CHAPTER 5 WINDS OF DEATH. - A chapter about the production and release of toxic compounds - Looks at the evolution of chemical hazard --- a production

CHAPTER 5

WINDS OF DEATH

- A chapter about the production and release of toxic compounds

- Looks at the evolution of chemical hazard--- a production of the interaction

of the development of the industry and how society utilizes chemical products

I can’t think of a better example of the chemical specialization than the pesticide industry

Insecticide HerbicideFungicide NematicideRodenticide BactericideAcaricide AlgicideMiticide MolluscicideAvicide SlimicidePiscicide Ovicide

Pesticide-class chemicals not carrying a “-icide” suffix

DisinfectantsGrowth regulatorsDefoliantsDesiccantsRepellentsAttractantsChemosterilants

Combining industrial, economic, political, and social contexts, gives a better understanding of where and why chemical hazards occur… and why some people and places

are more susceptible to this risk

Bhopal, India (1984)Guadalajara, Mexico (1992)Seveso, Italy (1997)

- Accidental releases occur daily, some small and unnoticed. Others resulting in significant damage to both people and property

Forms of Impacts

(1) disruption of organic life- support systems

(2) damage to wildlife(3) damage to human health(4) damage to property(5) nuisance effects

(smell; taste;sight)

Types of Chemical Hazards

Toxic chemicals – substances that are fatal to over 50% of test animals at a given concentration

Hazardous chemicals – harmful to humans for a number of reasons

Carcinogen – chemicals, radiation, or viruses that cause/promote growth of malignancy [especially resulting in metastasis]

Types of Chemical Hazards, cont

Mutagens – agents like radiation or chemicals that cause mutations[change in the DNA of a living organism]; especially in germ cells

Teratogens – chemicals, radiation, viruses, etc, that cause birth defects in human embryos

Chemical Hazards and Terrorism

There are many chemical agents available to terrorists

Some of the most widely known and feared and would cause the greatest number of injuries

Chemical Hazards and Terrorism, cont

(1) Blister Agents – (mustard gas); a few drops can cause severe injury(attacks eyes, skin,

respiratory and digestive systems); flammableIn pure state, colorless and odorless – manufacturers add color (amber, green) and odor (mustard, garlic)


(2) Blood Agents – (hydrogen cyanide); under pressure a liquid, in use a

gas; flammable Low concentrations-little effectHigh concentration toxic and rapid death (attacks eyes; nervous, respiratory & digestive systems)In pure state odor of almonds or peach blooms* (+/-) volatile, dissipates quickly

(+) Toxic effects may be delayed


(3) Choking Agents – (chlorine); many are industrial compounds, are readily

available; React with H2O to form hypochlorous

acid (HClO) and hydrochloric acid (HCl ); attacks respiratory system (coughing, choking, fluid build-up)

Pungent, bleach-like smell, greenish-yellow gas


(4) Nerve agents – (Sarin); all are toxic in small concentrations

Odorless, resembles water or a light vegetable oil; aerosol dispersion

best Attacks eyes, skin, muscles, respiratory system, nervous system, digestive system

* Many dead animals, birds, insects may indicate an incident *

The Production of Chemical Hazards

- Many types of hazard are associated with the chemical industry. They can generally be classed into two categories:

(a) incidents / accidents(b) waste products

The Production of Chemical Hazards, cont

- Severity and magnitude of the hazard is a function of:

(1) type of technological failure(2) location of the incident

Both will affect the spatial area impacted, including as it relates to product life cycles


(3) property(ies) of the chemical hazard--- persistence – resistance to

degradation… hydrolysis (water)… photolysis (sunlight)… oxidation (O2; bacteria)

--- solubility – ability to dissolve in water

--- volatility – measure of the tendency of a compound to become a gas

--- absorption – tendency to bond with organic and inorganic matter


- Because chemical hazard incidents can occur at any point in the lifetime of the chemical [manufacture-to-disposal] chemical hazards are difficult to manage

Cutter“More than any other

technological hazards, chemical hazards require a thorough understanding of the scale and context (social, historical, political, economic, environmental) of chemical use because of the source of the hazard is so randomly distributed” (p. 87)

Technological change and innovation is the driving force in the evolution of world societies from rural agrarian to urban industrial--- since the Industrial Revolution,

the pace of innovation has accelerated – with marked societal results

Better living through chemistry?

- Rapidness of this technological change and its complexity has led to a correlated increase in unintended and unanticipated consequences

- Until very recently, societies have taken the position that benefits have outweighed risks/costs… esp chemical industry

[somewhat blindly, I think]

Chemical Industry Temporal Patterns

Viewed most broadly, two spatial patterns emerge(1) Prior to 1900 – concentration in Britain (soda) and Germany (Dyeing)(2) After 1900 – diversified and

rapidly growing

Why pattern after 1900?--- technological advances / innovations in science--- internationalization of industry / multi-nationals--- mechanization increased efficiency--- abandonment of batch operations for continuous-flow operations

Product Life Cycles

Text says that these also played an important role in industry transformation / spatial organization

Can be viewed as “birth-to-death” of of a product line or an innovation (p. 89)

Product Life Cycles, contFour stages:(1) research and development –

conception, testing, patenting, commercialization of a product or innovation--- industry concentrated in a few locations reflecting factor(s) of production

Product Life Cycles, cont

Four stages, cont:(2) new product stage – introduction of

new product / innovation--- rapid market growth--- market monopolization--- core area is reinforced and enhanced

as skilled labor emigrates… may become nodal and foster

business serving employment

Product Life Cycles, contFour Stages, cont:(3) maturity – competitors enter the

product / innovation field--- innovator firm’s advantage

disappears--- need to reduce cost and

product is mass produced--- industry seeks dispersion of

facilities to control cost and off-set decreased market

share

Product Life Cycles, contFour stages, cont:(4) decline and termination

--- product or innovation declines and eventually disappears

--- new product of innovation opportunity

--- often associated with antiquated facilities / methods

--- firm may continue reduced marketing of product/innovation

Historical and Spatial Evolution of the Chemical Industry

International Developments pre-1900- Text: sulphuric acid was the first

commercially produced chemical (Arabs; 8th C)

- Not until the Industrial Revolution that the chemical industry go its start--- early 18th C industry production dominated by heavy organics, particularly alkali and soda ash… both in demand for hard soap and glass production

International Developments pre-1900, cont

- Initially demand far exceeded supply (vegetable sources)… as a consequence, the impetus

existed for innovation and the search for alternative sources

(1) Cutter cites the LeBlanc Method

sulphuric acid and salt to synthesize alkali

International Developments pre-1900

- LeBlanc Method inherently dangerous

Interesting: for every ton of synthetic alkali produced by LeBlanc, 1.4 tons of tank waste resulted

- By 1863, concern about the effects of hydrochloric venting that the British government enacted the UK AlKali Act

International Developments pre-1900(2) Solvay Method for alkali synthesis

… less tank waste; cheaper in raw materials; needed less labor

… became preferred method of production

… more capital intensive; not accepted in Britain – factor in the demise of British soda industry

Other sectors of the chemical industry in Europe were equally important:(1) synthetic dyes from coal tar

(Switzerland and Germany)(2) coal tar gas(3) explosives industry

- Explosives industry developed somewhat differently--- early industry (esp. if Chinese

are included)--- not dominated by a single

country or concern … national defense? … national pride?

--- initially greater competition

--- eventually saw the evolution of the Gunpowder Trust , an oligopoly which

cooperated in carving out market areas and market shares for its members--- Factors consolidated producers

into two giantsdu Pont (U.S.) Noble Industries (Scotland)

- Additionally, during the period:(a) growth of pharmaceutical

sector--- Bayer (1898)(b) birth of petro-chemical

industry--- fertilizers and pesticides

The 20th Century and the American Chemical Industry

Pre-World War I: Rapid Innovations- U.S. chemical industry in its infancy

and largely dominated by foreign technology and foreign investment--- despite 100+ years of independence we were still a cog in European mercantile colonialism

The 20th Century and the American Chemical Industry, cont

- By 1900 U.S. had distinct chemical production concentrations:

(1) … close to market areas(Philadelphia/northern New Jersey)

(2) … close to raw materials(West Virginia/Detroit/Pittsburgh, etc)

(3) … close to power sources(Niagara Falls)

- Interesting: few chemical producers in Mid-west or in Gulf Coast States

- Pre-war years were characterized by rapid innovation in the industry:… Dow bromides from brine… Monstanto artificial sweetener… chemical advancements in plastic and

acrylics … Kodak emulsions and film-making


War and Inventiveness- Armed conflict spark invention and

innovation… esp. for the chemical industry(1) war-time embargo brought

German shortage in nitrogen

(2) development of caustic chlorine gas, mustard gas and chloropicrin

(3) synthesis of isopropyl alcohol


- By the end of WWI, the U.S. chemical industry had grown significantly while retaining decentralized spatial organization

- The fertilizer industry was the largest single sector, followed by explosives


The Interwar Years: Merger Mania and Diversification

- 1920s and 30s were decades of merger and acquisition the chemical industry grew and expanded operations into new products and markets

- Research takes precedent over manufacturing


The Interwar Years: Merger Mania and Diversification cont,

- Two important discoveries occurred in the inner-war period that permanently altered American chemical industry(1) development of polymerization(2) ability to “crack” molecules


The Interwar Years: Merger Mania and Diversification , cont- polymerization allowed customization of molecule chains- “cracking” molecules results in more feedstock for processing / later new products- whole synthetics industry ultimately increased need for resources and raw material

Interesting

Changing World Technologies, a factory in Carthage, MI, utilizing a process called thermal depolymerization has developed a way to “speed up Mother Nature” by combining heat and pressure to convert turkey by-products (beaks, feathers, bones, etc,) into oil

Interesting, cont

Claim process will work on anything containing carbon

The only by-products are oil, natural gas, carbon materials and water

Plant produces 3,000 barrels of biofuel weekly from 1200 tons of turkey parts (ConAgra slaughterhouse supplied)

Cost: $80/barrel; smell of burning turkey parts; threat of increased cost of turkey guts (E Magazine, Vol XVI, No. 6)


Shortages and Substitutions- Once again, war spawned

shortages and need for substitutions sparked technological development

- Much of this expansion was Federally funded as military or patriotic need


Shortages and Substitutions, cont(1) war time expansion(2) affluent American chemical

market(3) destruction of the German

petro-chemical industry during and after the war made the U.S. industry world leaders after the war

Unheralded Growth and Transition

- 1950-60s brought little technological change

… easier to think of this time as period of reorganization / restructuring

- Movement from small operations supplying domestic-market need to publicly trades corporations of international branch operations and product diversification … demanded larger / more capital

intensive operations

Unheralded Growth and Transition, cont

- ? How much of this overseas restructuring was the result of birth of U.S. environmental movement (NEPA, EPA, etc) and subsequent moratorium on production of select chemical production in the U.S.

- --- it is clear that increased government regulation of pharmaceutical industry did occur


- Example: clioquinol ; thalidomide (Cantergan) and phocomelia deformity

I would add that this regulation was complicated by “indirect biological response… example exposure to:--- formaldehyde and sickhouse

syndrome--- sodium fluoroacetate


- There are also immune system depressants that “turn off” body natural defenses

- Widespread access to TV makes media become a leading mass marketing tool

- … chemical sales becomes big business- Economies of scale drove chemical

industry thinking - (drive for efficiency and market share)


- Also, during this period chemicals as weapons of war again make appearance

- … now directed against their operating environment… not them

ex: napalm, dev. In WWII by Dupont and Standard Oil CO. reappears

- Also a growing backlash against the chemical industry

- … Rachel Carson, Silent Spring- … common ground movement of anti-war,

consumer protection and environmental, groups

Safety and Environmental Awakening

- With what we developed and what we knew at the time, is the U.S. chemical industry “good” or “bad”?

Mowrey and Redmond vs Ames

- After 1970 the chemical industry for first time comes under concerted, organized and unified regulatory effort

Safety and Environmental Awakening, cont

(1) Legislative - Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) --- legislative act unifying worker protection across the U.S.--- set health and safety standards for

workplaces of 10 or more workers--- Standards set for noise, chemical

agents, temperature, workplace safety, worker training and

exposure


(2) Accidents brought occupational and environmental exposure – Firemaster – (1974) fire retardant of polybrominated biphenyls was mistakenly delivered to a agricultural feed plant instead of Nutrimaster , a dairy additive; thousands of farm animals died, animal deformities

A Michigan feed worker accidentally mixed a bag of Firemaster into feed. Before discovered, thousands of cows (as well as pigs; chickens; sheep) in southwestern Michigan were affected. As were humans who ate the meat and eggs, drank the milk, etc23,000 cattle; 1.5 million chickens; thousands of pigs and sheep were slaughtered

[why? simple mistake - same company, similar names, similar packaging]


(2) Contkepone – (early 1970s) a pesticide poisons the James River and chemical workersLathrop, CA (1978) EPA closed a dibromochloropropane where chemical workers became sterile and pesticide residue contaminated soil and groundwater


- These episodes and others fueled “chemophobia” and brought renewed calls for tighter legislation

- The chemical industry continued growth and expansion, esp. in petro-chemicals… helped Texas, Louisiana, New York,

New Jersey, California become leading chemical states and older industrial concentrations dispersed

Risk and Hazards Assessment

- Accidents have always been part of the chemical industry… both in reality and perceptually… history has repeated itself with multiple accidents in the same location … reliable data on accidents is complicated by a lack of dependable

data on type and circumstance… further, big accidents get the press

Risk and Hazards Assessment, cont- It is easy to conclude that worldwide there is

a general underestimation of accident hazard- Globally there is no comprehensive data

base, though attempts are in place:SARA Title III (U.S.)EU Seveso Directive Control of Industrial Major Accident Hazard (U.K.)UN International Programme on Chemical

SafetyUN International Register of Potentially Toxic Chemicals

Airborne Toxic Releases

International PatternsAs would be expected, there are

conflicting reports on the trend in chemical accidents (Cutter)

General consensus that greatest frequency of these accidents are LDCs[lack industrial infrastructure; development / safety and response infrastructures--- this is somewhat balanced: more reported accidents – lesser severity

Airborne Toxic Releases, cont

The U.S. Hazardscape- Cutter opens section with a statement

that examination of the global patterns of “… accidents reveal little about the contextual nature of the hazard”

- How should we be trained to react to releases?

(1) Time – limit time of exposure(2) Distance – distance yourself from the threat

uphill and upwind(3) Shielding – learn common substance that

form a barrier / protect (Schellhorn)


For example:(1) A doctor in Richland, WA, you see an inordinate number of cancer patients. A check shows no reported chemical or radioactive accidents in your area. Random occurrence? Probably not.You are downwind of Hanford Nuclear Reservation. For 28 yrs (circa 1970+) Hanford had routinely released radioactive metals and chemicals into the atmosphere. Because it was SOP, it is not classed as an accident


Or (2) Tired of problems at Richland, you move east to Long Island, where you encounter much the same scenario of cancer clustering. Coincidence? Probably not.Long Island is home to Brookhaven National Laboratory, a center for pure scientific study. One of their experiments was the Gamma Forest. Here for 15 yrs (to 1980), 20 hrs a day, high concentrations of radioactive cobalt was pumped through 100 acres of forest to examine that the impact might be. Again, SOP, not reported, not an accident.


- Cutter’s figures and studies have become somewhat dated

- Cutter provides us a literature view of chemical incidents (p. 103), but concludes that even the cited studies do not give an understanding of the “… increasing hazards of chemical use.”

- For the limited analysis Cutter does here, she confines herself to airborne chemical releases…. published accounts


Frequency and Distribution- A total of 339 incidents occurred 1900-1990,

compared to 333 worldwide--- majority 1970s and 80s--- Cutter notes that beginning 1950 there is

almost a doubling each succeeding decade--- point sources dominated the numbers / transport sources (shipping and pipelines) showed fewer numbers--- by state: TX; CA; NJ; LA; NY; PA; IL


Chemical AccidentsYear Total Acute Releases

U.S. Inter U.S. Inter00-09 4 2 0 010-19 14 19 1 020-29 12 18 5 330-39 6 20 3 240-49 15 25 6 450-59 18 27 5 860-69 53 36 29 1470-79 118 89 50 4180-89 99 97 66 38


Chemical Accident Sources and TotalsYear Total Stationary Transport Pipelines

Unknown00-09 4 4 0 0 010-19 14 12 0 0 020-29 12 11 1 0 030-39 6 3 3 0 0 40-49 15 8 5 1 150-59 18 12 4 1 1 60-69 53 35 10 3 570-79 118 55 43 8 1280-89 99 53 38 2 6

Airborne Toxic Releases, contChemical TypeCutter summarizes with six categories of accident

by chemical type:(1) Acute – SARA provided

--- majority of accidents (1970-1990) were from stationary sources

from this class (2) Radiation(3) Ammunition and Explosives(4) Oil and Natural Gas(5) Known chemicals not covered previously(6) Unknown chemical agents


Severity- Frequently hard to judge because the

most visible indictors – are also the most obvious

- Author observations on fatalities by chemical type

(1) Munitions explosions resulted in greatest fatalities

(2) Acute releases resulted in less deaths, but more injuries than other classes

(3) Radiation class was relative injury-free [but long-term effects are down played]

Context of Risk

According to Cutter(1) incidents are increasing nationally

and internationally(2) toxicity of materials involved is

increasingIt is noteworthy the chemical industry as a

whole (by SIC codes) has one of the best safety records among manufacturers… but this is little comfort if you are one of the 50,000 persons evacuated from more than 100 accidents in Cutter’s study period

Context of Risk, cont

Historically, risk has shifted:From early dependence on heavy inorganics

and small operations where exposure was occupational

to Large specialized and diversified operations,

heavily capital dependent and operating on the basis of economies of scale

* Hazard increased with growth and diversification*

Context of Risk, cont

- Some locations have been left more vulnerable to chemical hazards than othersvulnerability – “The likelihood that an individual or group will be exposed to and adversely affected by a hazard.” --- By our social geography, the South has been particularly vulnerable to this threat

Documents

CHAPTER 5 WINDS OF DEATH. - A chapter about the production and release of toxic compounds - Looks at the evolution of chemical hazard --- a production