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Chapter 6
Pythagorean theoremยฉDavid Morin, October 2021.Draft chapter from eventual book Algebra & Geometry for the Enthusiastic Beginner. Estimatedcompletion date: Fall 2023. More details at https://scholar.harvard.edu/david-morin/books
The Pythagorean theorem is one of the most beautiful theorems in mathematics.It is simple to state, easy to use, and highly accessible โ it doesnโt require a hugeamount of mathematical machinery to prove. Weโll be able to prove it (in numerousways!) with what weโve learned so far.
Weโll begin by stating the basics of the Pythagorean theorem in Section 6.1, andthen in Section 6.2 weโll discuss the general form of Pythagorean triples, which aretriples of integers that satisfy the Pythagorean theorem. Weโll then prove the theoremin many (seven!) ways in Section 6.3. Some of the proofs require nothing more thanthe ๐โ/2 formula for the area of a triangle. And some donโt even require that!Section 6.4 covers an interesting real-life application of the Pythagorean theorem,namely, how far you can see to the horizon from a tall building. Section 6.5then presents many examples and exercises for practice. Weโll end with a generaldiscussion in Section 6.6 about the benefits of working with letters instead ofnumbers.
6.1 The theorem
The Pythagorean theorem deals with right triangles. To repeat a few things wementioned in Chapter 5: Right triangles are ones that have a 90โฆ angle (which iscalled a โright angleโ). A 90โฆ angle is simply what you have at the corner of arectangle. The two sides that meet at the right angle are perpendicular to eachother. These two perpendicular sides in a right triangle are called the legs. Thethird side (opposite the 90โฆ angle) is called the hypotenuse. So in Fig. 6.1 thehypotenuse has length ๐, and the legs have lengths ๐ and ๐. As with other words
255
256 Chapter 6. Pythagorean theorem
like โradiusโ and โcircumference,โ the words โhypotenuseโ and โlegโ can refer toeither the segment itself (as in the preceding sentence), or the length of the segment(as in โthe hypotenuse is ๐โ). The usage is generally clear from the context. Thestandard notation for a right angle is a little square, as we have drawn.
a
b
c
Figure 6.1
As mentioned in Section 5.4, the Pythagorean theorem states that the sides of aright triangle are related by
๐2 + ๐2 = ๐2 (Pythagorean theorem) (6.1)
This statement of the Pythagorean theorem was certainly known before Pythagorasโtime, although it is unknown how much earlier. The date (and creator) of the firstproof is also unknown. In any case, we can only wonder what Pythagorasโ firstencounter with the theorem looked like. . .
Pythagoras wept and despairedAs he added the legs and compared.Then he jumped up with glee,โThough they donโt add to ๐,Itโs a match if the lengths are all squared!โ
Weโll prove the theorem in Section 6.3 below, but there are a few things weshould discuss first. If you draw a triangle with a random shape, the odds are that itwonโt be a right triangle. That is, most random sets of three numbers ๐, ๐, ๐ donโtsatisfy Eq. (6.1). Only special sets do, and hence yield a right triangle. The simplestset of integers that satisfy the theorem is 3, 4, 5. These lengths produce a righttriangle because
32 + 42 = 52 โโ 9 + 16 = 25. (6.2)
Most right triangles donโt have integer lengths for all three sides. Or said in anotherway, if you pick integers for two sides of a right triangle, the third side probablywonโt be an integer. For example, if we pick the two legs to be 1 and 1, then thehypotenuse is given by
12 + 12 = ๐2 =โ ๐2 = 2 =โ ๐ =โ
2 โ 1.414, (6.3)
6.1. The theorem 257
which isnโt an integer. (This triangle is our old friend, the 45-45-90 right triangle.)Or if we pick the hypotenuse to be 8 and one leg to be 5, then the other leg is givenby
๐2 + 52 = 82 =โ ๐2 + 25 = 64. (6.4)
Subtracting 25 from both sides of this equation (as we learned in Section 4.5), andthen taking the square root of both sides, gives
๐2 = 39 =โ ๐ =โ
39 โ 6.245, (6.5)
which isnโt an integer.If all three sides of a right triangle are integers, then we call the set of these
integers a Pythagorean triple (or just a triple, for short). People often list theintegers of a triple inside parentheses, like โ(๐, ๐, ๐).โ For example, in addition tothe Pythagorean triple (3, 4, 5) mentioned above, a few other triples are (6, 8, 10),(5, 12, 13), and (8, 15, 17) because, as you can verify,
62 + 82 = 102, 52 + 122 = 132, 82 + 152 = 172. (6.6)
A quick way of producing new triples from other known triples is to use the factthat any integer multiple of the three numbers in a triple yields three new numbersthat are again a triple. This is true because if (๐, ๐, ๐) is a triple, then we can multipleboth sides of the Pythagorean theorem by ๐ 2 (where ๐ is an integer) to obtain anothertrue statement. (If the two sides of an equation are equal, then multiplying thesetwo equal quantities by the same number ๐ 2 yields two new quantities that are againequal.) This multiplication by ๐ 2 yields
๐2 + ๐2 = ๐2 =โ ๐ 2๐2 + ๐ 2๐2 = ๐ 2๐2 =โ (๐ ๐)2 + (๐ ๐)2 = (๐ ๐)2. (6.7)
But this is just the statement that (๐ ๐, ๐ ๐, ๐ ๐) is a Pythagorean triple, as we wantedto show. For example, the (6, 8, 10) triple mentioned above is the (3, 4, 5) triplemultiplied by ๐ = 2.
This multiplication of each side of a right triangle by ๐ and ending up withanother right triangle makes intuitive sense. If youโre given a right triangle, and ifyou scale it up uniformly by multiplying all of the sides by the same factor, thenthe new triangle has the same shape as the old one, so itโs still a right triangle. Thenew triangle is similar to the old one (it has the same shape); recall the discussionof similarity in Section 5.4. Even if ๐ isnโt an integer, weโll still end up with a righttriangle. But if the sides arenโt integers, we donโt call it a Pythagorean triple.
Note that the Pythagorean theorem in Eq. (6.1) is symmetric in ๐ and ๐. Thatis, both ๐ and ๐ are raised to the same power (namely 2), and the two terms havethe same coefficient (namely 1). This symmetry follows from the fact that it canโtmatter which leg you arbitrarily choose to label as ๐, and which one you label as
258 Chapter 6. Pythagorean theorem
๐. If someone claimed that the theorem took the form of, say, ๐2 + 2๐2 = ๐2, thenyou would get a different result for ๐ if you switched your ๐ and ๐ labels. So thisโtheoremโ canโt be correct.
For example, if the two legs are 5 and 8, and if we label them as ๐ = 5and ๐ = 8 (which weโre free to do), then the ๐2 + 2๐2 = ๐2 โtheoremโ gives52 + 2 ยท 82 = ๐2 =โ 153 = ๐2 =โ ๐ =
โ153 = 12.4. However, if we label
the legs as ๐ = 8 and ๐ = 5 (which weโre also free to do), the โtheoremโ gives82 + 2 ยท 52 = ๐2 =โ 114 = ๐2 =โ ๐ =
โ114 = 10.7. But there can be only one
value of ๐, of course. So the fact that our formula gives two different values meansit canโt be correct.
6.2 General form of triples
It turns out that there is a very simple and general way to produce Pythagoreantriples, beyond the easy ones that are simply integer multiples of other triples. Weclaim that if we start with any two integers ๐ and ๐, then the following three integers๐, ๐, ๐ are a Pythagorean triple, that is, they satisfy the Pythagorean theorem:
๐ = ๐2 โ ๐2, ๐ = 2๐๐, ๐ = ๐2 + ๐2. (6.8)
You can verify this claim by doing the following exercise.
Exercise 6.1 Show that the ๐, ๐, and ๐ expressions in Eq. (6.8) satisfyEq. (6.1), by calculating the sum ๐2 + ๐2 and then showing that the resultequals ๐2.
For integers ๐, ๐, who knewThat ๐ is their product times 2?And ๐? Itโs a fact:Form the squares and subtract.And then ๐? Instead add up the two.
The preceding exercise is the standard way of showing that the ๐, ๐, and ๐
expressions in Eq. (6.8) form a Pythagorean triple. Hereโs another way. We wantto show that ๐2 + ๐2 = ๐2, and this relation is equivalent to (by subtracting ๐2 fromboth sides) ๐2 = ๐2 โ ๐2. We can now invoke the handy difference-of-squares result
6.2. General form of triples 259
from Eq. (3.22) to write ๐2 โ ๐2 as (๐ + ๐) (๐ โ ๐). So our goal is to show that thisproduct equals ๐2. Plugging in the expressions for ๐ and ๐ from Eq. (6.8) gives
๐2 โ ๐2 = (๐ + ๐)(๐ โ ๐)
=((๐2 +๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ๐
2) + (๐2 โ๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ๐2)
) ((๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ๐2 + ๐2) โ (๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ๐2 โ ๐2)
)= (2๐2) (2๐2) = 4๐2๐2 = (2๐๐)2 = ๐2, (6.9)
as desired.
Exercise 6.2 Show again that the ๐, ๐, and ๐ expressions in Eq. (6.8) satisfyEq. (6.1), by applying the difference-of-squares result like we just did, butnow with the Pythagorean theorem written as ๐2 = ๐2 โ ๐2.
It turns out that not only does Eq. (6.8) generate Pythagorean triples, it generatesall of them. That is, there are no triples that arenโt of the form in Eq. (6.8); everytriple has an associated (๐, ๐) pair. The proof of this statement (โIf three numbersare a triple, then they take the form of Eq. (6.8)โ) is more involved than our aboveproofs of the reverse statement (โIf three numbers take the form of Eq. (6.8), thenthey are a tripleโ). So weโll just accept it here.
Table 6.1 lists the triples that Eq. (6.8) generates for various (๐, ๐) pairs. Someof the triples are multiples of others. For example, (24, 10, 26) is 2 times (5, 12, 13),although in a different order.
๐ ๐ ๐
๐ ๐ ๐2 โ ๐2 2๐๐ ๐2 + ๐2
2 1 3 4 53 1 8 6 103 2 5 12 134 1 15 8 174 2 12 16 204 3 7 24 255 1 24 10 265 2 21 20 295 3 16 30 345 4 9 40 41
Table 6.1: Pythagorean triples
260 Chapter 6. Pythagorean theorem
Exercise 6.3 Pick a few of the triples in Table 6.1 and verify that they doindeed satisfy the Pythagorean theorem.
If you stare at Table 6.1 long enough, a few things become clear, one of whichis the following. Look at the cases where ๐ = ๐ โ 1. So (๐, ๐) takes the formof (2, 1), (3, 2), (4, 3), (5, 4), etc. The ๐ values associated with these pairs are,respectively, the odd numbers 3, 5, 7, and 9, which equal ๐ + ๐. And in each case,you will observe that ๐ and ๐ differ by 1 and add up to ๐2. For example, in the(5, 4) case we have 40 + 41 = 92. And in the (4, 3) case we have 24 + 25 = 72. Thefollowing example shows that this pattern holds for all of the (๐, ๐) = (๐, ๐ โ 1)cases.
Example 6.1 For the ๐ = ๐ โ 1 cases, show that ๐ is odd and equals ๐ + ๐.And show that ๐ and ๐ differ by 1 and add up to ๐2.
Solution: If we plug ๐ = ๐โ1 into the expressions for ๐, ๐, and ๐ in Eq. (6.8),we obtain
๐ = ๐2 โ (๐ โ 1)2 =๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ๐2 โ (๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ๐2 โ 2๐ + 1) = 2๐ โ 1,๐ = 2๐(๐ โ 1) = 2๐2 โ 2๐,
๐ = ๐2 + (๐ โ 1)2 = ๐2 + (๐2 โ 2๐ + 1) = 2๐2 โ 2๐ + 1. (6.10)
We want to show four things:
โข ๐ is odd: Since ๐ takes the form of 2๐ โ 1 where ๐ is an integer, wesee that ๐ is indeed odd. (Even numbers take the form of 2๐, and oddnumbers take the form of 2๐ โ 1. Or equivalently 2๐ + 1.)
โข ๐ = ๐ + ๐: Since ๐ + ๐ = ๐ + (๐ โ 1) = 2๐ โ 1, we see that ๐ is equalto ๐ + ๐, as desired. Alternatively, the difference-of-squares result inEq. (3.22) tells us that if ๐ = ๐ โ 1, then
๐ = ๐2 โ ๐2 = (๐ + ๐) (๐ โ ๐) = (๐ + ๐) (1) = ๐ + ๐, (6.11)
because the difference between ๐ and ๐ is 1.
โข ๐ and ๐ differ by 1: The forms we found for ๐ and ๐ in Eq. (6.10) tell usthat ๐ = ๐ + 1, so they do in fact differ by 1.
6.2. General form of triples 261
โข ๐ + ๐ = ๐2: The sum of ๐ and ๐ is
๐ + ๐ = (2๐2 โ 2๐) + (2๐2 โ 2๐ + 1) = 4๐2 โ 4๐ + 1. (6.12)
This is indeed equal to ๐2 since
๐2 = (2๐ โ 1)2 = 4๐2 โ 4๐ + 1. (6.13)
Here are a few exercises, two involving numbers and two involving letters.
Exercise 6.4 The size of a rectangular computer screen is generally specifiedby giving the length of the diagonal line. What is the size of a screen that is11.3 inches wide and 7.0 inches tall? Or 14.4 inches wide and 9.0 inches tall?
Exercise 6.5 An American football field is 100 yards long (excluding theend zones) and 53.33 yards (160 feet) wide. If you walk from one corner tothe opposite one, what distance do you save by walking diagonally instead ofalong two sides?
Exercise 6.6 In Table 6.1, another thing you may have noticed is that for the๐ = 1 cases, ๐ and ๐ are obtained by taking half of ๐, squaring the result, andthen adding or subtracting 1. For example, in the (5, 1) case, ๐ is 10. Half ofthis is 5, and 52 is 25. Adding or subtracting 1 then gives 24 and 26, whichare indeed the ๐ and ๐ values. The concise way of stating this result is that ๐and ๐ take the form of (๐/2)2 ยฑ 1. Explain why this is true by letting ๐ = 1 inEq. (6.8).
Exercise 6.7 Another way of stating the ๐ = ๐ โ 1 result discussed abovein Example 6.1 is the following. Take an odd number (call it ๐) and squareit. Then add or subtract 1 from the result. And then divide each of thesetwo numbers by 2. Call the results ๐ and ๐. (So if we start with ๐ = 9, weobtain 81, and then 82 and 80, and then 41 and 40. This is the last triple inTable 6.1.)
For an (๐, ๐, ๐) triplet generated this way, calculate the sum ๐2 + ๐2 and thenshow that it equals ๐2. Hint: Since ๐ is an odd number, it takes the generalform of 2๐ โ 1 where ๐ is an integer. (This problem gets a little messy. Youโllneed to square a trinomial, but stick with it!)
262 Chapter 6. Pythagorean theorem
6.3 Seven proofs of the theorem
Letโs now prove the Pythagorean theorem โ in seven different ways! Weโll present allof these proofs as exercises, so that youโll have the chance to do them yourself. Wedonโt want you to miss out on any of the fun! Some of the proofs are great examplesof what algebra can do for you, while others (the third and fourth ones) are purelygeometric and donโt require any algebra at all. You might think itโs excessive toinclude seven proofs here, but the strategies involved are varied and instructive. Andbesides, itโs always hard to pass up any new opportunity to prove the Pythagoreantheorem! Hereโs the statement of the theorem:
Pythagorean theorem: If the sides of a right triangle are ๐, ๐, and ๐, with ๐ beingthe hypotenuse, then ๐2 + ๐2 = ๐2.
Proof: And here are the proofs:
Exercise 6.8 (Proof 1) Prove the Pythagorean theorem by using the fact thatthe area of the overall square in Fig. 6.2 equals the sum of the areas of thefour triangles plus the area of the smaller square. (Thereโs a bit of an opticalillusion in this figure. The sides of the overall square are indeed vertical andhorizontal, even if they donโt look it!)
a
a
bc
Figure 6.2
Exercise 6.9 (Proof 2) Fig. 6.3 shows a square with side length ๐ subdividedinto four right triangles with legs ๐ and ๐ (and hypotenuse ๐), along with asquare in the middle with side length ๐ โ ๐. Prove the Pythagorean theoremby using the fact that (as in the preceding proof) the area of the overall squareequals the sum of the areas of the four triangles plus the area of the smallersquare.
6.3. Seven proofs of the theorem 263
a
a
b
b โ a
b โ a
b
c
c
Figure 6.3
Exercise 6.10 (Proof 3) This proof requires no algebra; itโs basically ageometry-only interpretation of the first proof above. Perhaps it shouldnโtcount as a separate proof, but itโs so slick, I think it should. Itโs the quickestand simplest proof of them all.
Fig. 6.4 shows four shaded triangles inside a square. Show how to rearrangethe triangles in a way that makes it clear that the area of the white region(which is ๐2) also equals ๐2 + ๐2.
b
b
c
a
a
c2
Figure 6.4
Exercise 6.11 (Proof 4) Hereโs another geometry-only proof. Fig. 6.5 showsa combo version of Figs. 6.2 and 6.3. Rearrange some of the shapes to showthat ๐2 + ๐2 = ๐2. Weโve given a hint by drawing two shaded squares withareas ๐2 and ๐2. (These shapes are indeed squares, since all sides are either๐ or ๐.)
Exercise 6.12 (Proof 5) The overall right triangle in Fig. 6.6 has side lengths๐, ๐, and ๐. The altitude to the hypotenuse is drawn. Explain why the twosmaller right triangles produced are similar to (that is, they have the same
264 Chapter 6. Pythagorean theorem
a
a
a
b
b
b c
c
Figure 6.5
angles as) the overall right triangle. Then use this similarity to find the twolengths that ๐ is divided into. The Pythagorean theorem will follow from thefact that these two lengths add up to ๐.
a
b
c
Figure 6.6
Exercise 6.13 (Proof 6) In the preceding proof, we found that the two sub-triangles in Fig. 6.6 are similar to the overall triangle. This similarity allowsus to use the scaling results from Section 5.5 to determine how the areas of thesub-triangles are related to the area of the overall triangle. The Pythagoreantheorem will follow from the fact that the two sub-areas add up to the overallarea.
Exercise 6.14 (Proof 7) This final proof is how Euclid proved the Pythagoreantheorem. Itโs a bit more involved than the preceding six proofs, and it relieson one fact that we havenโt covered yet โ the (entirely believable) โside-angle-sideโ (SAS) postulate, which says that if two triangles have two sides incommon, along with the angle between them, then they are congruent (whichis a fancy word for identical; they have the same shape and same size). If youplay around with a few examples, youโll be convinced that this postulate iscorrect.
6.3. Seven proofs of the theorem 265
In Fig. 6.7, we have drawn squares on the sides of right triangle ๐ด๐ต๐ถ. Provingthe Pythagorean theorem is equivalent to showing that the sum of the areasof the two smaller squares (๐2 + ๐2) equals the area of the big square (๐2).
Your task: First show that the triangles in each shaded pair in Fig. 6.7 arecongruent, and then explain how their areas relate to the areas of the smallersquares, and also to the two rectangular sub-areas ๐ 1 and ๐ 2 of the largesquare, defined by the dashed line drawn. Hint: The area of a triangle is halfthe base times the height. Find some helpful bases and heights! For example,triangle ๐ด1๐ต๐ด can be considered to have base ๐ด1๐ต and height ๐ด1๐ด2.
a
a
b
b
A2
A1
C1
C2
R2
R1
B1 B2
C
B
A
cc
c
Figure 6.7
266 Chapter 6. Pythagorean theorem
Having worked through all of these proofs, you can now say without a doubtthat you understand the Pythagorean theorem! And that has its perks. . .
Itโs quick to spot which kids are cool,As they saunter the halls of the school.โWhoโs got the swagger? Us!We know Pythagoras!Sure, weโre all square, but we rule!โ
The converse
The Pythagorean theorem says, โIf a triangle is right, then its side lengths satisfy๐2 + ๐2 = ๐2.โ The reverse statement (the converse) is also true:
Converse: If a triangleโs side lengths satisfy ๐2 + ๐2 = ๐2, then the triangle is right.
As with the โforwardโ direction of the theorem we proved above, there are manydifferent ways to prove the converse. Weโll present just one proof here.
Weโre starting with the assumption that ๐2 + ๐2 = ๐2, and our goal is to showthat the triangle is right. That is, we want to show that it cannot look like either ofthe triangles (obtuse or acute) in Fig. 6.8, where the ๐ side is tilted. So for both ofthese possibilities, our goal is to show that ๐ฅ must be zero. That is, the ๐ฅ segmentmust in fact not exist; equivalently the top vertex is actually directly over the left endof the ๐ side. Weโll address the obtuse case here. (The acute case proceeds in thesame manner, with only one small sign modification, as you can check.) This proofmakes use of the โforwardโ direction of the Pythagorean theorem, so it assumes(quite correctly!) that weโve already proved that.
a a
b2 โ x2
x x
bc
(a)(obtuse) (acute)
(b)
bc
b2 โ x2
Figure 6.8
From the Pythagorean theorem, the vertical leg of the small right triangle inFig. 6.8(a) has length
โ๐2 โ ๐ฅ2, as shown. The Pythagorean theorem applied to the
6.4. Distance to the horizon 267
overall big right triangle then gives
(๐ + ๐ฅ)2 +(โ
๐2 โ ๐ฅ2)2 = ๐2
=โ (๐2 + 2๐๐ฅ +๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ๐ฅ2) + (๐2 โ๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ๐ฅ
2) = ๐2. (6.14)
Subtracting ๐2 from both sides yields
(๐2 + ๐2 โ ๐2) + 2๐๐ฅ = 0 =โ 0 + 2๐๐ฅ = 0, (6.15)
where we have used the given information that ๐2 + ๐2 = ๐2 =โ ๐2 + ๐2 โ ๐2 = 0.We see that the product 2๐๐ฅ equals zero. And since neither 2 nor ๐ is zero, it mustbe the case that ๐ฅ = 0. In other words, the ๐ side is vertical, and the triangle is aright triangle, as we wanted to show.
6.4 Distance to the horizon
Hereโs an interesting real-life application of the Pythagorean theorem: If youโre ina tall building with height โ, how far can you see to the horizon? Letโs assume thatthe building is at the ocean shore, so that we donโt need to worry about trees andhills and such.
The basic setup is shown in Fig. 6.9. The height โ weโve drawn is very muchexaggerated (being about 1/5 of the earthโs radius ๐ ), to make it easier to see whatโsgoing on. In reality, thereโs no chance that โ (for any everyday-type scenario) wouldbe comparable to the earthโs radius ๐ . Even at the altitude of the International SpaceStation (which is about 250 miles), โ is only 1/16 of ๐ (which is about 4000 miles).
R
R
hd
you
you can see to here
Figure 6.9
Our goal is to find the distance ๐ in the figure, in terms of the known quantitiesโ and ๐ . Now, the desired distance you can see to the horizon is slightly ambiguous.Do we mean the straight-line distance ๐ drawn, or do we mean the curved distancealong the surface of the earth? Fortunately it doesnโt matter, because these twodistances are essentially equal for any reasonable (not excessively large) value of โ.But for concreteness letโs say that our goal is to find the straight-line distance ๐.
268 Chapter 6. Pythagorean theorem
The straight line representing the distance ๐ is tangent to the earth. Weโll talkabout โtangentsโ below in Exercise 6.24, but in short, a tangent line is one that justbarely skims the circle. The tangent line is in fact the line of sight weโre concernedwith, because if you look at an angle that is slightly too high, youโll be looking ata point in the sky; and if you look at an angle that is slightly too low, youโll belooking at a nearby point on the ground (which therefore wonโt be the farthest pointyou can see). So we are indeed concerned with the tangent line โ the cutoff betweenthe ground and the sky. Weโll see in Exercise 6.24 that a tangent line is alwaysperpendicular to the radius at the point of contact with the circle. Letโs just acceptthis (quite believable) fact for now. We therefore have the right triangle shown inFig. 6.9, which means that we can apply the Pythagorean theorem.
Letโs do a numerical example first, and then weโll find the general solution interms of letters. Weโll pick โ to be
โ = 100 meters, (6.16)
which is about 330 feet โ a reasonably tall building. We could work with any unitof length (feet, yards, meters, etc.), but weโll choose the metric systemโs metersbecause other lengths in it (like kilometers) are obtained by multiplying by simplepowers of 10. A kilometer is 1000 meters. (The prefix โkiloโ means 1000.) Theabbreviations for meter and kilometer are โmโ and โkm.โ A meter is about 39.4inches, which is a little more that a yard (3 feet, or 36 inches).
In addition to assuming weโre at the ocean shore (so that we donโt need to worryabout trees and hills), weโll work in the approximation where the earth is a perfectsphere. It actually isnโt; it bulges a little at the equator because itโs spinning. Theradius of the earth varies from about 6,356 km at the poles to 6,378 km at the equator.Thereโs no need for that level of accuracy here, so weโll just round these values upto 6,400 km. Hence
๐ = 6,400 km (or equivalently 6,400,000 meters), (6.17)
which is the same as the 4000 miles we stated above. This follows from the factthat there are 1609 meters in a mile, and hence about 1.6 kilometers in a mile (amile is the larger of the two units). So to go from km to miles, you divide by1.609, or equivalently multiply by 0.62. (A 10 km race is 6.2 miles.) This checks:(6400) (0.62) โ 4000, and (4000) (1.6) = 6400.
We can now apply the Pythagorean theorem. In Fig. 6.9, the three sides ofour right triangle are the desired distance ๐, the radius ๐ = 6,400,000 m, and thehypotenuse ๐ + โ = 6,400,100 m. The Pythagorean theorem therefore gives
๐2 + (6,400,000 m)2 = (6,400,100 m)2. (6.18)
Subtracting (6,400,000 m)2 from both sides of this equation gives
๐2 = (6,400,100 m)2 โ (6,400,000 m)2 = 1,280,010,000 m2. (6.19)
6.4. Distance to the horizon 269
Taking the square root of both sides then gives
๐ =โ
1,280,010,000 m2 โ 35,800 m โ 36 km. (6.20)
You can therefore see about 36 kilometers (or about (36)(0.62) = 22 miles) from a100-meter building. Thatโs quite far!
Using letters
You undoubtedly noticed that the above calculation contained some large numbers,which were somewhat of a pain. The numbers would have been smaller if we hadchosen to work with kilometers instead of meters (the lengths would have been๐ = 6400 km and ๐ + โ = 6400.1 km), but numbers are still often a hassle to workwith. So letโs now solve the problem algebraically, that is, in terms of letters. Thereare significant advantages to working with letters, as weโll spell out in Section 6.6.
In terms of letters, applying the Pythagorean theorem to the triangle in Fig. 6.9gives (in place of Eq. (6.18) with numbers)
๐2 + ๐ 2 = (๐ + โ)2 =โ ๐2 +๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ๐ 2 =๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ๐
2 + 2๐ โ + โ2
=โ ๐ =โ
2๐ โ + โ2, (6.21)
where we have subtracted ๐ 2 from both sides, and then taken the square root ofboth sides, to obtain the last line. This
โ2๐ โ + โ2 result is the general answer to
the problem. For any values of ๐ and โ weโre given, we can simply plug theminto
โ2๐ โ + โ2 to obtain the desired distance ๐. You can check that if you plug
in the ๐ = 6,400,000 m and โ = 100 m values we used above, you will reproduceEq. (6.20).
Eq. (6.21) is a nice clean result. But we can go one step further to obtain aneven cleaner result. In a real-life situations, the โ2 term is much smaller than the2๐ โ term. It is smaller by the factor โ/2๐ (since 2๐ โ ยท โ/2๐ = โ2), which is verysmall for any everyday value of โ. If youโre in a tall building with height โ = 100 m(330 feet), then
โ
2๐ =
100 m2(6,400,000 m) =
1128,000
โ 8 ยท 10โ6. (6.22)
Even at the height of a commercial airplane (about 10,000 m, or 33,000 feet), thevalue of โ/2๐ , which is 100 times larger than for 100 m (or 330 feet), is still only1/1280. So to a good approximation we can simply ignore the โ2 term in Eq. (6.21)and say that
๐ โโ
2๐ โ. (6.23)
This is an extremely clean result! Now, whenever you derive an approximateanswer like we just did, you gain something and you lose something. You lose
270 Chapter 6. Pythagorean theorem
some truth, of course, because your new answer is an approximation and thereforetechnically not correct (although the error becomes very small in the appropriatelimit โ small โ here). But you gain some aesthetics. Your new answer is invariablymuch cleaner (often involving only one term), which makes it much easier to seewhatโs going on.
For example, a quick look at Eq. (6.23) tells you that ๐ does not grow linearlywith โ (that is, it isnโt directly proportional to โ), but instead grows like the squareroot of โ. So if you want to make ๐ be, say, 5 times larger, then you need to makeโ be 25 times larger. Simply increasing โ by a factor of 5 wonโt do it. Similarly, ifyou want to increase ๐ by a factor of 10, you need to increase โ by a factor of 100.Or said in a slightly different way, if you increase โ by a factor of 100, you increase๐ by a factor of only 10. Simple relations like these between ๐ and โ arenโt obviousfrom looking at the correct (but not as simple) result in Eq. (6.21).
How close is the approximate answer in Eq. (6.23) to the exact answer inEq. (6.21) when ๐ = 6,400,000 and โ = 100? Plugging in the numbers gives (thefirst result here is just a repeat of Eq. (6.20), without the rounding)
๐exact =โ
2๐ โ + โ2 =โ
1,280,010,000 m2 = 35,777.23 m,
๐approx =โ
2๐ โ =โ
1,280,000,000 m2 = 35,777.09 m. (6.24)
We see that ourโ
2๐ โ approximation is a very good one. No one could possibly careabout an error of 0.14 m = 14 cm, when weโre talking about distances of roughly36 km. Thereโs truly no harm in ignoring the comparatively tiny โ2 term. Even atthe top of a tall mountain, the โ2 term will have no noticeable effect (when comparedwith the distance you can see).
When looking afar from peak,Remember this useful technique:In finding the distance,Ignore the existenceOf terms whose effect is quite weak.
Exercise 6.15 The height of the International Space Station is โ โ ๐ /16,which equals 250 miles, or 400 km. In terms of ๐ , find the exact andapproximate answers for ๐ in Eqs. (6.21) and (6.23). Then plug in ๐ =6,400 km to find the actual distances. By how much do they differ?
6.4. Distance to the horizon 271
What does Eq. (6.23) give for some other values of โ? If youโre standing at theshore of the ocean, letโs say that your eyes are at a height of โ = 2 m. We then have
๐ =โ
2๐ โ =โ
2(6,400,000 m) (2 m) = 5060 m โ 5 km โ 3 miles. (6.25)
On one hand, this might seem like a large distance, given that your eyes are only 2meters above the ground. But on the other hand, this distance is much smaller thanit would be if the earth were flat!
The values of ๐ โโ
2๐ โ for a few other values of โ are listed in Table 6.2.The โโs are given in meters, and the ๐โs are given in both kilometers and miles.Remember, to go from kilometers to miles, we multiply by 0.62. Are the variousvalues of ๐ larger or smaller than what you expected? (In some cases weโve keptmore significant figures than weโre entitled to. Weโve done this so that you cancheck your calculations if you want to reproduce the numbers yourself. Weโve used6,400,000 m for ๐ , and 0.62 for the conversion from kilometers to miles, althoughthese are just rounded figures.)
Location โ (in m) ๐ (in km) ๐ (in miles)Standing ant 0.01 0.36 0.2 (1200 ft)Your eye near ground 0.1 1.1 0.7Person standing 2 5 3Somewhat tall building 100 36 22Burj Khalifa observatory 550 84 52Pikeโs Peak, Colorado 4300 235 145Commercial airplane 10,000 358 222Space Station 400,000 2263 1403
Table 6.2: Distances to the horizon
Concerning the first entry in Table 6.2, the standing ant would need to be at theshore of very still water. Even the tiniest ripples (near where the tangent line inFig. 6.9 touches the earth) would ruin our perfect-sphere assumption for the earth.As โ gets larger, ripples (and eventually big waves) can be ignored.
Mt. Everest is about 8850 m tall, which is roughly the same as the 10,000 mcommercial-airplane entry in the table. So you can see about 200 miles from thetop of Mt. Everest. Or rather, you could see that far if there werenโt other mountainsaround.
Depending on where the measurement is taken, the straight-line distance betweenthe east and west coasts of the US is about 2500 miles. Therefore, since the SpaceStation can see 1400 miles in either direction, for a total of 2800 miles, it can (justbarely) see both coasts at the same time.
272 Chapter 6. Pythagorean theorem
Hereโs an easy formula to remember if you want to determine the distance ๐
associated with a given height โ. Let โ be ๐ meters. (So ๐ is just a pure numberwithout any units.) Then
๐ =โ
2๐ โ =โ
2(6,400,000 m)(๐ m) โ (3600 m)โ๐. (6.26)
So we can write ๐ as
๐ โ (3.6 km)โ๐ or (2.2 miles)
โ๐. (6.27)
So whatever the height โ is in meters, you simply need to take the square root ofthat and then multiply by either 3.6 km or 2.2 miles, depending on how you want toexpress your answer. But remember that in either case, ๐ is the number of meters.
Note that if we square both sides of Eq. (6.23), we obtain ๐2 = 2๐ โ. Dividingboth sides by 2๐ (and switching sides) then gives โ in terms of ๐:
โ =๐2
2๐ . (6.28)
This equation gives the answer to the question: If you want to see a given distance ๐,what does your height โ need to be? (This is the opposite of our original question offinding ๐ in terms of โ.) If you want to see ๐ = 160 km (100 miles), then Eq. (6.28)gives the required โ as (weโll work entirely with kilometers here, although you couldvery well use meters; there would just be some additional 0โs in the numbers)
โ =(160 km)2
2(6,400 km) = 2 km = 2000 m. (6.29)
This translates to about 6,600 feet, which is a fairly tall mountain. This case liesbetween the Burj Khalifa and Pikeโs Peak entries in Table 6.2.
Exercise 6.16 If you dig a straight tunnel from Boston to New York City(about 300 km apart), what is the depth โ of the tunnel at its deepest point?(Make a guess before solving the problem.) Hint: Draw a picture and lookfor a useful right triangle. Ignore the โ2 term you will encounter, as we didabove. Assume the earth is a perfect sphere.
6.5. Many examples and exercises 273
6.5 Many examples and exercises
Letโs now do a number of examples and exercises. As always, you are encouragedto treat the examples as exercises and try them on your own first.
Example 6.2 In Example 5.4 we used the area of an octagon to produce anestimate of ๐. Letโs obtain another estimate here, now using the perimeter.Weโll need to find the octagonโs side length; the altitude we drew in Fig. 5.46is helpful for this.
Solution: Fig. 6.10 shows a 45โฆ pie piece (just the triangle, without therounded end). Letting the radius be 1 as usual, the 45-45-90 triangle in theleft part of the pie piece has legs with lengths 1/
โ2 (from Section 5.4), as
shown.
1
s1
1 โ
45
45
2/1 2/
1 2/
Figure 6.10
The important point to realize now is that the bottom side of the pie piece haslength 1, because itโs also a radius. So a length 1 โ 1/
โ2 is left for the short
segment on the right side, as shown. The Pythagorean theorem applied to theright triangle in the right part of the pie piece then gives the octagonโs sidelength ๐ as
๐ 2 =(1/โ
2)2 +
(1 โ 1/
โ2)2 = 1/2 +
(1 โ 2/
โ2 + 1/2
)= 2 โ
โ2. (6.30)
Taking the square root of both sides yields ๐ =โ
2 โโ
2 โ 0.765, and thenmultiplying this by 8 to find the perimeter of the octagon gives ๐oct โ 6.12.The ๐ถcirc > ๐oct statement that the circumference of the circle is greater thanthe perimeter of the octagon is then 2๐ > 6.12, or equivalently ๐ > 3.06,after dividing by 2. This value is about 97% of the true ๐ โ 3.14 value, sothe approximation is a very good one.
274 Chapter 6. Pythagorean theorem
Example 6.3 Show that if the side lengths of a right triangle are equallyspaced (that is, if the hypotenuse exceeds the longer leg by the same amountthat the longer leg exceeds the shorter leg), then the sides are in the ratio of3 : 4 : 5.
Solution: Let ๐ be the difference between successive sides, and let the longerleg be ๐. Then the side lengths are ๐ โ ๐, ๐, and ๐ + ๐. So the Pythagoreantheorem gives
๐2 + (๐ โ ๐)2 = (๐ + ๐)2 =โ ๐2 = (๐ + ๐)2 โ (๐ โ ๐)2 (6.31)
=โ ๐2 = (@@๐2 + 2๐๐ +๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ๐2) โ (@@๐2 โ 2๐๐ +๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ๐
2)=โ ๐2 = 4๐๐ =โ ๐ = 4๐ =โ ๐ = ๐/4.
The second-to-last equation is obtained by dividing both sides of the previousone by ๐, and then the last equation is obtained by further dividing by 4, andthen switching sides. (Or we could have simply divided by 4๐ in a singlestep.)
The ๐ โ ๐ leg of the triangle is therefore ๐ โ ๐ = ๐ โ ๐/4 = 3๐/4. And thehypotenuse is ๐ + ๐ = ๐ + ๐/4 = 5๐/4. So the three sides are 3๐/4, ๐, and5๐/4. Scaling all of these up by a factor of 4 gives sides of 3๐, 4๐, and 5๐.These are indeed in the ratio of 3 : 4 : 5.
Remarks:
1. Before doing any work on this problem, we already knew that a (3, 4, 5)right triangle has equally spaced lengths, since 5 โ 4 = 4 โ 3. What wedid in this solution was show that there are no other ratios (that is, no othershapes) that also have this property.
2. Letโs be more precise about how we solved Eq. (6.31). When we arrivedat the ๐2 = 4๐๐ equation, what we technically should have done was toget everything on one side of the equation, and then factor. So subtracting4๐๐ from both sides gives ๐2 โ 4๐๐ = 0, and then factoring this gives๐(๐ โ 4๐) = 0. There are two ways the lefthand side can be zero. One isfor ๐ to be zero. However, although ๐ = 0 is a solution to our mathematicalequation, it isnโt a solution to our problem, because the side lengths ๐ โ ๐,๐, and ๐+๐ are then โ๐, 0, and ๐. And since side lengths must be positive,we therefore reject this solution, even though it does mathematically satisfy๐2 + ๐2 = ๐2.
6.5. Many examples and exercises 275
The other solution is the one weโre concerned with. The binomial ๐ โ 4๐is zero when ๐ = 4๐, or equivalently when ๐ = ๐/4, as we found above.When we divided by ๐ above in Eq. (6.31), we were tacitly (and correctly)assuming that ๐ couldnโt be zero.
3. In the above solution, we let the longer leg be ๐. What if we instead let theshorter leg be ๐? If ๐ is again the common spacing, the sides are now ๐,๐ + ๐, and ๐ + 2๐. So the Pythagorean theorem gives
๐2 + (๐ + ๐)2 = (๐ + 2๐)2
=โ ๐2 + (๐2 + 2๐๐ + ๐2) = ๐2 + 4๐๐ + 4๐2. (6.32)
Getting all of the terms over on the righthand side by subtracting 2๐2, 2๐๐,and ๐2 from both sides gives
0 = 3๐2 + 2๐๐ โ ๐2. (6.33)
To solve this equation for ๐ in terms of ๐, we can use the factoring methodwe learned in Section 4.2.3. After a little guessing and checking withFOIL, we find that Eq. (6.33) can be factored into
0 = (3๐ โ ๐) (๐ + ๐). (6.34)
The first binomial on the right side is zero when 3๐ = ๐ =โ ๐ = ๐/3, andthe second is zero when ๐ = โ๐. This second root isnโt allowed, becausethe side lengths ๐, ๐ + ๐, and ๐ + 2๐ are then ๐, 0, and โ๐. And as wenoted in the preceding remark, the side lengths must be positive.The ๐ = ๐/3 solution is the one weโre concerned with. The longer leg isthen ๐ + ๐ = ๐ + ๐/3 = 4๐/3, and the hypotenuse is ๐ + 2๐ = ๐ + 2 ยท ๐/3 =5๐/3. So the three sides are ๐, 4๐/3, and 5๐/3. Scaling all of these upby a factor of 3 gives sides of 3๐, 4๐, and 5๐, which are in the ratio of3 : 4 : 5. โฃ
Example 6.4 In Fig. 6.11 circles with radii ๐ and ๐ lie on top of a line (thatis, they are tangent to it) and touch each other at a single point. What isthe distance ๐ต๐ด between the points of contact on the line? (Use the factthat a tangent line is perpendicular to the radius at the point of contact; seeExercise 6.24 below.)
Solution: The key is the shaded right triangle in the figure. The hypotenuseis the sum of the radii, so it equals ๐ + ๐, as shown. And the vertical leg is
276 Chapter 6. Pythagorean theorem
a
a
a โ b
b
B A
b
Figure 6.11
the difference of the radii, so it equals ๐ โ ๐. (This is how much higher onecenter is than the other.) The horizontal leg is the desired distance ๐ต๐ด, so thePythagorean theorem gives
(๐ต๐ด)2 + (๐ โ ๐)2 = (๐ + ๐)2
=โ (๐ต๐ด)2 = (๐ + ๐)2 โ (๐ โ ๐)2
= (๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ๐2 + 2๐๐ +@@๐2) โ (๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ๐2 โ 2๐๐ +@@๐
2)= 4๐๐
=โ ๐ต๐ด =โ
4๐๐ = 2โ๐๐. (6.35)
Note that the algebraic steps here are the same as in Exercise 3.9.
In the special case where ๐ = ๐, Eq. (6.35) gives ๐ต๐ด = 2โ๐2 = 2๐. This
makes sense, because we have two equally sized circles sitting next to eachother, so ๐ต๐ด spans the sum of the two (equal) radii.
Remark: The quantityโ๐๐ is called the geometric mean (GM) of ๐ and ๐.
Another type of mean is the arithmetic mean (AM), which is just the average(๐+๐)/2. (Weโll talk about these means in Chapter 12.) Now, the hypotenuseof a right triangle, which is ๐+ ๐ in the present setup, is always greater than orequal to each leg, in particular the horizontal leg which we just found equals2โ๐๐ here. (They are equal if the other leg ๐ โ ๐ is zero, which happens if
๐ = ๐. The โtriangleโ is then just a flat line, which admittedly isnโt much of atriangle.) So we have
hypotenuse โฅ leg =โ ๐ + ๐ โฅ 2โ๐๐ =โ ๐ + ๐
2โฅโ๐๐, (6.36)
where we have divided both sides by 2. This result tells us that the arithmeticmean is always greater than or equal to the geometric mean (with equality
6.5. Many examples and exercises 277
occurring if ๐ = ๐). This statement is called the โAM-GM inequality.โ Youcan test it for various values of ๐ and ๐. For example, if ๐ = 12 and ๐ = 3,then the AM is (12 + 3)/2 = 7.5, and the GM is
โ12 ยท 3 =
โ36 = 6. And 7.5
is indeed greater than 6.
With no mention of triangles, the above proof of the AM-GM inequalityessentially boils down to the following sequence of inequalities:
(๐ + ๐)2 โฅ (๐ + ๐)2 โ (๐ โ ๐)2 =โ (๐ + ๐)2 โฅ 4๐๐ =โ ๐ + ๐
2โฅโ๐๐.
(6.37)The first of these inequalities follows from the fact that (๐ โ ๐)2, being asquare, is always greater than or equal to zero (independent of which of ๐ or ๐is larger). And since weโre subtracting it from (๐ + ๐)2 on the righthand side,the result must be less than or equal to (๐ + ๐)2. The second inequality comesfrom the cancelations in Eq. (6.35). And the third inequality is obtained bytaking the square root of both sides and then dividing both sides by 2.
In terms of the right triangle in Fig. 6.11, the lefthand side of the first inequalityin Eq. (6.37) is the square of the hypotenuse, and the righthand side is thesquare of the ๐ต๐ด leg (from the Pythagorean theorem usage in Eq. (6.35)). โฃ
Example 6.5 Fig. 6.12 shows a right triangle with sides ๐, ๐, and ๐. Theinscribed circle is drawn, and the contact points with the three sides dividethem into lengths ๐, ๐, and ๐, as shown. (The lower-right lengths on sides ๐and ๐ are in fact equal to the radius ๐ , because of the square that arises fromthe fact that a radius is always perpendicular to a tangent; see Exercise 6.24below. Also, the two ๐ lengths shown are indeed equal, as are the two ๐
lengths, because the two tangents drawn from a given point have the samelength; again see Exercise 6.24. Weโll just accept these facts here.)
br
r
r
r
r
a
c
n
n
m
m
Figure 6.12
278 Chapter 6. Pythagorean theorem
(a) Write down and simplify the statement of the Pythagorean theorem, whenwritten in terms of ๐, ๐, and ๐.
(b) Find the area of the triangle in terms of ๐, ๐, and ๐.
(c) Use your result from part (a) to rewrite the area, and show that it equals๐๐ (the product of the lengths into which the hypotenuse is divided).
Solution:
(a) The side lengths are ๐ + ๐, ๐ + ๐, and ๐ + ๐, so the Pythagorean theoremgives
(๐ + ๐)2 + (๐ + ๐)2 = (๐ + ๐)2
=โ (๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ๐2 + 2๐๐ + ๐2) + (@@๐2 + 2๐๐ + ๐2) = (๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ๐2 + 2๐๐ +@@๐2)
=โ 2๐๐ + 2๐๐ + 2๐2 = 2๐๐
=โ ๐๐ + ๐๐ + ๐2 = ๐๐. (6.38)
(b) Since the legs (the base and height of the triangle) have lengths ๐ = ๐ + ๐and ๐ = ๐ + ๐, the area of the triangle is
๐ด =๐๐
2=
(๐ + ๐) (๐ + ๐)2
=๐๐ + ๐๐ + ๐๐ + ๐2
2. (6.39)
(c) From Eq. (6.38), the sum of the last three terms in the numerator ofEq. (6.39) is ๐๐. Substituting this in, the area in Eq. (6.39) becomes
๐ด =๐๐ + (๐๐ + ๐๐ + ๐2)
2=๐๐ + ๐๐
2=
AA2๐๐
AA2= ๐๐, (6.40)
as desired.
The above solution to this problem wasnโt too long, but letโs now spend sometime discussing various things further.
Remarks:
1. The simplicity of the above ๐๐ result for the area suggests that there mightbe a clean geometric way of seeing why itโs true, without needing to doany algebra. And indeed, if we consider the ๐ and ๐ segments on the legs(instead of on the hypotenuse) we can draw a suggestive figure. Fig. 6.13shows the idea.The goal is to show that the ๐๐ area of the ๐-by-๐ rectangle in the upper-left part of the figure equals the area of triangle ๐ด๐ต๐ถ, or equivalently
6.5. Many examples and exercises 279
r
rr
rr
r
r
n
AD
CB
n
m
m
Figure 6.13
triangle ๐ด๐ต๐ท. And this is indeed the case, because the ๐-by-๐ rectanglecan be transformed into triangle ๐ด๐ต๐ท by moving the shaded triangles asshown. (The like-shaded right triangles are congruent, because they are (1)similar due to the common angle where they touch, and also the commonright angle, and hence the common third angle, and (2) they have the samesize due to the common ๐ leg.)
2. Since Eq. (6.38) tells us that ๐๐ = ๐๐ + ๐๐ + ๐2, the above ๐ด = ๐๐ resultcan also be written as
๐ด = ๐๐ = ๐๐ + ๐๐ + ๐2 = (๐ + ๐ + ๐)๐ = ๐๐, (6.41)
where ๐ is the โsemiperimeterโ (half the perimeter). That is, ๐ = ๐/2 =(2๐ + 2๐ + 2๐)/2 = ๐ + ๐ + ๐ . This ๐ด = ๐๐ result actually holds for alltriangles, not just right triangles. To see why, consider Fig. 6.14, wheretriangle ๐ด๐ต๐ถ is divided into sub-triangles ๐ต๐ถ๐ท, ๐ถ๐ด๐ท, and ๐ด๐ต๐ท. Thesetriangles have bases ๐, ๐, and ๐, and they all have the same altitude ๐. Sothe sum of their areas (which is the area of triangle ๐ด๐ต๐ถ) is
๐๐
2+ ๐๐
2+ ๐๐
2=๐ + ๐ + ๐
2ยท ๐ = ๐
2๐ = ๐๐, (6.42)
as desired.
She found a new way to expressA triangleโs ๐ด with success.The method prescribed:Take the circle inscribed,And then multiply ๐ by the ๐.
Going one step further, this ๐ด = ๐๐ result actually holds for all polygons(not just triangles) that have an inscribed circle, that is, one that tangen-tially touches all sides. (A randomly drawn polygon with four or more
280 Chapter 6. Pythagorean theorem
B C
D
b
a
c
rr
r
A
Figure 6.14
sides doesnโt in general have this inscribed-circle property. Only specialpolygons do.) The triangle result in Eq. (6.42) is a special case of the moregeneral ๐ด = (๐/2)๐ = ๐๐ result for polygons in Eq. (5.51) in the solutionto Exercise 5.24 (where ๐ was equal to 1).
3. Working backwards through the steps of this exercise, we can actuallyproduce another (an 8th!) proof of the Pythagorean theorem. Weโll startwith two expressions for the area (the standard ๐โ/2 one in Eq. (6.39), andthe ๐๐ semiperimeter one in Eq. (6.42)) and equate them:
๐๐ =๐โ
2=โ (๐ + ๐ + ๐)๐ = (๐ + ๐) (๐ + ๐)
2. (6.43)
Weโll now proceed through a series of steps that will turn this equationinto the Pythagorean theorem. Expanding the products and multiplyingboth sides by 2 gives
2๐๐ + 2๐๐ + 2๐2 = ๐๐ + ๐๐ + ๐๐ + ๐2. (6.44)
Subtracting ๐๐ + ๐๐ + ๐2 from both sides then yields
๐๐ + ๐๐ + ๐2 = ๐๐. (6.45)
Multiplying both sides by 2 and then adding ๐2 + ๐2 to both sides gives
2๐๐ + 2๐๐ + 2๐2 + ๐2 + ๐2 = 2๐๐ + ๐2 + ๐2. (6.46)
Finally, grouping the terms in a helpful manner yields
(๐2 + 2๐๐ + ๐2) + (๐2 + 2๐๐ + ๐2) = ๐2 + 2๐๐ + ๐2
=โ (๐ + ๐)2 + (๐ + ๐)2 = (๐ + ๐)2
=โ ๐2 + ๐2 = ๐2, (6.47)
6.5. Many examples and exercises 281
which is the statement of the Pythagorean theorem, as desired.Admittedly, the above sequence of steps would be a bit out of the blue if wehadnโt already solved the exercise in the โforwardโ direction. But havingalready performed those steps, along with knowing what we were aimingfor (the second line in Eq. (6.47)), things were reasonably predictable.Once we produced Eq. (6.45), we just needed to proceed through Eq. (6.38)in reverse.In addition to the ๐โ/2 and ๐๐ expressions for the area, there is alsothe ๐๐ one, which is justified via Fig. 6.13. Equating any two of thesethree expressions will produce Eq. (6.45) (as you can quickly verify) andtherefore likewise produce the Pythagorean theorem. In other words, theequalities ๐โ/2 = ๐๐ and ๐๐ = ๐๐ are the starting points of two moreproofs. If you want to count these as distinct new proofs, weโre now up to10 of them! โฃ
Exercise 6.17 A rectangular box has length ๐, width ๐, and height ๐. Whatis the length of the diagonal between two opposite corners? (You will needto use the Pythagorean theorem twice.)
Exercise 6.18 A large cylindrical storage tank with diameter ๐ and heightโ has a spiral staircase, as shown in Fig. 6.15, which runs once around thecylinder as it climbs the height โ. (The slope of the staircase is uniform.)What is the length of the staircase? In the special case where ๐ = โ, what isthe length in terms of โ? Hint: A cylinder is a โflatโ space, in the sense thatyou can make one out of a piece of paper without ripping the paper.
h
d
Figure 6.15
Exercise 6.19 A pendulum with length ๐ swings back and forth, moving inthe arc of a circle. When it is a distance ๐ฅ off to the side, as shown in Fig. 6.16,
282 Chapter 6. Pythagorean theorem
what is its height ๐ฆ above the lowest point, in terms of ๐ฅ and ๐ ? Assume that๐ฆ is much smaller than ๐ (even though we havenโt drawn it that way), andmake an appropriate approximation. Some helpful lines are drawn.
y
x
Rpath ofpendulum
pivot
Figure 6.16
Exercise 6.20 In addition to being the smallest Pythagorean triple, a 3-4-5right triangle shows up in a very simple geometric setup. Fig. 6.17 shows twoidentical large circles, both with radius 1, tangent to each other and to a line.A small circle is then drawn tangent to the two large circles and the line. Findthe radius ๐ of the small circle, and then show that the right triangle drawnhas a 3-4-5 shape.
rr
1 1
1
r
Figure 6.17
Exercise 6.21 In Exercise 5.22 we used the area of a dodecagon to producean estimate of ๐. Obtain another estimate here, now using the perimeter. Youwill need to find the dodecagonโs side length; the altitude we drew in Fig. 5.53is helpful for this.
Exercise 6.22 The goal of this exercise is to generalize the procedure inExample 6.2 and Exercise 6.21.
(a) In Fig. 6.18, ๐ด๐ถ is a side of an ๐-gon inscribed in a circle with radius1, and ๐ด๐ต and ๐ต๐ถ are sides of a 2๐-gon. Assume that you somehow
6.5. Many examples and exercises 283
already know the ๐ด๐ถ = ๐๐ side length of the ๐-gon. Your task: Showthat the ๐ด๐ต = ๐ต๐ถ = ๐2๐ side length of the 2๐-gon is given in terms of๐๐ by
๐2๐ =
โ2 โ 2
โ1 โ ๐2
๐/4 . (6.48)
(You will need to find the ๐ฅ and ๐ฆ lengths shown.)
1
1
an/2
an/2
x
A
C
By
360 /n
360 /2n
a2n
Figure 6.18
(b) Using the known ๐4 =โ
2 side length of a square inscribed in a circlewith radius 1, show that the above formula reproduces the result inExample 6.2 for the ๐8 side of an octagon.Going one step further, what is ๐16? And what is the resulting estimateof ๐? (Itโs easier to work in terms of decimals here, so just plug yoursquare roots into a calculator.) You can keep going and obtain estimatesof ๐ by using a 32-gon and a 64-gon, etc., if you wish!
Exercise 6.23
(a) Show that if you inscribe a triangle in a circle, with a diameter being oneof the sides, then the triangle is a right triangle (with the diameter as thehypotenuse). Hint: Make use of the isosceles triangles in Fig. 6.19(a),after explaining why they are in fact isosceles.
(b) Now prove the โreverseโ statement: Show that if you circumscribe acircle around a right triangle, then the hypotenuse is a diameter of thecircle. Hint: Your goal is to show that the midpoint of the hypotenuse is
284 Chapter 6. Pythagorean theorem
(b)
d
dd ?
(a)
Figure 6.19
the center of the circle, which is equivalent to showing that its distanceto the right-angled vertex (the long-dashed line drawn in Fig. 6.19(b)) isthe same as the (common) distance ๐ to the two other vertices. A helpfulvertical (short-dashed) line is drawn. Look for some similar triangles.
Exercise 6.24 A tangent is a line that touches a circle at exactly one point.That is, it just barely touches the circle. The word โtangentโ can be used as anoun, as in the preceding sentence, and also as an adjective, as in โThis lineis tangent to the circle.โ
Weโve encountered tangents on a few occasions already. This exercise containstwo theorems about them. You might consider these theorems to be fairlyobvious, but itโs still good to formally prove them.
(a) Prove that a tangent to a circle is perpendicular to the radius at thepoint of contact, as shown in Fig. 6.20(a). Hint: You can prove this bymaking use of the left/right symmetry in the picture. Or you can seewhat incorrect result the Pythagorean theorem would imply if the radiusand tangent werenโt perpendicular.
(b) From a given point ๐ outside a circle, draw the two tangent lines to thecircle. Prove that these two tangents have the same length, as shown inFig. 6.20(b).
Exercise 6.25 (This exercise is an extension of Example 6.4.) If we add athird circle to the setup in Fig. 6.11, as shown in Fig. 6.21, what is its radius๐ , in terms of the other two radii ๐ and ๐? Hint: Apply the result fromExample 6.4 multiple times, and use the fact that the segments along ๐ต๐ด mustadd up properly. Solving for ๐ in the equation you obtain will involve a fewalgebraic steps.
6.5. Many examples and exercises 285
A B
P
d d
(a) (b)
Figure 6.20
a
br
B C A
Figure 6.21
Exercise 6.26 (This exercise is very similar to Example 6.4.) Fig. 6.22 showsa circle with radius ๐ centered at ๐ต. From an arbitrary point ๐ด outside thecircle, the tangents (the dashed lines) are drawn; let their length be ๐. A circlewith radius ๐ is then drawn, centered at ๐ด. Find the length ๐ of the commontangent to the two circles. Hint: You can quickly determine two sides of theshaded triangle.
bb
B
C
A
aa
d = ?
Figure 6.22
286 Chapter 6. Pythagorean theorem
6.6 Benefits of using letters
In Section 6.4 we solved the distance-to-horizon problem twice, first using numbers,and then using letters (plugging in the numbers only at the end). The logic behindthe solutions was the same, but they looked a bit different on paper. The techniqueof using letters instead of numbers is called solving a problem symbolically, whichbasically just means youโre doing algebra (with letters) instead of arithmetic (withnumbers).
If youโre solving a problem where the quantities are specified numerically, itis often advantageous to immediately change the numbers to letters (like replacing6,400 m with ๐ , and 100 m with โ in the horizon example). You can then solve theproblem in terms of the letters. After you obtain a symbolic answer, you can plug inthe actual numerical values to obtain a numerical answer. There are many benefitsof solving problems symbolically. And now that you have algebra at your fingertips,you should take advantage of these benefits. Letโs list them out.
โข It is quicker. Itโs much easier to multiply an ๐ by an โ by writing themdown on a piece of paper next to each other, than it is to multiply theirnumerical values on a calculator. If solving a problem involves five or tensuch operations, the time would add up if you performed all the operations ona calculator.
โข You are less likely to make a mistake. Numbers can get messy. Itโs veryeasy to mistype an 8 for a 9 in a calculator, but youโre probably not going tomiswrite a ๐ for an โ on a piece of paper. But even if you do, youโll quicklyrealize that it should be an โ. You certainly wonโt just give up on the problemand deem it unsolvable because no one gave you the value of ๐!
โข You can do the problem once and for all. If someone comes along andsays, oops, the value of โ is actually 90 m instead of 100 m, then you wonโtneed to do the whole problem again. You can simply plug the new value ofโ into your symbolic answer. Thatโs the beauty of working with letters. Asymbolic answer is valid for any value of the letter you might want to plugin (well, subject to any approximations, like the โ โช ๐ one in the horizonexample).
โข You can see the general dependence of your answer on the variousparameters (letters). For example, you can see that the ๐ =
โ2๐ โ result
in Eq. (6.23) increases as either ๐ or โ increases. (For short, we say in this
6.6. Benefits of using letters 287
case that โ๐ grows with ๐ and โ.โ) Furthermore, you can see how ๐ growswith ๐ and โ: It grows in a square-root manner for both. So if you increase โ
by a factor of 100, you can see only 10 times as far. Equivalently, the square(instead of square root) behavior in the โ = ๐2/2๐ result in Eq. (6.28) tells usthat if we increase the distance ๐ by a factor of 10, then we need to increase โ
by a factor of 100. There is much more information contained in the symbolicanswer in Eq. (6.23) than in the numerical answer in Eq. (6.20).
As a bonus, symbolic answers nearly always look nice and pretty. Even incases like in Eq. (6.21) where the symbolic answer isnโt super pretty, there isstill a huge amount of information. Under the โ โช ๐ approximation, youcan say that the โ2 term is very small compared with the 2๐ โ term, whichmeans that you can ignore it. This leaves you with the result in Eq. (6.23),which is in fact super pretty.
โข You can check special/extreme cases. (This is a long bullet point, sinceitโs so important.) This benefit goes hand-in-hand with the previous โgeneraldependenceโ advantage. Since symbolic answers allow you to see the depen-dence on the various letters, you can easily determine what your answer is(or at least how it behaves) in various special or extreme cases. For example,perhaps you can determine what your answer is when a particular letter equalszero. Or when it is very large. Or when two letters are equal to each other.And so on.
It is often the case that your intuition gives you information about what theanswer should be in special/extreme cases, even if you donโt have any intuitionabout general values of the letters. You should take advantage of this. Forexample, I have no clue how far I can see to the horizon from a height of,say, 500 meters. But I do know for sure that I can see zero distance fromzero height. (Itโs up to you whether you want to call this โintuitionโ or just anobvious fact.) And indeed, the ๐ =
โ2๐ โ result in Eq. (6.23) correctly equals
zero when โ = 0. If you accidentally replaced the โ here with ๐ and endedup with an answer of
โ2๐ 2, or if you simply forgot the โ and ended up withโ
2๐ , then these answers donโt equal zero when โ = 0. So youโd know thatyou needed to go back and check over your work. Likewise if you accidentallywrote the result in Eq. (6.21) as, say,
โ2๐ โ + ๐ 2.
You donโt need to be a magician,Or cough up a hefty tuition.When you check an extreme,Thereโs a nice simple scheme:Test your answer against intuition!
288 Chapter 6. Pythagorean theorem
In the other extreme, where โ gets very large, the ๐ =โ
2๐ โ + โ2 result inEq. (6.21) also gets very large, which makes sense; ๐ correctly grows as โ
grows. (For large โ, theโ
2๐ โ result in Eq. (6.23) isnโt valid, since it wasderived under the assumption that โ is much smaller than ๐ . So we need touse the
โ2๐ โ + โ2 expression here.) In particular, if โ is much larger than ๐
(imagine that youโre on the moon, looking at the earth), then the 2๐ โ termis small compared with the โ2 term (it is smaller by the factor 2๐ /โ). So toa reasonable approximation, we can ignore the 2๐ โ in
โ2๐ โ + โ2, in which
case weโre left with ๐ โโโ2 = โ. This makes sense; from the moon, the
distance ๐ to the earthโs horizon is approximately equal to the distance โ tothe nearest point on the earth; see Fig. 6.23.
R
R h
d
you
Figure 6.23
A better intuitive approximation for ๐ is โ + ๐ , due to the extra distance ofroughly ๐ to reach the horizon, as opposed to just the nearest point on theearth. Equivalently, the long leg ๐ in Fig. 6.23 is approximately equal tothe hypotenuse โ + ๐ since the right triangle is very thin. (However, weโreassuming ๐ is much smaller than โ, so the distinction between โ and โ+๐ isnโttoo important.) If you made a mistake and obtained a ๐ of, say,
โ2๐ โ + 2โ2,
then ignoring the 2๐ โ term would yield an approximate answer ofโ
2โ. Whenโ is large, this answer is much larger than either of our approximate intuitiveanswers (โ or โ + ๐ ). It therefore canโt be correct. So youโd know to go backand check over your work.
As another example, consider the 2๐ฟ๐ + 2๐๐ + 4๐2 result in Eq. (5.5) inExample 5.1. In the special case where ๐ = 0, the frame has no width, so thearea clearly has to be zero. And the above answer is indeed zero when ๐ = 0.If you made a mistake and accidentally replaced the first ๐ with an ๐ฟ, yielding2๐ฟ2 + 2๐๐ + 4๐2, then youโd know this couldnโt be correct, because it equals2๐ฟ2, instead of zero, when ๐ = 0.
Likewise for the 2๐๐๐ + ๐๐2 result in Eq. (5.17) for the area of a ring betweentwo circles. The answer must equal zero when the thickness ๐ of the ringis zero, and the above expression correctly has this property. Furthermore,when ๐ is very small, but not exactly zero, we can ignore the very small ๐2
term, in which case the expression reduces to 2๐๐๐. This is consistent with
6.6. Benefits of using letters 289
the fact that the area of the ring is (when ๐ is very small) essentially equalto the circumference 2๐๐ times the thickness ๐, as we saw in Eq. (5.19). Ifyou made a mistake and dropped the 2 and obtained an answer of ๐๐๐ + ๐๐2,then although the ๐ = 0 special case correctly yields zero, the ๐-small-but-not-exactly-zero case doesnโt yield 2๐๐ times ๐. So youโd know to go backand check over your work. No matter how many special cases you check thatare correct, if you obtain even just one that isnโt correct, then you know thatyour answer must be wrong.
Another example of checking a special case is the ๐8 โ ๐8 = (๐4 + ๐4) (๐2 +๐2)(๐ + ๐) (๐ โ ๐) factoring result in Eq. (4.38) in Example 4.6. In the specialcase where ๐ = ๐, the lefthand side is zero. And the righthand side is correctlyalso zero. (Likewise for the ๐ = โ๐ special case; both sides are zero.) If youforgot the ๐ โ ๐ factor on the right, then the righthand side wouldnโt be zero,so youโd know you made a mistake in your factoring. As another example, inthe solution to Example 6.4 we noted that the ๐ต๐ด = 2
โ๐๐ result in Eq. (6.35)
correctly reduces to 2๐ in the special case where ๐ = ๐.
Bottom line: When you arrive at an answer after solving a problem, youshould always look for special/extreme cases to check. And you should dothis not because Iโm telling you to(!), but rather because it will either (a) giveyou the definite information that your answer is incorrect (in which case younow know you need to go fix it), or (b) allow you to feel a little more confidentabout your answer if youโve checked a number of special/extreme cases andthey all agree with what you know must be true. Such is the case with the sumformulas in Exercises 4.16, 4.17, and 4.18. After checking those formulasfor a number of small values of ๐, you will certainly be more confident thattheyโre actually correct.
Of course, checking special/extreme cases will never tell you that your answeris definitely correct. Itโs quite possible that youโve produced an incorrectanswer that just happens by luck to give the correct answer for a number ofspecial cases. However, as weโve noted, looking at a special/extreme casemight very well tell you that your answer is definitely incorrect. If pluggingin a special value for a letter gives an answer that doesnโt agree with youintuition, then (assuming that your intuition is correct) you have obtained theirrefutable information that your answer is wrong. This seemingly dispiritinginformation is actually a good thing, because as mentioned above, at least younow know that you should go back and check over your work. This outcomecertainly beats pressing onward in blissful ignorance, thinking that you havethe correct answer, when in fact you donโt!
290 Chapter 6. Pythagorean theorem
โข You can check units. In addition to checking special/extreme cases, sym-bolic answers also allow you to easily check units. In the ๐ =
โ2๐ โ result
in Eq. (6.23), both ๐ and โ have units of meters (or feet, or whatever unit oflength youโre working with). So the units of the ๐ are
โm ยท m =
โm2 = m,
which is correct. (In determining the units, we can ignore the numerical factor2, since it doesnโt have any units.)
If you made a mistake and obtained an answer ofโ
2๐ /โ, with the โ inthe denominator, then youโd know it had to be wrong, because the units areโ
m/m =โ
1 = 1, where the 1 here simply means thatโ
2๐ /โ doesnโt haveany units. This is incorrect, since ๐ must have units of meters. Similarly, ifyou accidentally dropped the ๐ and obtained an answer of
โ2โ, this has units
ofโ
m, which is incorrect.
Of course, the units will also work out (assuming you donโt make a mistake)if you solve a problem in terms of numbers instead of letters, as we saw inEqs. (6.18)โ(6.20). You therefore can (and should) also check the units ofyour answer when working with numbers. But again, solving a problem interms of numbers instead of letters can often be a pain.
In summary, there are many significant benefits of using letters instead of num-bers. And now that youโve had lots of practice with algebra, youโre able to workwith letters at will. So take advantage of all of their wonderful benefits โ theyโllmake your life much more pleasant!
They strove to be mighty trend setters,And be free from numerical fetters.Their motto on numbers?โReject what encumbers!And bask in the glory of letters!โ
6.7. Exercise solutions 291
6.7 Exercise solutions
1. Plugging the ๐ and ๐ expressions from Eq. (6.8) into Eq. (6.1) gives
๐2 + ๐2 = (๐2 โ ๐2) + (2๐๐)2
= (๐4 โ 2๐2๐2 + ๐4) + 4๐2๐2
= ๐4 + 2๐2๐2 + ๐4
= (๐2 + ๐2)2
= ๐2, (6.49)
as desired.
2. Since ๐2 โ ๐2 equals (๐ + ๐)(๐ โ ๐), our goal is to show that this product equals๐2. Plugging in the expressions for ๐ and ๐ from Eq. (6.8) gives
๐2 โ ๐2 = (๐ + ๐)(๐ โ ๐) (6.50)
=((๐2 + ๐2) + 2๐๐
) ((๐2 + ๐2) โ 2๐๐
)= (๐ + ๐)2(๐ โ ๐)2 =
((๐ + ๐) (๐ โ ๐)
)2 = (๐2 โ ๐2)2 = ๐2,
as desired. In the last line, we used the difference-of-squares result in reverse.
3. Weโll just check a few of the triples here. The following relations are all true:
72 + 242 = 252 โโ 49 + 576 = 625,212 + 202 = 292 โโ 441 + 400 = 841,92 + 402 = 412 โโ 81 + 1600 = 1681. (6.51)
4. From the Pythagorean theorem, the diagonal of 11.3-by-7 rectangle isโ11.32 + 72 =
โ176.7 = 13.3. (6.52)
And the diagonal of a 14.4-by-9.0 rectangle isโ14.42 + 92 =
โ288.4 = 17. (6.53)
For the first of these, people usually just call it a 13-inch screen, althoughtechnically itโs 13.3.
There are many (an infinite number of) other shapes of rectangles, with differentwidth-to-height ratios (called the โaspect ratioโ), that also have diagonals of 13.3and 17. However, computers generally stick to a few common aspect ratios, like16 : 10 (equivalently 8 : 5), 16 : 9, and 4 : 3.
292 Chapter 6. Pythagorean theorem
5. If you walk along two sides, the distance (in yards) is simply 100+53.33 = 153.33.From the Pythagorean theorem, the length of the diagonal isโ
1002 + 53.332 =โ
12,844 = 113.33. (6.54)
So you save 153.33 โ 113.33 = 40 yards by walking diagonally. The diagonalisnโt that much longer than the long side (113 vs. 100), so you save almost asmuch as the short side (40 vs. 53).
Interestingly, if youโve ever wondered how big an acre is, itโs a little less thana football field. This follows from the fact that an acre is defined to be 43,560square feet (1/640 of a square mile, as you can verify, since 1 mile = 5,280 feet),and a football field (300 feet by 160 feet) is 48,000 square feet.
6. If ๐ = 1, the expressions in Eq. (6.8) become
๐ = ๐2 โ 1, ๐ = 2๐, ๐ = ๐2 + 1. (6.55)
Since ๐/2 is simply๐, we see that ๐ and ๐ do indeed take the form of (๐/2)2ยฑ1 =๐2 ยฑ 1.
7. Starting with ๐ = 2๐ โ 1 and following the given recipe, we first square ๐ toobtain
๐2 = (2๐ โ 1)2 = 4๐2 โ 4๐ + 1. (6.56)
We then add or subtract 1 to obtain 4๐2 โ 4๐ + 2 and 4๐2 โ 4๐ . Finally, we divideby 2 and label the results as ๐ and ๐:
๐ = 2๐2 โ 2๐ + 1, ๐ = 2๐2 โ 2๐. (6.57)
Our goal is to show that (๐, ๐, ๐) is a Pythagorean triple, that is, that ๐2+๐2 = ๐2.The sum ๐2 + ๐2 equals
๐2 + ๐2 = (2๐ โ 1)2 + (2๐2 โ 2๐)2
= (4๐2 โ 4๐ + 1) + (4๐4 โ 8๐3 + 4๐2)= 4๐4 โ 8๐3 + 8๐2 โ 4๐ + 1. (6.58)
We want to show that this equals ๐2, which is obtained by squaring the trinomialfor ๐ in Eq. (6.57). Using the trinomial result from Example 3.6, we obtain
(2๐2 โ 2๐ + 1)2 =((2๐2)2 + (โ2๐)2 + 12
)+ 2
((2๐2) (โ2๐) + (2๐2) (1) + (โ2๐)(1)
)=
(4๐4 + 4๐2 + 1
)+
(โ 8๐3 + 4๐2 โ 4๐
)= 4๐4 โ 8๐3 + 8๐2 โ 4๐ + 1, (6.59)
6.7. Exercise solutions 293
in agreement with the ๐2 + ๐2 sum in Eq. (6.58), as desired.
This calculation was a bit long, and there were many places where we could havemade a mistake. But we were careful, and it all worked out. The reward for theeffort was two long expressions that were exactly equal to each other. Perhapsthe most likely error in the calculation is forgetting to distribute the 2 into allthree terms in the parentheses in the second line of Eq. (6.59).
The purpose of this exercise was to get some algebra practice. If the goal wereinstead to show as quickly as possible that ๐2+๐2 = ๐2 (once ๐ and ๐ are obtainedin Eq. (6.57)), then the best route would be to write this as ๐2 = ๐2 โ ๐2, andthen use the difference-of-squares result. This method is much quicker, as youcan verify!
Note that our starting ๐ = 2๐ โ 1 expression, along with the expressions for ๐and ๐ in Eq. (6.57), are the same as the expressions for ๐, ๐, and ๐ in Eq. (6.10)(which came from Eq. (6.8)), with ๐ replaced by ๐ . So we already knew fromour original proof in Exercise 6.1 that the ๐2 + ๐2 = ๐2 relation holds. But again,the purpose of this exercise was to verify that ๐2 + ๐2 = ๐2 holds by doing somealgebra.
8. The overall square has side length ๐ + ๐, so its area is (๐ + ๐)2. The area of thesmaller square is ๐2. And the area of each of the four triangles is ๐๐/2 (sinceeach one has a base of ๐ and a height of ๐, or vice versa). So the statement thatthe overall area equals the sum of the areas of the sub-regions is
(๐ + ๐)2 = 4 ยท ๐๐2
+ ๐2
=โ ๐2 +๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ2๐๐ + ๐2 =๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ2๐๐ + ๐2
=โ ๐2 + ๐2 = ๐2, (6.60)
as desired. The third line is obtained by canceling the 2๐๐ terms on each sideof the second line (or more precisely, by subtracting 2๐๐ from both sides of thesecond line, as explained in the second terminology bullet point on page 163).
9. The area of the overall square is ๐2, and the area of the smaller square is (๐โ ๐)2.The area of each of the four triangles is ๐๐/2 (since each one has a base of ๐ anda height of ๐, or vice versa), So the statement that the overall area equals the sumof the areas of the sub-regions is
๐2 = 4 ยท ๐๐2
+ (๐ โ ๐)2
=๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ2๐๐ + (๐2 โ๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ2๐๐ + ๐2)= ๐2 + ๐2, (6.61)
as desired.
294 Chapter 6. Pythagorean theorem
10. Fig. 6.24 shows the rearrangement. The white squares that are formed have sidelengths ๐ and ๐, because those are the legs of the four shaded rectangles in theoriginal figure. So the area of the white region is indeed ๐2 + ๐2.
Note that we donโt even need to know that the area of a triangle is ๐โ/2 here, aswe did in the first two proofs above. All we need to know is that the area of asquare is the side length squared.
bb
b
c b2
a2
c2
ba
a
a
a
Figure 6.24
11. We just need to move the two dark-shaded triangles in Fig. 6.25 as indicated. (Itdoesnโt matter which one goes where, since theyโre identical.) The total shadedarea (light and dark) is the same in the two figures. And since this area is ๐2 + ๐2
in the left figure and ๐2 in the right, it follows that ๐2 + ๐2 = ๐2.
a
a
a
b
b
b c
ca
a
a
b
b
b c
c
Figure 6.25
This proof and the preceding one show that sometimes a proof doesnโt requireany words (even though we did use some). A simple picture by itself can do thetrick!
6.7. Exercise solutions 295
The proof she gave somehow succeeded(a bit odd, given how it proceeded).But the picture she drewSoon convinced us itโs trueThat in some cases words are not needed!
12. For convenience in Fig. 6.26, let โ ๐ด be labeled as๐ผ, as shown. Then โ ๐ต = 90โฆโ๐ผbecause โ ๐ด๐ถ๐ต = 90โฆ, and the three angles in triangle ๐ด๐ต๐ถ must add up to 180โฆ.
a
A
B
C
Da2/c
ab/cb2/c
ฮฑ
ฮฑ
b
90 โ ฮฑ
c90 โ ฮฑ
Figure 6.26
Similarly, in right triangle ๐ด๐ถ๐ท, we have โ ๐ด๐ถ๐ท = 90โฆโ๐ผ because โ ๐ด๐ท๐ถ = 90โฆ,and the three angles in triangle ๐ด๐ถ๐ท must add up to 180โฆ.
Finally, due to the original right angle at ๐ถ, we have
โ ๐ท๐ถ๐ต = 90โฆ โ โ ๐ท๐ถ๐ด = 90โฆ โ (90โฆ โ ๐ผ) = ๐ผ. (6.62)
You can also deduce this ๐ผ angle by demanding that the angles in triangle ๐ถ๐ต๐ท
add up to 180โฆ.
We therefore see that all three of the triangles ๐ด๐ต๐ถ, ๐ด๐ถ๐ท, and๐ถ๐ต๐ท have anglesof 90โฆ, ๐ผ, and 90โฆ โ ๐ผ. Hence they are all similar, as we wanted to show.
We can now use the similarity of the triangles to write down some useful ratios.In the overall triangle ๐ด๐ต๐ถ, the short leg ๐ is ๐/๐ times the hypotenuse ๐, andthe long leg ๐ is ๐/๐ times the hypotenuse ๐. Since the other two smaller righttriangles are similar to the overall one, they must have these same ratios. Thatis, in each triangle, the short leg is ๐/๐ times the hypotenuse, and the long leg is๐/๐ times the hypotenuse.
So in the smallest triangle, the short leg ๐ต๐ท is ๐/๐ times the hypotenuse, whichis ๐ถ๐ต = ๐. So ๐ต๐ท = (๐/๐)๐ = ๐2/๐, as shown.
And in the medium triangle, the long leg ๐ด๐ท is ๐/๐ times the hypotenuse, whichis ๐ด๐ถ = ๐. So ๐ด๐ท = (๐/๐)๐ = ๐2/๐, as shown.
296 Chapter 6. Pythagorean theorem
We can now use the fact that ๐ต๐ท + ๐ด๐ท equals the hypotenuse ๐ of the overalltriangle. This gives
๐ต๐ท + ๐ด๐ท = ๐ =โ ๐2
๐+ ๐2
๐= ๐ =โ ๐2 + ๐2 = ๐2, (6.63)
where this last equation is obtained from the middle one by multiplying bothsides by ๐.
Remark: We can also find the length of the altitude, ๐ถ๐ท, in various differentways. In the smallest triangle, the long leg ๐ถ๐ท is ๐/๐ times the hypotenuse,which is ๐ถ๐ต = ๐. So ๐ถ๐ท = (๐/๐)๐ = ๐๐/๐, as shown.
Alternatively, in the medium triangle, the short leg ๐ถ๐ท is ๐/๐ times the hy-potenuse, which is ๐ด๐ถ = ๐. So ๐ถ๐ท = (๐/๐)๐ = ๐๐/๐.
Alternatively again, we can find๐ถ๐ท by writing down two valid ๐โ/2 expressionsfor the area of the overall triangle. We can consider ๐ to be the base and ๐ tobe the height. Or we can consider ๐ to be the base and ๐ถ๐ท to be the height.Equating the two resulting expressions for the area gives
๐๐
2=๐(๐ถ๐ท)
2=โ ๐๐
๐= ๐ถ๐ท , (6.64)
where the second equation is obtained from the first by multiplying both sidesby 2/๐. โฃ
13. Let the three triangles (overall, medium, and smallest) be labeled ๐1, ๐2, and ๐3,respectively. The hypotenuse of ๐1 is ๐, and the hypotenuse of ๐2 is ๐. So ๐2 isobtained by scaling down ๐1 by the factor ๐ = ๐/๐. The results from Section 5.5then tell us that the areas are related by ๐ด2 = ๐ 2๐ด1 =โ ๐ด2 = (๐/๐)2๐ด1.
Similarly, the hypotenuse of ๐3 is ๐, so ๐3 is obtained by scaling down ๐1 bythe factor ๐ = ๐/๐. The areas are therefore related by ๐ด3 = ๐ 2๐ด1 =โ ๐ด3 =(๐/๐)2๐ด1.
The ๐ด2 + ๐ด3 = ๐ด1 relation for areas then becomes
๐2
๐2 ๐ด1 +๐2
๐2 ๐ด1 = ๐ด1 =โ ๐2
๐2 + ๐2
๐2 = 1 =โ ๐2 + ๐2 = ๐2, (6.65)
as desired. The last equation is obtained by dividing both sides of the firstequation by ๐ด1, and then multiplying both sides of the second equation by ๐2.(Or you can just multiply by ๐2/๐ด1 in one step.)
6.7. Exercise solutions 297
14. The dark-shaded triangles ๐ด1๐ต๐ด and ๐ถ๐ต๐ถ1 in Fig. 6.7 both have sides withlengths ๐ and ๐. So if we can show that the angles โ ๐ด1๐ต๐ด and โ ๐ถ๐ต๐ถ1 betweenthese common sides are equal, then by the SAS postulate weโll know that the twotriangles are congruent. These angles are indeed equal because
โ ๐ด1๐ต๐ด = โ ๐ด1๐ต๐ถ + โ ๐ถ๐ต๐ด = 90โฆ + โ ๐ถ๐ต๐ด,
and โ ๐ถ๐ต๐ถ1 = โ ๐ด๐ต๐ถ1 + โ ๐ถ๐ต๐ด = 90โฆ + โ ๐ถ๐ต๐ด. (6.66)
So both angles are 90โฆ plus โ ๐ถ๐ต๐ด, and hence are equal. Triangles ๐ด1๐ต๐ด and๐ถ๐ต๐ถ1 are therefore congruent by the SAS postulate. So they have the same area.
Note: Another (quick) way of seeing why triangles ๐ด1๐ต๐ด and ๐ถ๐ต๐ถ1 are con-gruent is to imagine rotating triangle ๐ถ๐ต๐ถ1 clockwise by 90โฆ around point ๐ต. Itwill turn into triangle ๐ด1๐ต๐ด.
All of the above reasoning holds with the light-shaded triangles too, so they arealso congruent and hence have the same area.
We now claim that the area of triangle ๐ด1๐ต๐ด is half the area of the square withside ๐. This is true because in the standard (1/2)๐โ expression for the area of atriangle, we can pick the base to be the ๐ด1๐ต = ๐ side, in which case the altitudefrom ๐ด to the (extension of the) ๐ด1๐ต side has length ๐, as shown in Fig. 6.27(a).So the area of triangle ๐ด1๐ต๐ด is (1/2)๐โ = (1/2)๐ ยท ๐ = ๐2/2, which is indeedhalf the area of the square with side ๐.
a
C1
C
B
c
x
ah = a
h = x
a
A2
A1 R1
C
(a) (b)
B
(height)
(height)
(base)
(base)
A
c
Figure 6.27
We also claim that the area of triangle๐ถ๐ต๐ถ1 is half the area of the ๐ 1 rectangularpart of the square with side ๐ that is above/left of the dashed line. This is true
298 Chapter 6. Pythagorean theorem
because in the standard (1/2)๐โ expression for the area of a triangle, we canpick the base to be the ๐ต๐ถ1 = ๐ side, in which case the altitude from ๐ถ to the(extension of the) ๐ต๐ถ1 side has the length ๐ฅ shown in Fig. 6.27(b). So the areaof triangle ๐ถ๐ต๐ถ1 is (1/2)๐โ = (1/2)๐ ยท ๐ฅ = ๐๐ฅ/2, which is indeed half the areaof the ๐ 1 rectangle with sides ๐ and ๐ฅ.
The preceding two paragraphs, combined with the fact that triangles ๐ด1๐ต๐ด and๐ถ๐ต๐ถ1 are congruent, tell us that ๐2/2 = ๐๐ฅ/2, which (after multiplying bothsides by 2) means that ๐2 = ๐๐ฅ. So the ๐๐ฅ area of the ๐ 1 rectangle is simply ๐2.
We can now repeat (or rather, just imagine repeating) the entire process above,but with the light-shaded congruent triangles. The result will be that the area ofthe ๐ 2 rectangular part of the square with side ๐ that is below/right of the dashedline equals ๐2.
Finally, since the ๐2 and ๐2 areas of the ๐ 1 and ๐ 2 rectangles add up to the ๐2
area of the square with side ๐, we conclude that ๐2 + ๐2 = ๐2, as desired.
The above proof might seem long, but hereโs the quick summary: Triangles๐ด1๐ต๐ด and ๐ถ๐ต๐ถ1 are congruent because they can be rotated into each other.So they have the same area. Fig. 6.27 then shows that these triangles have(with appropriately chosen bases) the same heights as the ๐2 square and the ๐ 1rectangle. This square and rectangle therefore also have the same area (bothtwice the common triangle area). So the ๐ 1 rectangle has area ๐2. Likewise, the๐ 2 rectangle has area ๐2. Finally, the ๐ 1 and ๐ 2 areas add up to ๐2.
15. In terms of ๐ , plugging โ = ๐ /16 into Eqs. (6.21) and (6.23) gives
๐exact =โ
2๐ โ + โ2 =โ
2๐ (๐ /16) + (๐ /16)2
=โ๐ 2(1/8 + 1/256) = ๐
โ0.1289 = (0.3590)๐ ,
๐approx =โ
2๐ โ =โ
2๐ (๐ /16)=
โ๐ 2(1/8) = ๐
โ0.125 = (0.3536)๐ . (6.67)
With ๐ = 6,400 km, these results become
๐exact = (0.3590)(6,400 km) = 2298 km,
๐approx = (0.3536)(6,400 km) = 2263 km. (6.68)
The difference in these answers is only 35 km, which is about 0.015 (equivalently,1.5%) of the exact 2298 km distance. So the approximation in Eq. (6.23) is stillvery good, even for the large (but still small compared with ๐ ) โ value of theSpace Station.
6.7. Exercise solutions 299
R โ h
hBostonNYC
R
d/2d/2
Figure 6.28
16. The setup is shown in Fig. 6.28. The desired maximum depth is โ, and the totaldistance from Boston to NYC is ๐ = 300 km.
There is technically an ambiguity about whether the 300 km is the straight-linedistance or the curved distance along the surface of the earth. But it doesnโtmatter since these two distances are essentially the same. If the two cities weresignificantly farther apart, then we would have to worry about this issue. Thestraight-line distance is the useful one in Fig. 6.28, so if (as would be the casein real life) weโre given the curved distance, the first thing weโd have to dois somehow calculate the straight-line distance. But thereโs no need to do thathere, since the two distances are indistinguishable (because 300 km is sufficientlysmall compared with the 6,400 km radius of the earth). Itโs possible to show (withtrigonometry; see Chapter 16) that the two distances differ by only about 0.01%.
The right triangle in Fig. 6.28 has legs ๐/2 and ๐ โ โ, and hypotenuse ๐ . So thePythagorean theorem gives
(๐/2)2 + (๐ โ โ)2 = ๐ 2 =โ (๐/2)2 = ๐ 2 โ (๐ โ โ)2
=โ ๐2/4 =๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ๐ 2 โ (๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ๐ 2 โ 2๐ โ + โ2). (6.69)
As we did in the distance-to-horizon problem in the text, we can ignore the โ2
term, because it is negligible compared with the 2๐ โ term. Weโre then left with
๐2
4= 2๐ โ =โ โ =
๐2
8๐ , (6.70)
where we have divided both sides by 2๐ (and then switched sides). Plugging inthe Boston-NYC distance of 300 km gives
โ =(300 km)2
8(6,400 km) โ 1.75 km โ 1.1 miles. (6.71)
Is this answer larger or smaller than what you expected? Personally, my firstguess was that the tunnel would be deeper than this. But in retrospect, the earthis nearly flat on the scale of 300 km, so this small value of โ is quite believable.
300 Chapter 6. Pythagorean theorem
Note that our earlier result for the tower height โ in Eq. (6.28) is 4 times theresult for the depth โ in Eq. (6.70). So if you build a tower in Boston tall enoughto see NYC (the ground there, not just the skyline), and if you also dig a tunnelbetween the two cities, then the tower will be 4 times as tall as the tunnel isdeep. Since we just found that the tunnel will be 1.75 km deep, the tower will be4(1.75 km) = 7 km (or 4.3 miles) tall.
17. The setup is shown in Fig. 6.29. In the bottom face of the box, we have a righttriangle with legs ๐ and ๐, so our first application of the Pythagorean theoremgives the hypotenuse ๐1 as
๐2 + ๐2 = ๐21 =โ ๐1 =
โ๐2 + ๐2. (6.72)
This is the length of a diagonal of the bottom (or top) face of the box, not thewhole box itself.
a
d1
d2
b
c
Figure 6.29
We now note that we have another right triangle โ the vertical one with legs ๐1and ๐, and hypotenuse ๐2. So our second application of the Pythagorean theoremgives
๐21 + ๐2 = ๐2
2 . (6.73)
Substituting the value of ๐21 from Eq. (6.72) into this equation gives
(๐2 + ๐2) + ๐2 = ๐22 =โ ๐2 =
โ๐2 + ๐2 + ๐2. (6.74)
This is the desired length of the diagonal of the box. This expression is symmetricin ๐, ๐, and ๐, because (just as with the Pythagorean theorem) it canโt matterwhich of the three dimensions you arbitrarily choose to label as ๐, or ๐, or๐. Said in another way, if your first application of the Pythagorean theoreminstead involved one of the side faces, you would still end up with the same final๐2 =
โ๐2 + ๐2 + ๐2 result.
6.7. Exercise solutions 301
18. The key is to unroll the cylinder into a flat rectangle, as shown in Fig. 6.30. Thewidth of the rectangle is the ๐๐ circumference of the cylinder, and the diagonal๐ฟ is the desired length of the staircase. (Yes, the sides in Fig. 6.30 are in factin the correct proportion, for the given cylinder shown in Fig. 6.15. The ๐๐
circumference is longer than you might think.)
h
L
ฯd
Figure 6.30
Applying the Pythagorean theorem to the right triangle in the figure gives thelength ๐ฟ of the staircase as
(๐๐)2 + โ2 = ๐ฟ2 =โ ๐ฟ =โ๐2๐2 + โ2. (6.75)
This is the answer in terms of the general lengths ๐ and โ. But in the special casewhere ๐ = โ, we have
๐ฟ =โ๐2โ2 + โ2 =
โ(๐2 + 1)โ2 =
โ๐2 + 1 ยท โ โ (3.3)โ. (6.76)
We see that the length ๐ฟ of the staircase is only slightly longer than the circum-ference ๐๐. This is because the long leg of the right triangle, ๐โ, is significantlylonger than the short leg, โ.We can check our general result in Eq. (6.75) for some special cases. If โ = 0,then the cylinder has zero height, so the โstaircaseโ is just a horizontal circle. AndEq. (6.75) correctly gives the
โ๐2๐2 + 02 = ๐๐ circumference of the circle. In the
other extreme, if ๐ = 0, the cylinder is just a vertical segment, so the โstaicraseโis a vertical ladder. And Eq. (6.75) correctly gives the
โ๐2 ยท 02 + โ2 = โ height
of the segment.
19. If the pendulum is presently ๐ฆ above the lowest point, then it is ๐ โ ๐ฆ below thepivot (the center of the circular arc), as shown in Fig. 6.31. So the sides of theright triangle in the figure are ๐ฅ, ๐ โ ๐ฆ, and ๐ . The Pythagorean theorem thengives
๐ฅ2 + (๐ โ ๐ฆ)2 = ๐ 2 =โ ๐ฅ2 = ๐ 2 โ (๐ โ ๐ฆ)2
=โ ๐ฅ2 =๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ๐ 2 โ (๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ๐ 2 โ 2๐ ๐ฆ + ๐ฆ2)
=โ ๐ฅ2 = 2๐ ๐ฆ โ ๐ฆ2. (6.77)
302 Chapter 6. Pythagorean theorem
R โ y
y
x
R
Figure 6.31
Weโll now make the approximation where we ignore the ๐ฆ2 term since it is muchsmaller than the 2๐ ๐ฆ term. (๐ฆ2 is ๐ฆ/2๐ times 2๐ ๐ฆ, and this factor of ๐ฆ/2๐ issmall, since weโre assuming that ๐ฆ is much smaller than ๐ .) Weโre therefore leftwith
๐ฅ2 โ 2๐ ๐ฆ =โ ๐ฆ โ ๐ฅ2
2๐ . (6.78)
This problem is just an upside-down version of the tunnel setup in Exercise 6.16,with ๐/2 replaced with ๐ฅ, and โ replaced with ๐ฆ. The pendulum moves in thearc of a circle with radius ๐ , just like the surface of the earth took the shape of acircle with radius ๐ in Exercise 6.16.
The ๐ฅ2 in Eq. (6.78) means that the pendulumโs motion takes (approximately,assuming ๐ฆ is much smaller than ๐ ) the form of a parabola. Parabolas arefunctions of the form ๐ฆ = ๐ด๐ฅ2. Weโll talk about these, along with other types offunctions, in Chapter 8. What weโve shown in this exercise is that a circle lookslike a parabola, at least near the bottom point. The circle/parabola starts out flatand then gradually gets steeper. If you double the ๐ฅ value from, say, ๐ to 2๐,then the ๐ฆ value quadruples from ๐2/2๐ to (2๐)2/2๐ = 4 ยท ๐2/2๐ . Similarly,increasing ๐ฅ by a factor of 10 increases ๐ฆ by a factor of 102 = 100 (assuming ๐ฆ
is still much smaller than ๐ ).
20. Since weโve chosen the radii of the large circles be 1, the hypotenuse of the righttriangle has length 1 + ๐. And the vertical leg has length 1 โ ๐, because its topand bottom ends are at heights of, respectively, 1 and ๐ above the bottom line.The right triangle therefore has legs 1 and 1 โ ๐, and hypotenuse 1 + ๐.
Since the side lengths of 1โ ๐, 1, and 1 + ๐ are equally spaced (with the commonspacing being ๐), we can simply invoke the result from Example 6.3, which tellsus that the sides are in the ratio of 3 : 4 : 5, as desired. So weโre done. But letโswork it out again anyway. The Pythagorean theorem applied to the right triangle
6.7. Exercise solutions 303
in Fig. 6.17 gives
1 + (1 โ ๐)2 = (1 + ๐)2 =โ 1 = (1 + ๐)2 โ (1 โ ๐)2
=โ 1 = (AA1 + 2๐ + ๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ๐2) โ (AA1 โ 2๐ + ๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ๐2)=โ 1 = 4๐ =โ ๐ = 1/4. (6.79)
The legs of the right triangle are then 1 โ ๐ = 3/4, and 1. And the hypotenuse is1 + ๐ = 5/4. Scaling all of these up by a factor of 4 gives sides of 3, 4, and 5, asdesired.
If you instead start with a general radius ๐ for the large circles, instead of 1, youwill (as you can verify) end up with sides of 3๐ /4, ๐ , and 5๐ /4, which are againin the ratio of 3 : 4 : 5. The value of ๐ is different (๐ /4 instead of 1/4), but the3 : 4 : 5 ratio isnโt affected.
21. This exercise is very similar to Example 6.2. Fig. 6.32 shows a 30โฆ pie piece(just the triangle, without the rounded end). Letting the radius be 1 as usual, the30-60-90 triangle in the left part of the pie piece has legs with lengths 1/2 andโ
3/2 (from Section 5.4), as shown.
2
s
1
30
60
3/23/
2/
1 โ
1
Figure 6.32
Since the bottom side of the pie piece has length 1 (because itโs also a radius),a length 1 โ
โ3/2 is left for the short segment on the right side, as shown. The
Pythagorean theorem applied to the right triangle in the right part of the pie piecethen gives the dodecagonโs side length ๐ as
๐ 2 = (1/2)2 +(1 โ
โ3/2
)2 = 1/4 +(1 โ
โ3 + 3/4
)= 2 โ
โ3. (6.80)
So ๐ =โ
2 โโ
3 โ 0.518. Multiplying this by 12 to find the perimeter ofthe dodecagon gives ๐dodec โ 6.21. The ๐ถcirc > ๐dodec statement that thecircumference of the circle is greater than the perimeter of the dodecagon is then2๐ > 6.21, or equivalently ๐ > 3.1, after dividing by 2. This value is about 99%of the true ๐ โ 3.14 value, so the approximation is a very good one.
304 Chapter 6. Pythagorean theorem
22. (a) The upper-left right triangle in Fig. 6.18 has hypotenuse 1 and vertical leg๐๐/2. So the Pythagorean theorem gives the horizontal leg ๐ฅ as
๐ฅ2 + (๐๐/2)2 = 12 =โ ๐ฅ2 = 1 โ ๐2๐/4 =โ ๐ฅ =
โ1 โ ๐2
๐/4. (6.81)
Since ๐ฅ + ๐ฆ equals the radius 1, we have ๐ฆ = 1 โ ๐ฅ = 1 โโ
1 โ ๐2๐/4.
We can now use the upper-right right triangle in Fig. 6.18 to solve for thehypotenuse ๐2๐. The legs are ๐๐/2 and ๐ฆ (which we just found), so thePythagorean theorem gives
๐22๐ = (๐๐/2)2 + ๐ฆ2
= (๐๐/2)2 +(1 โ
โ1 โ ๐2
๐/4)2
=๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ๐2๐/4 +
(1 โ 2
โ1 โ ๐2
๐/4 + (1 โ๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ๐2๐/4)
)= 2 โ 2
โ1 โ ๐2
๐/4
=โ ๐2๐ =
โ2 โ 2
โ1 โ ๐2
๐/4 , (6.82)
as desired. This isnโt the cleanest answer, but as least itโs an answer. If weknow ๐๐, we just need to plug it into this expression, and ๐2๐ pops out.
(b) Table 6.3 shows the ๐๐ values for various ๐โs (powers of 2), along with theresulting estimate of ๐ (a lower bound), and also the ratio of this estimate tothe true value of ๐. The perimeter of the ๐-gon is ๐ ยท๐๐, so the๐ถcirc > ๐๐-gonstatement is 2๐ ยท 1 > ๐๐๐ =โ ๐ > ๐๐๐/2. This is the estimate of ๐ in thethird column. Each ๐๐ in the table is obtained from the preceding oneby plugging that one into Eq. (6.82). Note that the ๐8 =
โ2 โ
โ2 value
correctly agrees with the result in Example 6.2.
๐ ๐๐ ๐๐๐/2 (๐๐๐/2)/๐2 2 2 0.644
โ2 2
โ2 = 2.83 0.90
8โ
2 โโ
2 4โ
2 โโ
2 = 3.06 0.97416 0.39018064 3.1214 0.993632 0.19603428 3.13655 0.998464 0.09813535 3.14033 0.99960128 0.04908246 3.141277 0.99990256 0.02454308 3.141514 0.999975
Table 6.3: Estimates of ๐ using ๐-gons, where ๐ is a power of 2
6.7. Exercise solutions 305
It is in fact legal to start the table with the ๐ = 2 case, as we have done. Ofcourse, a 2-sided polygon isnโt much of a polygon. Itโs the back-and-forthdiameter we encountered in Exercise 5.23, so it has โsidesโ of ๐2 = 2.Plugging this into Eq. (6.82) correctly gives the ๐4 =
โ2 side of a square.
However, if youโre uncomfortable using the ๐ = 2 case, you can simply startthe table with the ๐ = 4 case.
Remarks: Itโs possible to write the ๐๐ lengths in terms of square roots for๐ = 16 and higher, but the expressions become long and tedious. So weopted to use the (approximate) decimal forms in the table. In most cases, wedidnโt actually need to keep as many digits as we did, as far as a specific ๐๐is concerned. However, the accuracy of any given ๐๐ affects the accuracyof higher ๐๐โs. And the higher the ๐, the more digits we need to know. Forexample, for ๐ = 16 our ๐๐๐/2 estimate for ๐ differs from the actual valueof ๐ (โ 3.14159) in the second digit after the decimal point, whereas for๐ = 256 it differs in the fifth digit.Fig. 6.33 shows a 32-gon, which is very close to a smooth circle. The0.9984 (equivalently, 99.84%) ratio in Table 6.3 for ๐ = 32 seems quitereasonable, since the perimeter of the 32-gon is essentially equal to thecircumference of the circle in which it is inscribed. We havenโt drawn thecircle, because it would be nearly indistinguishable from the 32-gon.
(n = 32)
Figure 6.33
An inspection of Table 6.3 shows that the error (the difference from 1) inthe (๐๐๐/2)/๐ value in the last column decreases by a factor of 4 from one ๐to the next (except for the first few small values of ๐). For example, 0.9984differs from 1 by 0.0016, and then 0.99960 differs from 1 by 0.0004, andthen 0.99990 differs from 1 by 0.0001. Each of these differences is 1/4of the previous one. To prove that this pattern holds in general, we wouldneed more machinery than we have at our disposal, so weโll just accept itas an interesting fact here.
306 Chapter 6. Pythagorean theorem
When producing a ๐ estimation,Use ๐-gons without hesitation,Because doubling your ๐,Yet again, and again,Yields improvement with each iteration!
You can also make another table of doubled ๐ values, but now starting with๐ = 3. The ๐ values will be 3, 6, 12, 24, 48, and so on. From Exercise 5.23,the ๐3 side of an equilateral triangle (assuming a circle radius of 1, as usual)is ๐3 =
โ3. You can quickly show that plugging this into Eq. (6.82) correctly
gives the ๐6 = 1 side of a hexagon. And then plugging this into Eq. (6.82)reproduces the ๐12 =
โ2 โ
โ3 dodecagon result from Exercise 6.21. โฃ
23. (a) The two sub-triangles in Fig. 6.34 are indeed isosceles, because they eachhave two sides equal to the radius ๐ . Let the angle at ๐ด be ๐ผ. Then becausetriangle ๐ด๐ท๐ถ is isosceles, we have the other angle ๐ผ shown.
C
Ar
ฮฑ ฮฒ
ฮฒฮฑ
r
r
BD
Figure 6.34
Likewise, let the angle at ๐ต be ๐ฝ. Then because triangle ๐ต๐ท๐ถ is isosceles,we have the other angle ๐ฝ shown. The three angles in the overall triangleare then โ ๐ด = ๐ผ, โ ๐ต = ๐ฝ, and โ ๐ถ = ๐ผ + ๐ฝ. The sum of these angles mustbe 180โฆ, so
๐ผ + ๐ฝ + (๐ผ + ๐ฝ) = 180โฆ =โ 2๐ผ + 2๐ฝ = 180โฆ
=โ ๐ผ + ๐ฝ = 90โฆ. (6.83)
The lefthand side of this last relation is simply โ ๐ถ, so we have shown thatโ ๐ถ = 90โฆ, as desired. This 90โฆ result for โ ๐ถ is a special case of a moregeneral theorem weโll prove in Chapter 11.
Remark: The above โ ๐ถ = 90โฆ result provides a quick answer to thequestion of how to classify all the different possible shapes of rectanglesthat have a specified length ๐ฟ for their diagonal. We can do this by drawing
6.7. Exercise solutions 307
a circle with diameter ๐ฟ. If we draw the horizontal diameter, along withany other arbitrary diameter (the dashed lines in Fig. 6.35), weโll endup with a rectangle, because the result of this exercise tells us that thehorizontal diameter leads to two right angles (the solid little boxes shown),and the titled dashed diameter leads to two others (the dashed little boxes).Depending on how tilted the dashed diameter is, we can produce a thinrectangle like the one on the left, or the โfatโ square on the right.
L L
Figure 6.35
Exercise 6.4 dealt with a computer screen with a 13.3 inch (or 17 inch)diagonal. We now see how to generate all possible rectangular screens witha 13.3 inch diagonal. However, probably no one is going to want to use ascreen as squat as the left rectangle in Fig. 6.35. In the old days, screenswere more square-ish, but theyโve gotten wider (although not as wide asthe left one in Fig. 6.35) as the years have gone by. โฃ
(b) In Fig. 6.36, let the sides of right triangle ๐ด๐ต๐ถ be 2๐, 2๐, and 2๐, forconvenience (so that we wonโt have a bunch a 1/2 factors floating around).Let ๐ท be the midpoint of the hypotenuse, so that ๐ต๐ท = ๐ท๐ด = ๐. Draw thevertical segment ๐ท๐ธ . Then triangle ๐ด๐ท๐ธ is similar to triangle ๐ด๐ต๐ถ (theyboth have a right angle along with the common angle at ๐ด, which meansthat their third angles are also the same), and it is half a large (since its๐ด๐ท = ๐ hypotenuse is half the ๐ด๐ต = 2๐ hypotenuse). So ๐ท๐ธ = ๐ (half of๐ต๐ถ), and ๐ด๐ธ = ๐ (half of ๐ด๐ถ). This leaves ๐ for ๐ถ๐ธ , as shown. From thePythagorean theorem applied to triangles ๐ด๐ท๐ธ and ๐ถ๐ท๐ธ , the lengths of๐ด๐ท and ๐ถ๐ท are both
โ๐2 + ๐2 (which equals ๐). So they are equal (and
hence also equal to ๐ท๐ต), as desired. ๐ท is therefore the center of the circlepassing through ๐ด, ๐ต, and ๐ถ. And since any chord of a circle containingthe center is a diameter, we see that ๐ด๐ต is a diameter, as we wanted to show.To succinctly summarize the results in parts (a) and (b) of this exercise:If a triangle is inscribed in a circle, then (a) If one side is a diameter,then the triangle is right, and (b) If the triangle is right, then one side
308 Chapter 6. Pythagorean theorem
B
C
2a
A
D
Eb b
c
ca
Figure 6.36
(the hypotenuse) is a diameter. These two statements are the converses(reverses) of each other.
Remark: We just showed in part (b) that for a given hypotenuse length,the midpoint of the hypotenuse is always the same distance (half the lengthof the hypotenuse) from the right angle, no matter what the lengths of thelegs are. It doesnโt matter if the right triangle is a โfatโ 45-45-90 one,or a thin 1-89-90 one. As long as the hypotenuse has a fixed length, thedistance from the midpoint to the right angle is always the same (half thehypotenuse).This fact is relevant to the famous โsliding ladderโ problem. A ladder slidesdown a wall, as shown in Fig. 6.37, always maintaining contact with thewall and the floor. What is the path taken by the midpoint? Since themidpoint of the ladder (the midpoint of the hypotenuse; the dots shown) isalways the same distance from the corner, we see that the midpoint tracesout a quarter circle, as shown. โฃ
24. (a) First proof: Weโll present two proofs. The first uses a symmetry argument,which is a standard (and slick) method of proof. Fig. 6.38(a) shows a circlesitting on top of a line; the line is tangent to the circle. This setup hasleft/right symmetry, meaning that if we flip it over (so that left and rightare reversed), it looks the same. Equivalently, the mirror image looks thesame. Said in yet another way, it looks the same if we view it through theback of the paper.If we flip over the setup in Fig. 6.38(a), it turns into Fig. 6.38(b), whichmean that the ๐ผ and ๐ฝ angles have switched; ๐ผ is now on the right, and ๐ฝ
is on the left. However, the above left/right symmetry property tells us thatFig. 6.38(b) must be exactly the same setup as Fig. 6.38(a), which meansthat the ๐ผ angle must still be on the left, and likewise the ๐ฝ angle must stillbe on the right. Putting the preceding two sentences together, we see that
6.7. Exercise solutions 309
wall
floor
Figure 6.37
A A
ฮฑ ฮฑฮฒ ฮฒ
B B
flip over
(a) (b)
Figure 6.38
the left angle in Fig. 6.38(b) must be equal to both ๐ผ (from the precedingsentence) and also ๐ฝ (from two sentences ago). We therefore conclude that๐ผ = ๐ฝ. And since these two equal angles add up to 180โฆ (since togetherthey form a straight line), they must each be 90โฆ, as we wanted to show.
Second proof: For this second proof, weโll use the Pythagorean theoremin what is called a proof by contradiction. In a proof by contradiction,if weโre trying to prove a particular statement (letโs label the statement asโ๐โ), the strategy is to make the assumption that ๐ is not true (which is theopposite of what weโre actually trying to show). The goal is to then showthat this assumption leads to a false statement. It then logically follows thatour not-๐ assumption must have been incorrect, because true things canโtlogically lead to false things. So our original ๐ statement must be correct(because if not-๐ is false, then ๐ must be true), as we wanted to show.For example, consider the statement, โThere are no integers (positive ornegative) ๐ and ๐ for which 2๐ + 6๐ = 5.โ Now, thereโs no chance oftesting all of the infinite number of possible ๐ and ๐ values and showing
310 Chapter 6. Pythagorean theorem
that none of them work. So we need a different method of proof, and aproof by contradiction works well here. In search of a contradiction, letโsassume that there do exist integers ๐ and ๐ for which 2๐ + 6๐ = 5. It thenfollows (by dividing both sides by 2) that there exist integers ๐ and ๐ forwhich ๐ + 3๐ = 5/2. But this is a false statement, because the lefthand sideis an integer (if ๐ and ๐ are integers), whereas the righthand side is not.Our initial assumption (that there do exist integers. . . ) must therefore havebeen incorrect, which means that we have successfully proved that thereare no integers ๐ and ๐ for which 2๐ + 6๐ = 5. Weโll discuss proofs bycontradiction in more detail in Chapter 12.
In our present tangent-line problem, our assumption (which weโll end upshowing is incorrect) is that the tangent line is not perpendicular to theradius at the point of contact. If this assumption is true, then of the twoangles the radius makes with the tangent, one must be larger than 90โฆ, andone must be smaller than 90โฆ, as shown in Fig. 6.39. (Donโt try to make toomuch sense of this figure, since weโre going to show that it canโt actuallylook this way.)
radius (R)
circle
tangent
smaller than 90A
center
Figure 6.39
Consider the angle that is smaller than 90โฆ, and draw a right trianglecontaining that angle, as shown. Since the leg of a right triangle is (due tothe Pythagorean theorem) always shorter than the hypotenuse, which is ๐
here, the vertical leg of our right triangle is smaller than ๐ . This impliesthat point ๐ด must be inside the circle (because its distance from the centeris less than the radius ๐ ). This contradicts the fact that every point on atangent line lies outside the circle (except for the single point that lies on thecircle). Therefore, since our assumption of non-perpendicularity leads to afalse statement (that ๐ด is inside the circle), we conclude that the assumptionmust have been incorrect. The radius and tangent line must therefore in factbe perpendicular.
6.7. Exercise solutions 311
(b) First proof: Weโll again present two proofs. As in part (a), the firstone uses a symmetry argument, and the second one uses the Pythagoreantheorem (but isnโt a proof by contradiction). In Fig. 6.40(a), the two tangentsare drawn from a point directly above the center of the circle. As with thesetup in part (a), this system has left/right symmetry. So if we flip it over(or look at it in a mirror, or through the back of the paper), we obtain theidentical system in Fig. 6.40(b). The length ๐1 is now on the right. Butsince itโs the same setup, the length ๐2 must also be on the right. Hence๐1 = ๐2, as desired. This is exactly the same reasoning that led to the ๐ผ = ๐ฝ
conclusion in part (a).
(a)
d2 d2d1 d1
(b)
Figure 6.40
Second proof: From part (a), we know that the tangents are perpendicularto the radii where they touch, as shown in Fig. 6.41. The two right trianglesshown have a common hypotenuse ๐ฟ, along with a common leg (the radius๐ ). So the Pythagorean theorem tells us that the other legs have the samelength (both equal to
โ๐ฟ2 โ ๐ 2), as desired.
R R
P
L
Figure 6.41
25. Eq. (6.35) in Example 6.4 tells us that ๐ต๐ด = 2โ๐๐. And since Eq. (6.35) is
valid for any two circles that touch tangentially, we can also apply it to the lefttwo circles in Fig. 6.21, with radii ๐ and ๐. ๐ต and ๐ถ are now the relevant pointsof contact on the tangent line, so Eq. (6.35) tells us that ๐ต๐ถ = 2
โ๐๐. Likewise,
applying Eq. (6.35) to the right two circles in Fig. 6.21, with radii ๐ and ๐, gives๐ถ๐ด = 2
โ๐๐.
312 Chapter 6. Pythagorean theorem
We can now use the fact that ๐ต๐ถ + ๐ถ๐ด = ๐ต๐ด, which gives
2โ๐๐ + 2
โ๐๐ = 2
โ๐๐ =โ
โ๐(โ
๐ +โ๐)=โ๐๐
=โโ๐ =
โ๐๐
โ๐ +
โ๐, (6.84)
where we have divided both sides by 2, factored out theโ๐ on the lefthand side,
and then divided both sides byโ๐ +
โ๐. Squaring both sides then gives
๐ =
( โ๐๐
โ๐ +
โ๐
)2
=๐๐
(โ๐ +โ๐)2
. (6.85)
Note that in the special case where ๐ = ๐, we have (replacing every ๐ in Eq. (6.85)with ๐)
๐ =๐ ยท ๐
(2โ๐)2 =๐2
4๐=๐
4. (6.86)
So the small circle has 1/4 the radius of the large circles. This agrees with theresult in Exercise 6.20, where we solved the ๐ = ๐ case directly (with ๐ = ๐ = 1).
26. As in Example 6.4, the short leg of the shaded triangle is the ๐ โ ๐ difference ofthe radii. But the hypotenuse here isnโt ๐ + ๐, as it was in Example 6.4. Instead,it equals
โ๐2 + ๐2 because it is the hypotenuse of right triangle ๐ด๐ต๐ถ. This is
indeed a right triangle, because the dashed tangent is perpendicular to the radiusof the left circle at ๐ถ, from Exercise 6.24(a).
The long leg of the shaded triangle is the desired distance ๐, so applying thePythagorean theorem to the shaded triangle gives
๐2 + (๐ โ ๐)2 =(โ
๐2 + ๐2)2
=โ ๐2 =(โ
๐2 + ๐2)2 โ (๐ โ ๐)2
= (๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ๐2 +@@๐2) โ (๏ฟฝ๏ฟฝ๐2 โ 2๐๐ +@@๐
2)= 2๐๐
=โ ๐ =โ
2๐๐ =โ
2โ๐๐ = (1.41)
โ๐๐. (6.87)
Thisโ
2โ๐๐ = (1.41)
โ๐๐ answer is smaller than the 2
โ๐๐ answer in Exam-
ple 6.4. This makes sense, because the centers of the circles are closer togetherin this exercise (the circles partially overlap here).
In the special case where ๐ = ๐, we obtain ๐ =โ
2โ๐2 =
โ2๐. In this case, the
๐ต๐ถ and ๐ด๐ถ segments are two sides of a square, with side length ๐. The distance๐ is the same as the diagonal ๐ต๐ด of this square (the distance between the centersof the circles), as you can verify by drawing a picture. And the diagonal of asquare with side ๐ correctly has length
โ2๐.