CHAPTER 7EXPANDING SOCIAL HORIZONS: SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN MIDDLE CHILDHOOD

Material from Kail & Cavanaugh’s Human Development: A Life-Span ViewSlides adapted from Ashley Goethe, Theresa Kemp, Danielle Turek, Casey Lin, Julian Thayer, & Dr. Jordan

Guiding Questions What are some key ways in which the

developing child can be influenced by: Family Friends The larger culture

The Functions of Families Protection for human children who

develop slowly compared to other species

Economic support Emotional support Childrearing (or socialization)

Common Parenting Behaviors Providing direct instruction--telling a child what

to do, when, and why

Modeling behavior Counterimitation--learning what should not be done

by observing the behavior

Providing feedback Reinforcement--consequence that increases the

likelihood that a behavior will be repeated in the future

Common Parenting Behaviors

Punishment--applying an adverse stimulus (spanking, grounding, scolding, yelling, etc.)

Negative reinforcement trap--unwittingly reinforcing a behavior you want to discourage

Time-out--punishment that involves removing children who are misbehaving from a situation to a quiet, unstimulating environment

The Four Parenting Styles

1) Authoritarian – high control, low warmth2) Authoritative – combines fair amount of

control and warmth3) Permissive – high warmth, low control4) Uninvolved – neither warmth nor control

Effects of Parenting Styles Authoritarian:

- Children who are unhappy, have low self-esteem, and are frequently over aggressive

Authoritative:-Is best for “most children most of the time”-Tend to have higher grades and are responsible, self reliant and friendly

Permissive: -Children tend to be impulsive with little self-control

Uninvolved:-Children often do poorly in school and are aggressive

Balance is key! Children typically thrive on a parental style that combines control, warmth, and affection.

Children’s Contributions

Age--parents have to adjust their parenting as children age because the effectiveness of certain types of parenting change

Temperament--as parents realize what type of temperament each child has, the style will have to be adjusted

Behavior--children’s behavior helps determine how parents treat them, and the resulting parental behavior influences

Parenting Gone Wrong: Child Maltreatment Physical abuse--involving assault that leads to injuries

including cuts, welts, bruises, and broken bones

Sexual abuse--involving fondling, intercourse, and other sexual behaviors

Psychological--involving ridicule, rejection, and humiliation

Neglect--children do not receive adequate food, clothing or medical care

The Prevalence of Maltreatment 1 million children annually suffer from

neglect or abuse 60% are neglected 15% are physically abused 10% are sexually abused 10% are psychologically abused

Who does this? Cultural values and social condition in

which parents rear their children

Social isolation is another factor

Cultural factors

Why does it occur? Parents that maltreat children were usually maltreated

themselves

Often use ineffective parenting techniques and have such high expectations their children could never reach

Parental relationship is dysfunctional

Children who are often ill are at greater risk for abuse

Stepchildren are also at higher risk

Effects of Abuse Abused children are usually more

aggressive Lower performance in school Lower quality peer relationships More likely to become depressed as they

reach adolescence Despite the risks of these effects, some

children show ego-resilience in the face of this adversity

Preventing Abuse Acceptable levels of punishment must change

Families can be taught more effective ways to cope with stressful situations

Early childhood intervention programs

Parents who were maltreated need help to have the knowledge to avoid it with their children

Parental Influence on Friends Parents exert major influence on

their children’s friendships Children cannot drive or legally be on

their own Parents organize activities for their

children Parents have all the power for a long

time in a parent/child relationship

What is Friendship?

A voluntary relationship between 2 people involving mutual liking

Friendship grows more complex with age Ages 4 –5–-Children like each other and enjoy

playing together Ages 8 –11–-Trust and assistance Adolescence–-Intimacy and loyalty

Girls usually have more intimate friendships at this stage, but co-rumination can be a problematic factor

Who Are Friends? Often similar in age, gender, and race

Opposite-sex friendships are rare, but they do exist. However, children who have only opposite-sex friendships tend to be unpopular, to be less competent academically and socially, and to have lower self-esteem.

Are typically expected to treat each other as equals

Children and adolescents drawn together due to similar attitudes toward school, recreation, and the future

Quality and Consequences of Friendships

Co-Rumination – Conversations about one’s personal problems, common among adolescent girls Strengthens girls’ friendships, but also puts them at risk for

greater depression and anxiety Friendships can also be hazardous when: aggressive

children are friends or when teens engage in risky behavior

Children with good friends… Have higher self-esteem

Are less likely to be lonely and depressed

More often act prosocially by sharing and cooperating with others

Cope better with life stresses

Less likely to be victimized by peers

Popularity and Rejection Popular Children – Children who are liked by many classmates

Are skilled academically and socially Are usually friendly, cooperative, and helpful More skillful at communicating and better at integrating

themselves Includes physically aggressive boys and relationally aggressive

girls Different characteristics unique to cultural setting

Rejected Children – Children who are disliked by many classmates Are overly aggressive, hyperactive, socially unskilled, and unable

to regulate their emotions More hostile than popular children; they seem to be aggressive for

the sheer fun of it Others are shy, withdrawn, timid, and lonely

Popularity and Rejection

Controversial Children – Children who are intensely liked or disliked by classmates

Average Children – Children who are liked and disliked by different classmates, but with relatively little intensity

Neglected Children – Children who are ignored—neither liked nor disliked—by their classmates

Causes and Consequences of Rejection

Repeated rejection in childhood can have serious long-term consequences, such as dropping out of school, committing juvenile offenses, and suffering from psychopathology

Can be traced (in part) to the influences of parents

Parents who are friendly and cooperative with others demonstrate effective social skills for their children

Parents who are belligerent and combative demonstrate ineffective social skills

Children watch how their parents respond in different social situations and may imitate those responses later in life

Disciplinary practices also play a role: Inconsistent forms of child guidance are associated with

antisocial, aggressive behavior Consistent child guidance tied to parental love and affection is

more likely to promote social skills (and popularity).

Aggressive Children Instrumental Aggression – Aggression used to

achieve an explicit goal

Hostile Aggression – Unprovoked aggression that seems to have the sole goal of intimidating, harassing, or humiliating another child

Relational Aggression – Aggression used to hurt others by undermining their social relationships

http://www.cnn.com/2011/10/10/us/ac-360-bullying-study/index.html?eref=rss_latest&utm_source=feedburner&utm_medium=feed&utm_campaign=Feed%3A+rss%2Fcnn_latest+%28RSS%3A+Most+Recent%29

Tendencies to behave aggressively are stable over time

Most schoolchildren are the targets of an occasional aggressive act, but a small percentage of children are chronic targets of bullying. Can occur through physical aggression and

relation aggression Electronic bullying has become common in recent

years

Victimization Victims:

Are often lonely, anxious, and depressed Dislike school and have low self-esteem Feel better if they see others being bullied, because that

lets them know that they are not being singled out

Why are some children victims: Some are aggressive themselves – they often overreact, are

restless, and are easily irritated, making them easy bait for bullies. When attacked, they will probably start a fight even though they are outnumbered.

Some are withdrawn and submissive – they are unwilling or unable to defend themselves (referred to as “passive victims.”). When attacked, they show obvious signs of distress and usually give in to their attackers.

Ways to help victims:• Encourage them not to respond in kind when

insulted and to not show fear when threatened• Increase children’s self-esteem• Foster their friendships with peers

Influences from Society

What’s on TV? Depictions of “real life” Violence, aggression, and

cartoon violence 11,000 murders seen by age

12 Bobo doll experiment

Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory Children learn by observing

others; watching and imitating what they see

Commercials

Criticisms of TV

There are several arguments against television itself: A possible contributor to short attention spans and

difficulty in school Children may become passive thinkers and lose

creativity Neither of these claims has been substantiated by studies or

evidence

There are some arguments supported by facts: The importance of screening the kinds of programs

watched; such as those with cartoon violence, harsh language, inappropriate situations etc.

The link between long periods of inactivity associated with television watching and obesity.

TV as an Influence onAttitudes and Social Behavior Television violence--desensitizes children and instills

violent behaviors. A child will witness several thousand murders on television by adolescence. TV violence has been linked to increases in violent crime.

Stereotypes--give a slanted view of the world, roles, and peer relationships. Children exposed to television adopt these views and the fiction becomes a reality.

Consumer behavior--commercial advertisements often target children. Sugary cereals, toys, and TV programs all indoctrinate children into the world of consumerism and impulse buying.

Prosocial behavior--television can be used to teach prosocial skills. Many programs, on stations like PBS, directed at children teach important social skills and simulate human interactions.

TV as an Influence on Cognition

Educational programs- some television companies, like Children's Television Workshop, produce programs with the purpose of teaching children of all ages.

Sesame Street teaches preschool and kindergarten skills, such as letter and number recognition.

Bill Nye the science guy taught science and mathematics

The Learning Channel, PBS, and Discovery show programs on various informative subjects such as science, culture, and history.

Parental Involvement with TV Children need rules concerning the amount and type of

television they are permitted to watch and the rules need to be enforced!

Do not let children watch excessive television out of boredom.

Adults should watch television, especially a new program, with their children and be active critics of the programming. Ex. If there are only female nurses on the show, comment

about how your cousin Josh just got a job as a nurse (though they don’t make him wear pink).

Media and Stereotypes Television as a “window on the world” is

actually distorted. Jobs being assigned gender roles

according to models seen on television “Typical” families

Reflection of cultural norms Can teach children prosocial behavior

Kimball Canadian study (1986) Studied sex-role stereotypes before and

after television was introduced to the community.

Developing Prejudices A negative view of others based on their membership in a

different group-this often develops once an individual learns of their membership within a group

In young children it is not so much a negative view of others as it is an enhanced view of one’s own group-does not often involve overt hostility at this age, view others as “not as good”

As children enter their elementary school years their knowledge of racial stereotypes and prejudices increases-prejudice tends to decline during these years as children learn that societal norms discourage openly favoring their group over others

During early adolescence prejudice often increases again The resurgence of prejudice is thought to reflect two

processes1) Having been exposed to prejudices some of them are internalized within the child/adolescent2) In their search for identity, adolescent’s preference for their own group often intensifies

-Greater prejudice at this age usually reflects a more positive view of their own group and a more negative view of other groups

How are prejudices formed?

Children form some prejudices as a byproduct of categorizing their social worlds. When children are addressed by race sex or class they

attribute those titles and memberships to themselves, and conversely to others.

A child will naturally prefer his or her own social group as opposed to others

Negative opinions of other groups can emerge if multiple social groups are set in a competitive environment, or if animosity is perceived.

Prejudice can be reduced by mixing children into diverse groups and setting cooperative goals.

It is also important not to label children as this affects their self image.

Ethical concerns limit studies of prejudice to correlational studies so identifying “how” is challenging

Popular Belief: bias and prejudice emerge naturally out of children’s efforts to understand their social world

As children’s social horizons expand they continue to categorize and try to decide how different groups of people “go together” ex. race, gender, age

Jane Elliot’s Blue Eyes/Brown Eyes Experimenthttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6BrFHq-t2VY&feature=related

How Can We Limit Prejudice? Encourage friendly and constructive contacts between

children from different groups- works best with in a non-competitive activity in which children are pursuing common goals

Have children play different roles- allows them to see how prejudice impacts others, reduces egocentrism

Educate children about the racism and/or prejudice experienced by others throughout history

Through these experiences children discover for themselves that each person is a unique mix of experiences, skills, and

values.