of India to the Persian

Gulf and East Africa, dominated by Gulf and East Africa, dominated by Persians and Arabs Persians and Arabs

Trade in the Indian Trade in the Indian Ocean was made Ocean was made possible by and possible by and followed the patterns followed the patterns of the seasonal of the seasonal changes in the changes in the monsoon winds monsoon winds

Sailing technology Sailing technology unique to the Indian unique to the Indian Ocean system Ocean system included the included the lateen lateen sailsail and a and a shipbuilding shipbuilding technique that technique that involved piercing the involved piercing the planks, tying them planks, tying them together, and together, and caulking them.caulking them.

Climate Regions of South Asia

Because the distances traveled were Because the distances traveled were longer than in the Mediterranean, longer than in the Mediterranean, traders in the Indian Ocean system traders in the Indian Ocean system seldom retained political ties to their seldom retained political ties to their homelands, and war between the homelands, and war between the various lands participating in the various lands participating in the trade was rare trade was rare

Origins of Contact and Trade Origins of Contact and Trade

There is evidence of early trade There is evidence of early trade between ancient Mesopotamia and between ancient Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley the Indus Valley

This trade appears to have broken off This trade appears to have broken off as Mesopotamia turned more toward as Mesopotamia turned more toward trade with East Africa. trade with East Africa.

Two thousand years ago, Malay Two thousand years ago, Malay sailors from Southeast Asia migrated sailors from Southeast Asia migrated to the islands of Madagascar to the islands of Madagascar

These migrants, however, did not These migrants, however, did not retain communications or trade with retain communications or trade with their homeland their homeland

The Impact of Indian Ocean Trade The Impact of Indian Ocean Trade

What little we know about trade in What little we know about trade in the Indian Ocean system before Islam the Indian Ocean system before Islam is gleaned largely from a single first is gleaned largely from a single first century C.E. Greco-Egyptian text, century C.E. Greco-Egyptian text, The The Periplus (list of stops during a sea Periplus (list of stops during a sea route or voyage) of the Erythrean Searoute or voyage) of the Erythrean Sea

This account describes a trading This account describes a trading system that must have been well system that must have been well established and flourishing when the established and flourishing when the account was written account was written

Periplus of the Eryhtrean SeaPeriplus of the Eryhtrean Sea

The goods traded included a wide The goods traded included a wide variety of spices, aromatic resins, pearls, variety of spices, aromatic resins, pearls, Chinese pottery, and other luxury goods. Chinese pottery, and other luxury goods.

The volume of trade was probably not as The volume of trade was probably not as high as in the Mediterranean high as in the Mediterranean

The culture of the Indian Ocean ports The culture of the Indian Ocean ports was often isolated from that of their was often isolated from that of their hinterlands hinterlands

Traders and sailors in the Indian Ocean Traders and sailors in the Indian Ocean system often married local women in the system often married local women in the ports that they frequented. These ports that they frequented. These women thus became mediators between women thus became mediators between cultures cultures

Routes Across the SaharaRoutes Across the Sahara Early Saharan Cultures Early Saharan Cultures

Undatable rock painting show an Undatable rock painting show an early hunting culture, that would early hunting culture, that would eventually become cattle breederseventually become cattle breeders

The artwork indicates that the cattle The artwork indicates that the cattle breeders were later succeeded by breeders were later succeeded by horse herders who drove chariots horse herders who drove chariots

The highland rock art indicates that The highland rock art indicates that camel riders followed the charioteers camel riders followed the charioteers

Saharan rock art: Cattle herdersThis rock painting was found in Tassili, a mountainous region in the Sahara. This scene of cattle grazing near the group of huts (represented on the left by stylized white ovals) reflects the domestication of animals and the development of settled pastoral agriculture. Women and children seem to perform most of the domestic chores. (Henri Lhote)

Saharan rock art: Cattle herdersSaharan rock art: Cattle herders

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

The CamelThe Camel The camel was introduced from Arabia The camel was introduced from Arabia

and its introduction and domestication in and its introduction and domestication in the Sahara was probably related to the the Sahara was probably related to the development of the trans-Saharan tradedevelopment of the trans-Saharan trade

Written evidence and the design of Written evidence and the design of camel saddles and patterns of camel use camel saddles and patterns of camel use indicate a south-to-north diffusion of indicate a south-to-north diffusion of camel riding.camel riding.

The camel made it possible for people The camel made it possible for people from the southern highlands of the from the southern highlands of the Sahara to roam the desert and to Sahara to roam the desert and to establish contacts with the people of the establish contacts with the people of the northern Sahara northern Sahara

Trade Across the Sahara Trade Across the Sahara Trade across the Sahara Trade across the Sahara

developed slowly when developed slowly when two local trading two local trading systems, one in the systems, one in the southern Sahara and one southern Sahara and one in the north, were linked in the north, were linked

Traders in the southern Traders in the southern Sahara had access to Sahara had access to desert salt deposits and desert salt deposits and exported salt to the sub-exported salt to the sub-Saharan regions in Saharan regions in return for kola nuts (has return for kola nuts (has caffeine, and chewed caffeine, and chewed individually) and palm oil individually) and palm oil (used as a cooking oil). (used as a cooking oil).

Traders in the north exported Traders in the north exported agricultural products and wild animals agricultural products and wild animals to Italy.to Italy.

When Rome declined (3rd century When Rome declined (3rd century C.E.) and the Arabs invaded North C.E.) and the Arabs invaded North Africa (mid-7th century C.E.) Africa (mid-7th century C.E.)

The trade of Algeria and Morocco was The trade of Algeria and Morocco was cut off cut off

The Berber people of these areas The Berber people of these areas revolted against the Arabs in the 700s revolted against the Arabs in the 700s and established independent city-and established independent city-states including Sijilmasa and Tahert.states including Sijilmasa and Tahert.

Distribution of Berbers in Northwest Distribution of Berbers in Northwest AfricaAfrica

After 740 C.E. the Berbers found that After 740 C.E. the Berbers found that the southern nomads were getting the southern nomads were getting gold dust from the Niger and other gold dust from the Niger and other areas of West Africa in exchange for areas of West Africa in exchange for their salt their salt

This opened their eyes to a great This opened their eyes to a great business opportunity business opportunity

A pattern of trade developed in which A pattern of trade developed in which the Berbers of North Africa traded the Berbers of North Africa traded copper and manufactured goods to copper and manufactured goods to the nomads of the southern desert in the nomads of the southern desert in return for gold return for gold

The nomads of the southern desert, The nomads of the southern desert, for their part, exchanged their salt for their part, exchanged their salt for the gold of the Niger and other for the gold of the Niger and other West African river areas West African river areas

The Kingdom of GhanaThe Kingdom of Ghana The kingdom of Ghana was one of the The kingdom of Ghana was one of the

early sub-Saharan beneficiaries of this early sub-Saharan beneficiaries of this new trans-Saharan trade in north west new trans-Saharan trade in north west AfricaAfrica

The origins and early history of Ghana The origins and early history of Ghana are obscure are obscure

The first description we have is the The first description we have is the eleventh century account by al-Bakri, eleventh century account by al-Bakri, who described a city of two towns, one who described a city of two towns, one a Muslim merchant town and the other a Muslim merchant town and the other the capital of an animist king and his the capital of an animist king and his court.court.

Almorovids at greatest extentAlmorovids at greatest extent

After 1076 Ghana was weakened by the After 1076 Ghana was weakened by the invasion of the Moroccan Almorovids invasion of the Moroccan Almorovids

Even after the Almorovids retreated from Even after the Almorovids retreated from the south, Ghana never recovered its the south, Ghana never recovered its former wealth and status.former wealth and status.

Sub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan Africa A Challenging Geography A Challenging Geography

Sub-Saharan Africa is a large area Sub-Saharan Africa is a large area with many different environmental with many different environmental zones and many geographical zones and many geographical obstacles to movement obstacles to movement

Some of the significant Some of the significant geographical areas are :geographical areas are :

Sahel Sahel tropical savanna tropical savanna tropical rain forest of the lower Niger tropical rain forest of the lower Niger

and Zaire and Zaire savanna area south of the rain forest savanna area south of the rain forest steppe and desert below that steppe and desert below that temperate highlands of South Africa temperate highlands of South Africa

The Development of Cultural Unity The Development of Cultural Unity

In sub-Saharan Africa no overarching In sub-Saharan Africa no overarching “great tradition” developed “great tradition” developed

Sub-Saharan Africa is a vast territory Sub-Saharan Africa is a vast territory of many “small traditions.” of many “small traditions.”

Historians know very little about the Historians know very little about the prehistory of these many “small prehistory of these many “small traditions” and their peoples traditions” and their peoples

African cultures are highly diverse African cultures are highly diverse There is an estimated 2000 There is an estimated 2000

languages spokenlanguages spoken Another reason for the long Another reason for the long

dominance of “small traditions” is dominance of “small traditions” is that no foreign power was able to that no foreign power was able to conquer Africa and thus impose a conquer Africa and thus impose a unified “great tradition.” unified “great tradition.”

African Cultural Characteristics African Cultural Characteristics

Despite their diversity, African cultures Despite their diversity, African cultures display certain common features that display certain common features that attest to an underlying cultural unity attest to an underlying cultural unity that some scholars have called that some scholars have called “Africanity.” “Africanity.”

One of these common cultural features One of these common cultural features is a concept of kingship in which kings is a concept of kingship in which kings are ritually isolated and oversee are ritually isolated and oversee societies in which the people are societies in which the people are arranged in age groups and kinship arranged in age groups and kinship divisions.divisions.

Other common features include cultivation Other common features include cultivation with the hoe and digging stick, the use of with the hoe and digging stick, the use of rhythm in African music, and the functions rhythm in African music, and the functions of dancing and mask wearing in rituals.of dancing and mask wearing in rituals.

One hypothesis offered to explain this One hypothesis offered to explain this cultural unity holds that the people of sub-cultural unity holds that the people of sub-Saharan Africa are descended from the Saharan Africa are descended from the people who occupied the southern Sahara people who occupied the southern Sahara during its “wet period” and migrated south during its “wet period” and migrated south the Sahel, where their cultural traditions the Sahel, where their cultural traditions developed. developed.

The Advent of Iron and the Bantu The Advent of Iron and the Bantu Migrations Migrations

Sub-Saharan agriculture had its origins Sub-Saharan agriculture had its origins north of the equator and then spread north of the equator and then spread southward. Iron working also began north southward. Iron working also began north of the equator and spread southward, of the equator and spread southward, reaching southern Africa by 800 C.E.reaching southern Africa by 800 C.E.

Linguistic evidence suggests that the Linguistic evidence suggests that the spread of iron and other technology in spread of iron and other technology in sub-Saharan Africa was the result of a sub-Saharan Africa was the result of a phenomenon known as the Bantu phenomenon known as the Bantu migrations. migrations.

Bantu Bantu MigrationMigration

ss

The original homeland of the Bantu The original homeland of the Bantu people was in the area on the border people was in the area on the border of modern Nigeria and Cameroon. of modern Nigeria and Cameroon.

Evidence suggests that the Bantu Evidence suggests that the Bantu people spread out toward the east people spread out toward the east and the south through a series of and the south through a series of migrations over the period of the first migrations over the period of the first millennium C.E. By the eight century, millennium C.E. By the eight century, Bantu-speaking people had reached Bantu-speaking people had reached East Africa. East Africa.

The Spread of Ideas The Spread of Ideas

Ideas and Material Evidence Ideas and Material Evidence

It is extremely difficult, sometimes It is extremely difficult, sometimes impossible, to trace the dissemination of impossible, to trace the dissemination of ideas in preliterate societies ideas in preliterate societies

For example, eating pork was restricted or For example, eating pork was restricted or prohibited by religious belief in Southeast prohibited by religious belief in Southeast Asia, in ancient Egypt, and in eastern Iran Asia, in ancient Egypt, and in eastern Iran

Because Southeast Asia was an early center Because Southeast Asia was an early center of pig domestication, scholars hypothesize of pig domestication, scholars hypothesize that the pig and the religious injunctions that the pig and the religious injunctions concerning eating the pig traveled together concerning eating the pig traveled together toward the west. This has not been proved.toward the west. This has not been proved.

Another difficult problem involves the Another difficult problem involves the invention of coins. invention of coins.

In the Mediterranean world, the coins In the Mediterranean world, the coins were invented in Anatolia and spread were invented in Anatolia and spread from there to Europe, North Africa, from there to Europe, North Africa, and India. and India.

Chinese made cast copper coins—was Chinese made cast copper coins—was this inspired by the Anatolian this inspired by the Anatolian example? There is no way of knowing. example? There is no way of knowing.

The Spread of BuddhismThe Spread of Buddhism

The spread of ideas in a deliberate The spread of ideas in a deliberate and organized fashion such that we and organized fashion such that we can trace it is a phenomenon of the can trace it is a phenomenon of the first millennium C.E. first millennium C.E.

This is particularly the case with the This is particularly the case with the spread of Buddhism, Christianity, and spread of Buddhism, Christianity, and Islam. Islam.

The spread of Buddhism was facilitated The spread of Buddhism was facilitated both by royal sponsorship and by the both by royal sponsorship and by the travels of ordinary pilgrims and travels of ordinary pilgrims and missionaries. missionaries.

In India, the Mauryan king Ashoka and King In India, the Mauryan king Ashoka and King Kanishka of the Kushans actively supported Kanishka of the Kushans actively supported Buddhism. Buddhism.

Two of the most well-known pilgrims who Two of the most well-known pilgrims who helped to transmit Buddhism to China were helped to transmit Buddhism to China were the Chinese monks Faxian and Xuanzang. the Chinese monks Faxian and Xuanzang.

Both have left reliable narrative accounts of Both have left reliable narrative accounts of their journeys.their journeys.

Buddhist missionaries from India Buddhist missionaries from India traveled to a variety of destinations: traveled to a variety of destinations: west to Syria, Egypt, and west to Syria, Egypt, and Mesopotamia, as well as to Sri Lanka, Mesopotamia, as well as to Sri Lanka, southeast Asia, and Tibet. southeast Asia, and Tibet.

Buddhism was changed and further Buddhism was changed and further developed in the lands to which it developed in the lands to which it spread. Theravada Buddhism became spread. Theravada Buddhism became dominant in Sri Lanka, Mahayana in dominant in Sri Lanka, Mahayana in Tibet, and Chan (Zen) in East Asia.Tibet, and Chan (Zen) in East Asia.

The Spread of Christianity The Spread of Christianity Armenia was an Armenia was an

important entrepot. An important entrepot. An entrepôtentrepôt (from the (from the French "warehouse") is a French "warehouse") is a trading post where trading post where merchandise can be merchandise can be imported and exported imported and exported without paying import without paying import duties, often at a profit. duties, often at a profit. for the Silk Road trade.for the Silk Road trade.

Mediterranean states Mediterranean states spread Christianity to spread Christianity to Armenia in order to bring Armenia in order to bring that kingdom over to its that kingdom over to its side and thus deprive Iran side and thus deprive Iran of control of this area.of control of this area.

The transmission of Christianity to The transmission of Christianity to Ethiopia was similarly linked to a Ethiopia was similarly linked to a Mediterranean Christian attempt to Mediterranean Christian attempt to deprive Iran of trade. deprive Iran of trade.

Documents

CHAPTER 7 Networks of Communication and Exchange 300 B.C.E.–1100 C.E