Chapter 6 - Basic Principles of Learning

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6Basic Principles of Learning

2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Basic Principles of Learning

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Definition of Learning Relative permanent change in behavior brought about through experience or interactions with the environment Not all changes result from learning Change in behavior not always immediate

Years of isolating and studying behavior produced different principles of learning



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Classical Conditioning: Learning by Association Ivan Pavlov in Russia Nobel Prize for saliva in digestion Reflexive response controlled by arbitrary stimulus (salivation when attendant approached)

Association - key element First recognized by Aristotle Pavlov: classical conditioning was form of learning through association


Pavlovs ExperimentObservation screen

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Container of meat powderRevolving drum for recording responses

Device to count drops of saliva 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Tube for collection of saliva

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Pavlovs Experiment

ABefore classical conditioning: initially, the metronome is a neutral stimulus that does not elicit the response of salivation

Neutral stimulus (metronome)

CR (salivation)

BUCR (meat powder)

UCR (salivation)

But the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) can elicit the unconditioned response (UCR)


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Neutral stimulus (metronome)

UCR (meat powder)

UCR (salivation)

C

Conditioning procedure: during the classical conditioning procedure, the neutral stimulus is presented in association with the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) to elicit the unconditioned response (UCR)

DTest of conditioning: after classical conditioning, the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) that elicits the conditioned response (CR) of salivation

CS (metronome)

CR (salivation)



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Pavlovs Experiments Systematic, effective, precise studies Association of two stimuli The more frequently the metronome and food are associated, the more often the metronome will elicit salivation Timing of association is highly important Longer time intervals were less effective; almost no learning occurred 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Pavlovs Studies: the more often the metronome was associated in time with meat powder, the more effective in eliciting saliva

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87 Number of drops of saliva elicited by metronome alone 6 5

43 2 1

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Number of times metronome and meat powder were presented together



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Terminology of Classical Conditioning Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) Elicits response without learning

Unconditioned response (UCR) Unlearned, inborn response

Conditioned stimulus (CS) Acquires ability to elicit after paired association with unconditioned stimulus

Conditioned response (CR) Elicited by conditioned stimulus 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved

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Application of Terminology to Pavlovs Experiment

CS(meat powder)

CR UCR (Salivation)(metronome)

UCS



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Definition of Classical Conditioning Form of learning in which CS followed by UCS elicits UCR Pairing of CS and UCS allows CS to elicit CR almost identical or similar to UCR

Considered learning because New behavior acquired

Old behavior elicited by new stimulus Does not depend on behavior of individual 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved


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Importance of Classical Conditioning Watson and Rayner Made classical conditioning famous with Little Albert experiments Learned to fear rats - unethical today

Watson and Jones Counterconditioning: reversing the CR

Useful in Explaining aspects of human health Explaining sexual fetishes and arousals 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved

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Watson and Raynor Study

CS

(rat)

CR UCR

(fear)

UCS (loud noise) 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved


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Operant Conditioning: Learning from the Consequences of Your Behavior Form of learning Consequences of behavior lead to change based on probability of consequences occurring

Thorndike and the puzzle box Researching animal intelligence Law of effect: consequences determine response occurring in future



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Operant Conditioning Three types of desirable and undesirable consequences that influence behavior Positive reinforcement

Negative reinforcement Punishment



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Positive Reinforcement Positive consequences behavior occurs more frequently (ie: praise given) Uses in teaching Hospitalized schizophrenics more normal behaviors Employees within the workplace

Operant response changed behavior becomes more frequent 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Percent of interaction spent with100 80

Use of Positive Reinforcement Increases Time Spent With Other Children

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Adults 6040 20 0 100

80

Children 6040 20 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26

Days 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved


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Positive Reinforcement Two important issues Timing of reinforcer following response Delay of reinforcement the greater the delay between response and reinforcer, the slower the learning Consistency in delivery of reinforcement

Schedules of reinforcement



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Reinforcement Positive reinforcers learned and inborn Primary reinforcement Innately reinforcing Examples: food, water, warmth, physical activity

Secondary reinforcement Learned through classical conditioning Examples: rewards, money, praise


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Primary reinforcer

Secondary reinforcer



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Schedules of Positive Reinforcement Continuous reinforcer for every response Schedules Fixed ratio reinforcer given after each specified or fixed number of responses Variable ratio reinforcement after varying number of responses


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Patterns of Behavior Produced by ReinforcementFixed Ratio Variable Ratio

Time

Time



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Schedules of Positive Reinforcement Schedules Fixed interval schedule reinforcement based on time (ie: every 2 hours)

Variable interval schedule reinforcement after variable amount of time (ie: reinforced after 1 hour, then after 4 minutes, then after 35 minutes like slot machine gambling)


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Patterns of Behavior Produced by ReinforcementFixed Interval Variable Interval

Time

Time



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Shaping Reinforcing steps toward targeted behavior or method of successive approximations Skinner Skinner box Rat pushes lever to get food after Rewarded for steps of nearing, touching, and pushing on lever

Used for children and those with developmental handicaps 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Operant ConditioningSignal lights Lever Pellet dispenser Speaker

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To shock generator Dispenser tube Food cup Electric grid



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Negative Reinforcement Something unpleasant, aversive, undesired is removed by behavior or does not happen at all Not the same as punishment Not a bad habit being reinforced Very powerful method of reinforcement

Escape conditioning negative event stops

Avoidance conditioning negative event avoided 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved


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Punishment Consequence of behavior is negative Behavior has been punished Behavior frequency will decrease When appropriately used ethical and valuable tool for discouraging undesired behavior

Physical punishment used by society, parents, and others has dangers Raises ethical questions 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved


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Dangers of Punishment Often reinforcing to the punisher

Often has generalizing effect on the individual May lead to a worse problem (learning to dislike punisher, reacting aggressively towards others) Criticism trap belief that punishment is ineffective leads to using criticism (criticism sometimes reinforces negative behavior) Punishment may suppress behavior temporarily but is not long term solution 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved


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Guideline for Use of Punishment Do not use physical punishment Punish inappropriate behavior immediately Positively reinforce appropriate behavior

Clarify what behavior is being punished and why (separate the person from the behavior) Do not mix punishment with rewards Do not back down once you begin to punish 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved


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Contrasting Classical and Operant ConditioningClassical conditioning involves Association between two stimuli Reflexive, involuntary behaviors UCS making behavior happen

Operant conditioning involves Association between response and consequence More complicated voluntary behaviors Reinforcing consequence occurring only if desired response is given



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Stimulus Discrimination and Generalization Stimulus discrimination deciding between appropriate and inappropriate occasions for a response Learned by humans and animals

Stimulus generalization opposite of stimulus discrimination Similarity of two or more stimuli


Stimulus Generalization and Reinforcement of a Pigeons Pecking300

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Mean total responses

200

100

0 460

480

500

520

540

560

580

600

620

640

Wavelength 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved


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Extinction: Learning When to Quit Extinction learned response stops occurring because original source of learning was removed

Classical conditioning Fear is very difficult to extinguish CR extinguished if CS is repeatedly presented but UCS is no longer paired with it

Operant conditioning Extinction results from change in consequence 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved


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Extinction Differences between classical conditioning and operant conditioning Operant conditioning Early stage extinction leads to frustration

Partial reinforcement effect: schedule and type of reinforcement greatly influence extinction Fastest extinction - continuous reinforcement Response prevention: extinguishes avoidance responses quickly 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved


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Spontaneous Recovery and Disinhibition Course of extinction not smooth learned response occurs often before extinction Spontaneous recovery Response reappears during extinction

Disinhibition Presentation of intense, unrelated stimulus can cause strength of response to return Pavlov: no response is unlearned, just inhibited



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Theoretical Interpretations of Learning Pavlov Neural connections between brain areas of learning and responding acquired Other psychologists Cognition plays central role in learning Place learning and cognitive map Latent learning Insight learning sudden problem solving Learning set learned to learn insightfully


Monkeys and Impact of Experience120 110 100 90 80 70 60 50

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Problems257-312 201-256 101-200 25-32 17-24 9-16 1-8

1

2

3

4

5

6

Trials 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved


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Modeling: Learning by Watching Others Bandura people learn through modeling Demonstrates role of cognition in learning Cognitive learning occurs by watching before behavior occurs Learn skills Use of appropriate behavior in given situation Reduce inhibitions Learn what behaviors are reinforced



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Modeling Powerful form of learning

Vicarious reinforcement likely to imitate reinforced behaviors Vicarious punishment likely not to imitate behaviors that are punished High status, attractive, likeable, successful models more likely imitated Concerns about television, movies, other media 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved


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Biological Factors in Learning Learning influenced several ways Physical ability limitations (ie: fish cannot fly) Individual differences (ie: fear inhibitions)

Process of evolution useful fears and survival mechanisms Biological preparedness to learn Learned taste aversion ( used on humans and animals)



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6The End


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Chapter 6 - Basic Principles of Learning