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Chapter: - 5

WATER RESOURCES – QUALITY, UTILIZATION AND MANAGEMENT

5.1 INTRODUCTION:

Quality, utilization, management and problems are important aspects of the

study of water resources. Water quality is physical, chemical, biological and

bacteriological properties of water for any intended use. Water quality is concerned

with the status of water with respect to its requirement for human being and biological

species. Water Management of water resources refers to optimize the use of water in

order to minimize its potential impacts on the environment. It is very difficult and

many efforts are required to optimize the use of water all over the world. Management

of water needs detail study of surface and groundwater potential of the given area,

various uses for which it may be put, increasing demands, participation of people,

government policy etc. Scarcity of water, floods, salinity, depletion of aquifers, waste

water etc. are severe problems at local, regional and global level.

5.2 QUALITY OF WATER:

Water resource is a unique in nature and present in different forms.

Groundwater is a main source for water for the domestic and agriculture purpose in

Dhule district. Groundwater has become an essential resource over the past few

decades due to the increase in its usage for drinking, irrigation and industrial uses etc.

(Asadi et al, 2007). Hence water has become a scarce resource all over the world. The

availability of potable water in adequate quantity for consumption has been one of the

hot talks in recent past (Jog et al, 2003). Conceptually, water quality refers to the

characteristics of a water supply that will influence its suitability for a specific use,

i.e. how well the quality meets the needs of the user. Quality is defined by certain

physical, chemical and biological characteristics of water. In an ecological

perspective, it can be defined as the aquatic system which can support life without

breaking the food chain and food web of the system.

The geological nature of the soil determines the chemical composition of the

groundwater. Water is constantly in contact with the ground in which it stagnates or

circulates, so equilibrium develops between the composition of the soil and that of the

water: e.g. water that circulates in a sandy or granitic substratum is acidic and has a

few minerals. Water that circulates in limestone contains bicarbonates alkalinity. The

98

quality of the water determines its use for various purposes. Thus, if quantity and

quality is adequate, water is a blessing (Kayastha, 2003).

5.2.1 Chemical Analysis of Water: Chemical composition is a result of stage by

stage transformation of chemical composition of water that fell as precipitation. Other

transformations are controlled by climate, relief, lithology, intensity of water

exchange, biological production of the landscape and geo-chemical situation. To

ascertain suitability of water for consumption, it is necessary to undertake

examination of quality of water. Physical properties of water include temperature,

color, taste, and odour, turbidity, foam and froth, conductivity, dissolved solids.

Table No. 5.1 Drinking Water Standards Prescribed by B. I. S., I. C. M. R. and

W. H. O.

Element/

Parameter

B. I. S. I. C. M. R. W. H. O.

Hig

hest

Des

irab

le

Max

imu

m

Per

mis

sib

le

Hig

hest

Des

irab

le

Max

imu

m

Per

mis

sib

le

Hig

hest

Des

irab

le

Max

imu

m

Per

mis

sib

le

Alkalinity 200 600 200 600 200 600

Calcium 75 - 75 200 75 -

Chloride 250 1000 200 1000 200 1000

Colour

(Hazen Unit) 10 - 5 25 - -

Electric

Conductivity No Standards Recommended

Fluoride 0.6-1.2 - 1 1.5

0.6-

0.9 0.8-1.7

Iron 0.3 - 0.3 1 0.3 -

Magnesium 30 - 50 150 50 -

Nitrates 45

No

Relaxation 20 50 10 45

PH 6.5-8.5 6.5-9.2 7-8.5 6.5-9.2 7-8.5 6.5-9.2

Sodium 200

Sulphate 200 400 200 400 150 200

Total Dissolved

Solids 500 1500 500 1500 500 1500

Total Hardness

CaCO3 300 - 300 600 500 -

Dissolved oxygen, pH value, oil content, organic and inorganic compounds, total

coliform counts determines chemical quality while biological quality depends on

99

availability of nutrients (Nitrogen and Phosphorus), microbial density and total

aquatic life in water as bacteria, algae, etc.Standard values of various water quality

parameters laid down by Indian Council of Medical Research, Bureau of Indian

Standards and World Health Organization are given in Table No.5.1. Results of water

quality analysis of samples in Dhule district have been discussed below.

i. PH: The P

H of a solution at any given temperature represents the concentration

hydrogen ion. Measurement of PH

gives us very quick and easy way to obtain

appraisal of acid-base equilibrium. It is important in environmental engineering in

considering water supply, water softening, dis-infection and corrosion control. Low

PH affects corrosion, high P

H causes taste, soapy feel and P

H < 8 is preferable for

effective disinfection with chlorine (Maiti, 2004). Wetzel (1975) reported that the

value of pH ranges from 8 to 9 units in Indian waters (Sisodia and Moundiotiya,

2006). Average pH of the groundwater in Dhule district is around 8. Out of 166

samples only 12 show high pH. Normally a groundwater of Dhule district is slightly

alkaline.

Fig. No. 5.1

ii. Electric Conductivity: Electric conductivity (EC) is ability of water to carry

electric current. Ions such as Cl-, SO4

-, CO3

-, HCO3

-, NO3

-, Ca

+, Mg

+, Na

+, and K

+ are

100

present in the water that dominates the electric conductivity. By multiplying

conductivity with an empirical factor (which is obtained from samples of known

dissolved solid concentration and conductivities) the total dissolved solids can be

estimated (Abbasi, 1998).

Table No. 5.2 Groundwater classification based on Electric Conductivity (EC)

Sr.

No. Type E.C. S.A.R. Dhule Shindkheda Sakri Shirpur District

1 Excellent < 250 <10 0 0 0 0 0

2 Good 250-750 10–18 3 6 59 9 77

3 Doubt

full

750-2250 18–26 17 29 22 11 79

4 Unsuita

ble

>2250 > 26 3 6 1 0 10

*E.C. in µmhos/cm** S.A.R. in equivalent per mole. Source: Computed by Researcher

As per EC and SAR water of a single village does not belong to excellent

category (Table No. 5.2). About 2/3rd

villages of Sakri tehsil and half of villages in

Shirpur tehsil have good water (Table No. 5.2). Groundwater of most of the villages

Fig. No. 5.2

in Dhule and Shindkheda tehsil is doubtful and not suitable for drinking purpose.

iii. Total Dissolved Solids (TDS): Uncountable solids are found in natural

waters, such as carbonates, sodium, potassium, iron, magnesium, sulfates,

101

bicarbonates, chlorides, nitrates etc. In other words total dissolved solids is simply

sum of the cations and anions concentration expressed in mg/l. Chlorine is a major

inorganic constituent of natural waters (Maiti, 2004). Chlorine may take its source

from soil, rocks, discharge of agricultural, industrial and domestic waste water.

Solubility of gases and utility of water for drinking, irrigation and industrial purpose

may be reduced due to high concentration of dissolved solids. In general TDS values

are average to high in the groundwater of the district (Table No. 5.3). Dhule and

Shindkheda tehsil have more villages with high TDS. Dhamane-I (2870) and Icchapur

(2503) represents the highest TDS in the study area.

Table No. 5.3 Distribution of Total Dissolved Solids

Sr.

No. Range Type Dhule Shindkheda Sakri Shirpur District

1 < 300 Low 0 1 29 0 30

2 300-600 Average 4 10 38 14 66

3 > 600 High 19 30 15 6 70

Source: Computed by Researcher

iv. Total Hardness (TH): All natural waters consist of dissolved cations and anions.

Water dissolves many ions as it flows through different geological formations.

Hardness of water is defined as the quantity of cations with a +2

or +3

charge. When

water containing both carbonate and a calcium ion is heated, calcium carbonate can

precipitate out on to the walls of pipes, boilers and utensils. It decreases the life of

some such items. However, there are some evidences of beneficial health effects of

hard water. Selenium, for example, may help prevent cancer. Soft water drinking

supplies have been associated with an increased heart attack risk

(www.lentech.com/ro/water_hardness). Waters of Dhule district is very hard. Out of

166, 145 sample villages fall into very hard and 15 in hard class (Table No. 5.4).

Table No. 5.4 Distribution of Total Hardness

Sr.

No.

Range

mg/l

Hardness

Rating Dhule Shindkheda Sakri Shirpur District

1 <60 Soft --- --- --- --- ---

2 61–120 Moderately

Hard --- --- 4 1 5

3 121–180 Hard --- 4 12 --- 16

4 ≥181 Very hard 23 37 66 19 145

Source: Computed by Researcher

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Khede (1024), Dhamane-I (1540), Nardana-I (1180), Vikhurle (1000), Bodhgaon

(2725) and Icchapur (1180) are prominent villages with very high

TH.

Fig. No. 5.3

v. Total Hardness as CaCo3: Hardness is the ability of water to precipitate the soap.

It is due to presence of divalent metallic cations like calcium, magnesium, strontium,

ferrous, manganese ions etc. In general surface waters are softer than groundwater.

Hardness of water bespeaks the geological formation in which it has been in contact.

High level of carbonate hardness leads to scaling in boiler and pipes which causes

considerable economic loss. Hardness of water in terms of CO3 is very to very high all

Table No.5.5 Degree of Hardness in terms of Calcium Carbonate.

Sr.

No.

Range

mg/l

Hardness

Rating Dhule Shindkheda Sakri Shirpur District

1 < 75 Soft 2 4 0 0 6

2 75-150 Medium

hard

12 17 4 1 34

3 150-300 Hard

6 13 12 0 31

4 > 300 Very Hard 3 7 66 19 95

Source: Computed by Researcher

103

over district (Table No. 5.5). Out of 166 villages, 95 have very hard, 31 and 34 have

hard and medium hard waters respectively. Comparatively waters of Sakri tehsil are

very hard. About 2/3rd

villages of very hard water belong to this tehsil.

vi. Calcium: Calcium is the common constituent and important contributor to the

hardness of water hence it reduces utility of water for domestic use. Calcium is

naturally present in water and gives water a better taste. It may dissolve from rocks

such as limestone, marble, calcite, dolomite, gypsum, fluorite and apatite. Ordinarily

concentration of calcium in groundwater of the study area is within permissible limits.

In Dhule, Shirpur and Sakri tehsils all villages show that amount of calcium in

groundwater is low except seven villages. About 11 villages of Shindkheda have hard

water in terms of calcium.

vii. Magnesium: In general it is non-toxic to human beings at the concentration

expected in water. Magnesium salts have a laxative and diuretic effect due to high

doses. Magnesium is the other element that determines hardness of water. It is

observed that the amount of magnesium is low in the premises of Dhule district,

except 17 villages in Shindkheda tehsil. Mean of the magnesium concentration in

groundwater of Shindkheda tehsil is 62 mg/l while it is 55 mg/l, 33 mg/l and 43 mg/l

in Dhule, Sakri and Shirpur tehsils respectively.

viii. Chlorides: Normally chloride is present at low concentration. Primarily chlorine

is used to destroy harmful microorganisms in water and waste water. Amount of

chloride in groundwater of many villages of the study area is within permissible limit.

About 12 samples from Shindkheda tehsil exhibits very high proportion of chloride.

e.g. Nardana (930) and Dondaicha (1030).

ix. Sulfate: Industries that are making use of sulfuric acid and Iron and Steel

industries release sulfate through effluents. As far as public water supply is concerned

it is important because of its laxative effects upon humans due to excessive amount.

High level of sulfate forms scales in boilers, heat exchangers. For the most of the

Dhule district including Dhule, Sakri and Shirpur tehsils sulfate in groundwater is

below highest desirable limit. Eleven samples from Shindkheda tehsil contain more

sulfate than highest desirable limit and seven samples crosses maximum permissible

limit such as Varul (1160), Dhamane-I (1020), Nardana-II (940) etc.

x. Nitrate: The nitrate ions are the common form of combined nitrogen found in

natural water. Igneous rocks, drainage, plant and animal decay forms the source

104

nitrates to surface waters. While fertilizers may be significant source of it in rural and

suburban areas. It is important plant nutrient and causes eutrophication in receiving

water bodies. High concentration in drinking water may cause blue-baby disease

(Maiti, 2004). Concentration of nitrate in all samples of the study area is below given

limit.

xi. Fluoride: Fluoride is more common in groundwater than surface water (Maiti,

2004). If the concentration of fluoride is less than or more than the given permissible

limit adversely affects human health. Presence of fluoride in drinking water prevents

dental cavities in children and forms hard, strong and decay resistance teeth, while

high concentration of fluoride causes dental damages, bone fluorosis and other

skeletal abnormalities. Table No. 5.6 signifies that amount of fluoride in 105 sample

villages is less than 0.5 mg/l, it may lead to the dental caries. While all the remaining

samples are within standards prescribed by various authorities. It is good for health.

Fig. No. 5.4

105

Table No.5.6: Health Impacts from Long-term use of Fluoride-bearing Water.

Sr.

No.

Range

mg/l Health Impact Dhule Shindkheda Sakri Shirpur District

1 Nil

Limited

growth and

fertility

--- --- --- --- ---

2 < 0.5 Dental caries 13 26 48 18 105

3 0.5–

1.5

Promotes

dental health 10 15 34 2 61

4 1.5 – 4 Dental

fluorosis --- --- --- --- ---

5 4 – 10 Dental, skeletal

fluorosis --- --- --- --- ---

6 >10 Crippling

fluorosis --- --- --- --- ---

Source: Dissanayake (1991).

5.2.2 Sodium Absorption Ratio (SAR):

SAR expresses the suitability of water to be used in agriculture for irrigation,

as determined by the concentrations of solids dissolved in the water. It is a ratio of the

sodium - detrimental element to the combination of calcium and magnesium -

beneficial elements in order to known effects on soil. In other words SAR is

proportion of sodium ions with other anions. High concentration of sodium ions in

groundwater adversely affects the infiltration and permeability of soil. Plants shed

their leaves when SAR is >15. Soil becomes hard and difficult to cultivate. Other

problems to the crop caused by high proportion of sodium are temporary saturation of

the surface soil, high pH, weeds, soil erosion, inadequate oxygen and availability of

nutrient. Sometimes recycled water can be a source of surplus Na+ in the soil as

compared with other cations like Ca+, K

+ and Mg

+. SAR is calculated using following

formula:

SAR =

Where, sodium, calcium, and magnesium are in mill equivalents/liter.

Groundwater of Sakri and Shirpur tehsils is highly suitable for irrigation

because mean of SAR in these tehsils are 1.07 and 1.50 respectively (Appendix No.

VIII). Maximum of SAR in these tehsils are found at Markhedi 4.89 and Boradi 3.32.

106

On other hand Dhule and Shindkheda tehsils bespeaks moderate to high SAR. Five

villages of Shindkheda have very high SAR namely Bamhane – 10.78, Chilane –

9.48, Darane-II – 10.27, Hol – 19.76 and Melane-I – 13.23, while several villages

show moderate values of SAR. Especially groundwater of Shindkheda tehsil

Table No.5.7: SAR Hazard of irrigation water.

Water Type SAR Notes

None < 3.0 • No restriction on the use of recycled or groundwater.

Slight to

Moderate 3 to 9

• From 3 to 6 cares should be taken to sensitive crops.

• From 6 to 8 gypsum should be used.

• Soils should be tested every 1 or 2 years to determine

whether the water is causing a sodium increase.

Acute > 9 • Severe damage. Unsuitable

possesses high salinity. The villages with high salinity in Shindkheda tehsil are

located along southern bank of Tapi river. In this area groundwater cannot be used for

irrigation. Table No. 5.7 may guide farmers with respect to irrigation, SAR, crop and

field management.

Fig. No. 5.5

107

5.2.3 Water Quality Index (WQI):

Water quality index provides a single number that expresses overall water

quality at a certain location and time based on several water quality parameters. The

objective of Water quality Index is to turn complex water quality data into

information that is understandable and usable by the public (Yogendra, 2008, Kumar

and Dua, 2009). The concept of indices to represent gradation in water quality was

first proposed by Horton (1965). It indicates the quality by an index number, which

represents the overall quality of water for any intended use. It is defined as a rating

reflecting the composite influence of different water quality parameters on the overall

quality of water (Deininger and Maciunas, 1971; Harkins, 1974; and Tiwari and

Manzoor, 1988). The WQI has been calculated from the point of view of the

suitability of lake water for human consumption. (Sisodia and Moundiotiya,

2006).There are some limitations of WQI. For instance, WQI may not carry enough

information about the real quality situation of the water. Also many uses of water

quality data cannot be met with an index. But there are more advantages of WQI than

disadvantages (Kumar and Dua, 2009).

WQI Calculation

For calculation of WQI, selection of parameters has great importance. Since

selection of too many parameters might widen the water quality index and the

importance of various parameters depends on the intended use of water. Eleven

physicochemical parameters, namely pH, total dissolved solids, total hardness,

Chloride, sulfate, nitrate, fluoride, sodium, magnesium, Calcium and alkalinity were

used to calculate the WQI. The calculation of WQI was made using a weighted

arithmetic index method given below (Brown et al., 1972) in the following steps.

Calculation of Water Quality Index

WQI is calculated by using following equation

Calculation of sub index of quality rating (qn)

Let there be n water quality parameters where the quality rating or sub index

(qn) corresponding to the nth

parameter is a number reflecting the relative value of this

parameter in the polluted water with respect to its standard permissible value. The

First of all value of qn is calculated using the following expression.

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qn = 100[(Vn - Vio) / (Sn - Vio)] --------------------------------------------------------------(1)

Where,

qn = quality rating for the nth water quality parameter.

Vn = estimated value of the nth parameter at a given sampling station.

Sn = standard permissible value of nth parameter.

Vio = ideal value of nth parameter in pure water.

All the ideal values (Vio) are taken as zero for drinking water except for

pH=7.0.

Calculation of quality rating for pH

For pH the ideal value is 7.0 (for natural water) and a permissible value is 8.5

(for polluted water). Therefore, the quality rating for pH is calculated from the

following relation:

qpH = 100 [(VpH -7.0)/(8.5 -7.0)]-------------------------------------------------------------(2)

where, VpH = observed value of pH during the study period.

Calculation of unit weight (Wn)

Calculation of unit weight (Wn) for various water quality parameters are inversely

proportional to the recommended standards for the corresponding parameters.

Wn =K/Sn--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (3)

Where,

Wn = unit weight for nth

parameters.

Table No.5.8 Water Quality Parameters, their ICMR / WHO Standards and

Assigned Unit Weights.

Sr. No. Parameter Standard (Sn & Si) Unit Weight

1 pH 8.5 0.134118

2 Total Dissolved Solids 1000 0.001140

3 Total Hardness 300 0.003800

4 Calcium 75 0.015200

5 Magnesium 30 0.038000

6 Alkalinity 120 0.009500

7 Chloride 250 0.004560

8 Sodium 200 0.005700

9 Sulphate 250 0.004560

10 Nitrates 50 0.022800

11 Fluoride 1.5 0.760000

Source: Computed by Researcher

109

Sn = standard value for nth parameters.

K = constant for proportionality.

K, Proportionality constant is derived from,

------------------------------------------------------------------------ (4)

Where, Sn and Si are the WHO / ICMR standard values of water quality parameters.

Table No.5.9 Number of Villages in Different Water Quality Index Classes.

Sr. No. W.Q.I. Class Dhule Sakri Shindkheda Shirpur District

1 0-25 Excellent 01 28 5 03 37

2 26-50 Good 13 19 14 13 59

3 51-75 Poor 05 24 16 04 48

4 76-100 Very Poor 04 11 04 ---- 19

5 >100 Unfit for

Drinking ---- ---- 02 ---- 02

Total: - 23 82 41 20 166

Source: Computed by Researcher

Fig. No. 5.6

From Table No. 5.9, it has been proved that water quality of very few villages

is excellent except Sakri tehsil, where people of 28 villages enjoy groundwater of the

best quality. As far as WQI is concerned about 1/3rd

villages of the study area fall in

110

good class. Again on an average 1/3rd

sample villages belong to poor category. Four

villages each from Shindkheda and Dhule tehsil and 11 from Sakri tehsil have to

adjust with very poor quality of drinking water. Groundwater of two villages of

Shindkheda tehsil is not suitable for drinking purpose. They are Virdel-I and Virdel-

II, situated on the bank of Tapi river. The quality of groundwater at all levels is

generally good and potable with few exceptions.

5.3 YIELD AND UTILIZATION OF WATER RESOURCES:

The territory of the Dhule district receives input in the form of rainfall during

June to September from south-west monsoon winds. The yield of rainfall is the total

quantity of surface water available for utilization within given territory. Calculation of

yield requires runoff. It is amount of water leftover after evaporation, infiltration,

interception etc. flows through rivers and streams in the form of runoff. Runoff is

defined as the portion of the rainfall appearing as river or stream flow (Todd, 2003).

C. C. Ingliss and A. J. Disouza (1930) made a critical study of floods and run-off of

catchments of the Bombay Deccan based on records of 25 years of river and rain

gauges in the Bombay Presidency. The main rivers considered were Tapi, Narmada,

Bhima, Nira, Godavari, Krishna, Ghatprabha and Vardha. They obtained two

equations in connection with rainfall and run-off to calculate runoff of these rivers.

They are as follows.

i. Ghat formula was derived for the large catchments having rainfall between 200” to

30”.

Run-off = (0.85 x P) – 12”----------------------------------------------------------(1)

ii. While Non-Ghat formula was designed for the catchments which are away from the

hills

Run-off = ( P – 7” ) / 100 x P -------------------------------------------------------(2)

As most rivers in the Bombay Presidency except Tapi and Narmada rises in

Western ghat, non-ghat formula is employed to calculate run-off and yield of Tapi,

Narmada rivers and their tributaries.

Yield Calculation of the study area is as follows

Yield of rainfall = R × 2.3232 × Catchment Area ---------------------------------------- (3)

Where R = Runoff in inches. It is calculated by using C. C. Inglis’s (1930) non-ghat

formula (Tapi and Narmada Basin) for Bombay Catchment.

R = ( P – 7” ) / 100 x P -------------------------------------------------------------- (2)

111

Where P = is average annual rainfall in inches.

Yield for Shirpur Tehsil considering 50% dependable rainfall can be calculated as

following

First we will calculate runoff using equation (2)

R = ( P – 7” ) / 100 x P

P = 633.55/25.4 = 25.18”

R = (25.18 – 7 )/100 x 25.18

R = 4.577”

Now yield is calculated using equation (1)

Yield = 4.577 × 2.3232 × 236453 / 1.61 × 1.61 × 100

Yield = 9699.75 M. C. ft.

Yield = 9699.75/35.314

Yield = 274.692 M. Cu. m.

Similarly considering 50% dependable rainfall of each four tehsils of Dhule district,

the yield of rainfall is calculated as above.

Table No.5.10 Tehsil wise Yield of Rainfall.

Sr.

No.

Name of

Tahsil

Yield in M. Cu. M.

(Based on 35 years average

annual Rainfall)

Yield in M. Cu. M.

(Based on 100 years

average annual Rainfall)

1 Dhule 182.645 182.031

2 Sakri 179.101 164.328

3 Shindkheda 92.811 106.009

4 Shirpur 289.269 274.692

Total: 743.826 727.060

Source: Computed by Researcher

The pattern of utilization of water is fast changing and the requirements are

increasing due to changing lifestyle of people. (Jog et al, 2003). Since our water

supplies are limited, though recurring from year to year, our income is fixed. It

therefore, becomes imperative to study the present and future demands of water for

various uses (Nasir, Z. A. 1999). India’s growing water shortage despite its being one

of the wettest country in the world is worrisome (Sing, R. B. and Gandhi, N. 1999).

Discussion of the water resources of any country conventionally begins with

either a description of the size of population compared with the availability of

amounts of land and water, or a description of population distribution and rainfall

112

/water availability figures or an inventory of available water resources (Swain, 1998a,

1998b). The study area receives input in the form of rainfall and excess input

flows through streams and main river channel and further flows out of the

district in the form of runoff.

i. Total Yield Available in Dhule District 743.826 M. Cu. M.

(Based on 35 years average annual rainfall)

ii. Utilization for Irrigation 2326.155 M. Cu. M.

iii. Water Supply (Domestic Use) 34.923 M. Cu. M.

iv. Water Required for Livestock 11.240 M. Cu. M.

v. Industrial Use 5 percent of Total Yield 37.191 M. Cu. M.

Total Utilization 2409.509 M. Cu. M.

Total Yield – Total Utilization = –1665.687M. Cu. M.

According to above calculation the calculated yield of rainfall for Dhule

district is 743.826 M. Cu. M. (based on 35 years average annual rainfall) (Appendix-

III) and 727.060 M. Cu. M. (based on 106 years average annual rainfall). Total

utilization of water under major heads within the district is 2409.509 M. Cu. M. ,

which means that 1665.687 M. Cu. M. water is deficit in the district. Though there is

deficit of 1665.687 M. Cu. M. of water, some of the water may be received from

upstream catchments of the rivers such as Aner, Arunavati and Tapi. Groundwater

also contributes towards domestic and crop water requirement. Therefore proper

management of water resources is necessary to utilize total water available through

rainfall and runoff. Existing medium and small irrigation projects can be used to store

excess flood water. Beside various methods of artificial recharge such as percolation

tank, village pond, field pond, K. T. weir, recharge through dug and tube wells etc.

can adopted to augment water resources.

Utilization under Main Headings:

Water is the primary need of the all living organisms. It is also necessary for

various human activities. The quantity of the water required by a society depends

upon the size of population and their economic activities (Borase, 2006). Amount of

water utilized by the people also varies in accordance with level of economic

development and standard of living of the people. The present and future use of water

resources must be known and organize for better development and management.

Hence data regarding the amount of water utilized in various sectors is collected for

113

further analysis. Water requirements (WR) of the district can be grouped in following

categories.

i. Domestic Water Requirement

ii. Agricultural Water Requirement

iii. Water Required for Livestock

iv. Industrial Water Requirement

i. Domestic Water Requirement:

Water supply to the population for drinking and domestic purposes is of

paramount importance. In general people consume 5% of total volume available water

for drinking and domestic purpose in given area. However demand for water is

increasing day by day along with economic and urban growth. Many scholars and

organizations have laid down the norms for water supply in rural and urban habitats.

Water requirement is designated as 70 lit. / person / day for urban and 40 lit. / person /

day for rural areas. Present and projected population has been used to calculate

current and future domestic water requirement of the study area. In year 2001 total

domestic requirement of water was 11.39 M. Cu. M. for 445885 urban populations.

The urban population is estimated for the year 2010 is 522228 and projected annual

water requirement will be 13.34 M. Cu. M. While in year 2025 and 2050 the total

urban population will be 662361 and 982680 which will require 16.92 M. Cu. M. and

25.11 M. Cu. M. water respectively (Table No. 5.12).

Table No. 5.11 Per Capita Annual Water Availability in India

(Cu. M./capita/ year).

Source: Sarbhukan,

Water requirement for rural population has been also calculated. In year 2001

the total rural population was 1262062 and the annual requirement was 18.43 M. Cu.

M. The projected rural population of the district for the year 2010 is 1478151 persons

which will require 21.58 M. Cu. M. of water per year. While the rural population of

the district will reach up to 1874792 and 2781441 will utilize 27.37 M. Cu. M. and

Sr. No. The Past Future Estimates

Year Water Availability Year Water Availability

1 1951 5177 2025 1341

2 2001 1820 2050 1140

114

2001. 40.61 M. Cu. M. in year 2025 and 2050 respectively (Table No. 5.13).

Projected population of the district for 2010 is 2000379; it needs 34.92 M. Cu. M. of

water.As per international criterion for classification when availability of water is less

than 1700 cu. m./capita/year is considered as water stressed. In India the water

availability is 1000 cu. m./capita/year. This indicates that 70% of global area

including large part of India will become water stressed by 2025.

Table No. 5.12 Water Requirement of Urban Population in Dhule District.

Water Requirement = 70 liters / person /day

Population Shirpur Shindkheda Sakri Dhule Total WR

M.Cu.M./yr

2001 61694 42436 0 341755 445885 -----

WR lit./day 4318580 2970520 0 23922850 31211950 11.39

2010 72257 49702 0 400269 522228 -----

WR lit./day 5057990 3479140 0 28018830 36555960 13.34

2025 91646 63038 0 507677 662361 -----

WR lit./day 6415220 4412660 0 35537390 46365270 16.92

2050 135967 93524 0 753189 982680 -----

WR lit./day 9517690 6546680 0 52723230 68787600 25.11

Source: Projected Population and WR computed by researcher

Table No. 5.13 Water Requirement of Rural Population in Dhule District.

Water Requirement = 40 liters / person /day

Population

Year Shirpur Shindkheda Sakri Dhule Total

WR

M.Cu.M./

yr

2001 275859 245081 363092 378030 1262062 -----

WR lit./day 10314360 9803240 14523680 15121200 49762480 18.43

2010 323091 287043 425260 442757 1478151

WR lit./day 12923640 11481720 17010400 17710280 59126040 21.58

2025 409788 364068 539373 561563 1874792 -----

WR lit./day 16391520 14562720 21574920 22462520 74991680 27.37

2050 607962 540130 800214 833135 2781441 -----

WR lit./day 24318480 21605200 32008560 33325400 111257640 40.61

Source: Projected Population and WR computed by researcher

ii. Agricultural Water Requirement:

Water is a prime need of mankind and constitutes the very base of agriculture

(Nasir, Z. A. 1999). It is the prime impute for agriculture. Agricultural water

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requirement is also termed as crop water requirement. Jawar, Bajara, Cotton,

Sugarcane, Pulses, Banana, Oil seeds, Chilly etc. are major crops of the study area.

Water requirement of these crops is determined by crop type and season. Sugarcane

and banana consumes highest amount of water. Water utilized by various crops have

been calculated and summarized in Table No. 5.14.

Table No. 5.14 Agricultural Water Requirement in Dhule District.

W. R. = Water Requirement of crops in Ha/cm.

Crops Area W. R. Shirpur Shindkheda Sakri Dhule Total

Rice Ha. 100 0 0 12442 14 12456

WR 000' cu.m. --- 0 0 12442

0 140 124560

Wheat Ha. 45 1456 1370 6164 2331 11321

WR 000' cu.m. --- 6552 6165 27738 10490 50945

Kharip

Jawar Ha. 12 2181 6058 4 12926 21169

WR 000' cu.m. --- 2617 7270 5 15511 25403

Rabi

Jawar Ha. 18 1361 0 2122 0 3483

WR 000' cu.m. --- 2450 0 3820 0 6270

Bajara Ha. 12 3404 18283 1942 3112 26741

WR 000' cu.m. --- 4085 21940 2330 3734 32089

Maize Ha. 12 118 523 22369 3201 26211

WR 000' cu.m. --- 142 628 26843 3841 31453

Pulses Ha. 7 6286 13431 17049 8530 45296

WR 000' cu.m. --- 4400 9402 11934 5971 31707

Sugar-

cane Ha. 149 1729 266 3545 207 5747

WR 000' cu.m. --- 25762 3963 52821 3084 85630

Onion Ha. 45 84 2231 3523 2225 8063

WR 000' cu.m. --- 378 10040 15854 10013 36284

Cotton Ha. 40 31311 45984 349892 40853 468040

WR 000' cu.m. --- 125244 183936 1399568 163412 1872160

Oil

Seeds Ha. 14 2569 6850 6879 2468 18766

WR 000' cu.m. --- 3510 9590 9631 3455 26272

Chili Ha. 37 242 1099 1077 942 3360

WR 000' cu.m. --- 895 4066 3985 3485 12432

Total Water Requirement M. Cu. M. year 2326.155

Source: Computed by Researcher

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Total area under jawar is 24652 ha. grown in kharip and rabbi requires 31.673 M. Cu.

M. water. About 32.089 M. Cu. M. of water is utilized by Bajara cultivated in 26741

ha. of land. Agricultural land occupied by Pulses is 45296 ha. which consume 31.707

M. Cu. M. water. Sugarcane is cultivated over 5747 ha. and requires about 85.630 M.

Cu. M. During last few years area under cotton cultivation has been increased

substantially due to illness of sugar factories. Hence cotton ranks first among

cultivated crops in the Dhule district. About 468040 ha. of land is engaged in cotton

cultivation. It requires 1872.160 M. Cu. M. of water which is 80.048% of the total

crop water requirement. In all total 2326.155 M. Cu. M. of water is utilized for all

crops during different seasons.

iii. Water Requirement for Livestock:

Table No.5.15 points out tehsil wise livestock population and its water

requirement. Cows, buffalos, Sheeps, goats, horses and poultry are important

Table No. 5.15 Tehsil wise Livestock Water Requirement in Dhule District.

WR=Water Requirement lit/day

Animals W. R. Shirpur Shindkheda Sakri Dhule Total

Cows 58334 43214 127240 69126 297914

WR 68.25 3981296 2949356 8684130 4717850 20332630

Buffalos 772 1251 257 3917 6197

WR 69.20 34740 56295 11565 176265 278865

Sheeps 4086 16195 148912 72289 241482

WR 13.60 55570 220252 2025203 983130 3284155

Goats 58300 73908 99780 88718 320706

WR 13.60 792880 1005149 1357008 1206565 4361602

Horses 213 489 3395 6734 10831

WR 45.50 9692 22250 154473 306397 492811

Donkey 57 148 159 168 532

WR 35.50 1995 5180 5565 5880 18620

Poultry 65209 80052 217224 160785 523270

WR 0.31 20215 24816 67340 49843 162214

Other 9466 11404 12856 20075 53801

WR 49.13 465065 560279 631615 986285 2643243

Water Requirement lit./day 31574140

Water Requirement M. Cu. M. year 11.240

Livestock Data Source: District Statistical Abstract-2011

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domestic animals. Total population of cows is 297914 whose water requirement is

7.42 M. Cu. M. The total number of buffaloes is 6197 which require 0.156 M. Cu. M.

water. The total population of sheeps and goats within the study area is 562188, which

consume 2.79 M. Cu. M. of water. Houses, poultry and other animals are 10831,

523270 and 53801 which require 0.179 M. Cu. M. , 0.0592 M. Cu. M. and 0.964 M.

Cu. M. In all total animals require 11.240 M. Cu. M. of water per year.

Table No. 5.16 Well Density and Well Dependency Ratio in Dhule District.

Sr.

No. Tehsil

Area in

sq. km.

No. of

Wells Population

Dependency

Ratio

Density

per sq. km.

1 Dhule 1981.94 23695 719785 30.38 11.96

2 Shindkheda 1300.53 15162 287517 18.97 11.66

3 Sakri 2416.11 21098 363092 17.21 8.73

4 Shirpur 2364.53 11452 337553 29.48 4.84

Total 8063.11 71407 1707947 23.92 8.86

Source: - M. S. E. D. Co., Dhule.

iv. Industrial Water Requirement:

Almost all industries utilize water. Primarily it is necessary for cooling,

washing, processing and disposal of waste material. It is also consumed by workers

and staff for drinking and washing purpose. About 160 small and medium scale

industries are located within district. Most of the industries are situated in M.I.D.C.

Dhule campus. Cotton mill, oil mill, ginning and pressing mills and textile industries

are located in Shirpur tehsil. Only one sugar factory, one cotton mill and two starch

factory are in working condition within district while others are closed due to various

reasons. There are several cold storages located at Dhule, Shirpur, Dondaicha and

Sakri which require voluminous amount of water. All industries in the study area

consume about 37.191 M. Cu. M. water per year. Therefor sufficient and casual

supply of water should be borne in mind before erection of industries.

5.4 MANAGEMENT OF WATER RESOURCES:

Water is one of the basic vital prerequisites of all organisms and one can’t live

for even few days without it. Water is being used for several purposes such as

household, irrigation, industrial, power generation etc. In a predominantly agricultural

country like India water is a precious commodity (Umamaheshwar Rao, 1993). It is

very difficult to manage water resources in India, because about 70% cultivated area

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direly needs rainwater, moreover increasing urbanization and industrialization

demanding more and more water. According to R.N. Rakshit, management of the

resource means judicious handling, use and development without causing any harm

damaged to the environment (Jagtap, 1984). So it is exigent to conserve and manage

water resources to fulfill the ever increasing needs of population, agriculture and

industry. The harmonizing of water development with environment-quality was a

principal challenge to the sustainable water management (White, 1988). The twenty-

first century belongs to balance water management (Nasir, Z. A. 1999). Water is often

misused or wasted in India (Banergee, 2003).

5.4.1 Artificial Recharge Zones in Dhule District:

Rainfall is the major source of groundwater recharge in the study area and

occurs almost wholly during rainy season when evaporation losses are comparatively

small. Water conservation is the most reliable and least expensive way to stretch the

country's water resources and the challenge is being met in all sectors. There are rich

traditions of community based water harvesting and budgeting in India, to meet the

specific needs of environment (Banergee, 2003). The problem of water resources is

much more acute today owing to the manifold increase in our need for water over the

last few centuries, beginning with the Industrial Revolution; the Green Revolution in

the 1960s led to another major increase in the use of water for growing the new hybrid

crops. Coupled with the exponential growth in population, this has put available water

resources under severe stress. Evidence from palaeoclimatology and archaeological

and historical records shows that man responds to scarcity of water in a variety of

ways which include strategies for water conservation, rainwater harvesting and when

inevitable, migration (Shankar et al, 2004). It is important to note that the increase in

pumpage takes place due to individual initiative and efforts of well digging/drilling,

whereas recharge augmentation is the need of the whole community (Limaye, 1994).

In order to adopt various means of water conservation, it is of prime

importance to know whether the geology, geomorphology, slope, soil, lineaments,

land use/ land cover etc. factors are favorable for recharge or not. Artificial recharge

zones are delineated by integration of various thematic maps using GIS technique.

Weightage to the each class of thematic layer is assigned according to its response to

percolation or recharge of water. Three artificial recharge zones are discovered in

Dhule district namely, High, Moderate and Low favorable zones (Fig. No.5.7). They

are as follows:

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High Favorable Zone: High favorable zone for artificial recharge takes up about

1783.1 sq. km. which is 22 % of the geographical area. Eastern and south-eastern part

of the Shirpur tehsil is highly favorable for artificial recharge of groundwater. High

favorable zone also occur in the form of patches along the Tapi river in Shirpur tehsil

Table No. 5.17 Weightage Assigned to Various Thematic Maps.

Thematic layer

Class

Weight

assigned

Geology Alluvium 6

Deccan trap 2

Soil Deep black soil 2

Medium black soil 3

Shallow black soil 4

Slope Level to nearly level (0–1%) 7

Very gently sloping (1–3%) 5

Gently sloping (3–5%) 2

Moderately sloping (5–10%) 2

Moderate steeply sloping (10–30%) 1

Stream Present 4

Absent 1

Geomorphology Valley fill 7

Alluvial plain 7

Eroded land 5

Highly Dissected plateau 4

Medium Dissected plateau 3

Un-dissected plateau 2

Western ghat (Rocky outcrop) 1

Lineament Present 7

Absent 2

Land use Agriculture 5

Scrub land 4

Forest 5

Water Body 0

Settlement 2

Bare land 1

Lineament

Density 0 – 0.40 2

0.40 – 0.80 3

0.80 – 1.36 5

Source: Compiled by researcher.

because it is composed of alluvial aquifer which is highly porous. Whole course of

Panzara river is also favorable for artificial recharge. It may be attributed due to the

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fault zone along Panzara river. Area along the Tapi river and middle course of Burai

river in Shindkheda tehsil are favorable for recharge.

Moderate Favorable Zone: This zone is spread all over district. Moderate favorable

zone occupies extensive area admeasuring 5068.75 sq. km. of the district. It is about

63 % of the study area. Dhule, Shindkheda and Sakri tehsils relatively possess more

Moderate Favorable zone as compare to Shirpur tehsil.

Fig. No. 5.7

Low Favorable Zone: Upper course of Panzara and Kan rivers in Sakri tehsil, eastern

portion of Dhule tehsil, northern and southern part of Sakri tehsil, western Shindkheda

tehsil are the least favorable for recharge of groundwater. Very little area of Shirpur

tehsil is not favorable for recharge. This zone covers 1209.15 sq. km. area of the

district. These areas are least favorable for groundwater recharge because they are

upper courses of Panzara, Amaravati, Burai, Bori rivers which are highly dissected,

barren, thin soil cover, thin layer of weathered rock material. Therefore, it is

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necessary to think well before implanting any scheme or project for groundwater

augmentation or recharge for the same area.

5.4.2 Roof Top Rain Water Harvesting:

It is a system of catching rainwater from house, building or industrial roof

tops where it falls. In roof top harvesting, the roof becomes the catchments and the

rainwater is collected from the roof of the houses or buildings. This method is

suggested mostly for urban areas where cement concrete houses are constructed and

sufficient roof top is available to catch rainwater. It can either be stored in a tank or

diverted to artificial recharge system. This method is less expensive and very effective

and if implemented properly helps in augmenting the groundwater level of the area. It

has been also proved successful in the rural areas where amount of rainfall is low and

people experience scarcity of drinking water.

The term rainwater harvesting is being frequently used these days, however,

the concept of water harvesting is not new for India. Water harvesting techniques had

been evolved and developed centuries ago. Groundwater resource gets naturally

recharged through percolation. But due to indiscriminate development and rapid

urbanization, exposed surface for soil has been reduced drastically with resultant

reduction in percolation of rainwater, thereby depleting groundwater resource. In

other words it is conscious collection and storage of rainwater to cater to demands of

water, for drinking, domestic purpose and irrigation is termed as Rainwater

Harvesting. There are several types of systems to harvest rainwater, ranging from very

simple home systems to complex industrial systems. The amount of water can be

collected from the system is depends on the area of the house or building, its

efficiency and the intensity of rainfall .It can be calculated using simple formula given

below.

Amount of rain water harvested = annual precipitation (mm per annum) x roof top

area in square meter = liters per annum

Ex. A 200 sq. m. roof catchment with 1,000 mm of annual rainfall yields 160 Cub. M.

The same calculation can be obtained from following table prepared by Ministry of water

resources, Central groundwater board, Faridabad. In spite of drought prone area,

scarcity of drinking water, lowering of water table and high salinity, the tool of rain

water harvesting is not adopted in Dhule district. Roof top rain water harvesting is

practiced in some government buildings. Common people are unaware of this simple,

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cheap and effective measure of water conservation. It imperative need to adopt it cope

up with the various problems of water resources in Dhule district.

Table No. 5.18 Availability of Rainwater through Roof Top Rainwater

Harvesting

Rainfall

(mm) 100 200 300 400 500 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600

Roof Top Area sq. m. Harvested Water from Roof Top (Cub.M.)

20 1.6 3.2 4.8 6.4 8 9.6 12.8 16 19.2 22.4 25.4

30 2.4 4.8 7.2 9.6 12 14.4 19.2 24 28.8 33.6 38.4

40 3.2 6.4 9.6 12.8 16 19.2 25.6 32 38.4 44.8 51.2

50 4 8 12 16 20 24 32 40 48 56 64

60 4.8 9.6 14.4 19.2 24 28.8 38.4 48 57.6 67.2 76.8

70 5.6 11.2 16.8 22.4 28 33.6 44.8 56 67.2 78.4 89.6

80 6.4 12.8 19.2 25.6 32 38.4 51.2 64 76.8 89.6 102

90 7.2 14.4 21.6 28.8 36 43.2 56.6 72 86.4 100.8 115

100 8 16 24 32 40 48 64 80 96 112 128

150 12 24 36 48 60 72 96 120 144 168 192

200 16 32 48 64 80 96 128 160 192 224 256

250 20 40 60 80 100 120 160 200 240 280 320

300 24 48 72 96 120 144 192 240 288 336 384

350 32 64 96 128 160 192 256 320 384 448 512

400 40 80 120 160 200 240 320 400 480 560 640

500 80 160 240 320 400 480 640 800 960 1120 1280

Source: Ministry of water resources, Central groundwater board, Faridabad.

5.4.3 River Linking:

The basic objective of the river link programme is to ensure water supply in

arid and semi-arid areas of the country from water surplus area and remove economic

and regional disparities (Banergee, 2003).

Sir Arthur Cotton, the British engineer, has suggested initially the idea of Inter

Linking of Rivers in the 18th

century for inland water transport as an alternative to the

roads in India. Thereafter K. L. Rao former Union Minister for Irrigation proposed

the same idea of Inter linking of rivers in 1970. It is necessary for south India where

people and crops are mainly depend on monsoon rainfall. The occurrence and

distribution of monsoon rainfall is uncertain, unreliable, and uneven with limited

rainy days. The prolonged dry spells, fluctuation in seasonal and annual rainfall

posses serious problem of deficit of rainfall and frequent droughts in the states of

123

Maharashtra, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamilnadu etc. while

excess rainfall in Uttar Pardesh, Uttaranchal, Bihar, West Bengal causes devastating

floods. The best way to mitigate droughts and floods, to increase irrigation potential,

consequent increase in food production and decrease regional imbalance in terms of

availability of water, it is to transfer water from surplus river basins to deficit areas. It

is also termed as Inter Basin Water Transfer (IBWT). It may also provide additional

irrigation, domestic and industrial water supply, hydel power generation, navigation

facility etc.

River linking has a long history and following are the examples of river

linking in our country and abroad:

� Water of Mahi river was diverted in Sabarmati basin in Gujarat.

� Krishna river water carried to Pennar basin through Caddapah canal in Andhra

Pradesh.

� Yamuna - Bhakra canal.

� In 1952, drought Gomai river was diverted into Susari river in Shahada tehsil of

Nandurbar district.

� In USA California Water Project 4 cu. km. water carried up to the south central

California through 715 km. long canal.

� In the countries like Russia, China, Srilanka, Iraq, Mexico about sixty river linking

projects are in progress.

River linking has social, economic, political, climatic, environmental benefits

to all. They are as follows:

i. Existing canals and other systems can be utilized to maximum capacity,

minimum modification and expenditure for river linking.

ii. In river linking short links can be constructed to divert higher discharge during

monsoon floods.

iii. Hope to solve the problem of drinking water of numerous villages in Dhule,

Sakri and Shindkheda tehsil.

iv. Increase in area under irrigation.

v. It helps to increase in water table and well recharge.

vi. It proves life saver for standing crops.

vii. Repair of old canals for river linking which further leads to reduce in seepage and

other losses.

viii. It improves economic and social status of farmers.

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ix. It decreases out migration of poor people in the search of jobs towards urban

areas.

x. This alternative saves the huge expenditure on Employment Guarantee Scheme

(EGS).

xi. River linking causes no destruction of valuable forest.

xii. River linking has the benefit as no submergence of valuable land, no land

acquisition required hence positive attitude increased among people.

xiii. Water conservation, climate change, percolation of water favorably affects the

vegetation growth, wet lands and aquatic ecosystem.

xiv. River linking has proved that the cost of big projects reduces which in turn

reduces corruption.

xv. Disputes between states, districts or region for share of water are marginalized.

River Linking Project in Dhule district:

Dhule district experiences diverse climate with respect to rainfall and

temperature. District is facing endless cycle of droughts. River linking project on

small scale was initiated in Dhule district by Mr. Bhaskar Mundhe, District Collector,

in August 2005. Dhule district was under drought situation in 2005. Therefore some

the elder villagers suggested to divert water from the Girna canal (Malegaon tehsil of

Nasik district) to the drought prone area of Dhule district during the village meeting

on drought. As a result of the district collector implemented the idea of river linking

very seriously and following river links came in existence.

a) Girana – Bori – Kanoli river link: The left canal of Girna Dam namely Panzan

canal passes from Dhule district boundary for Bhadgaon, Chalisgaon, Pachora and

Parola tehsils of Jalgaon district. The excess water of Girna Dam and flood water

is diverted in Kanoli and Bori rivers for Dhule district. Panzan canal was cut off

near Mordad and Khordad villages and it was diverted in Bori river through a

small stream. Then the same Panzan canal was again cut off near Tarwade village

and third time it was cut off near Pinjarpada village. In this way excess flow of

Girna Dam diverted to the Bori river through three small streams. Using the same

water, Tamaswadi Dam across Bori river located on the boundary of Dhule and

Jalgaon districts is filled up and 13 villages are benefited of drinking water and

12,000 ha. land under irrigation in Rabbi season.

125

Fig. No. 5.8

b) Haranbari - Mosam – Girna – Kanoli rivre link: With the success of Girana –

Bori – Kanoli river link the people, engineers, administrators and politicians

started to search out other options of river link. Another option Haranbari Project

of Malegaon tehsil in Nasik district always gets full of water which was diverted

in Mosam river and then into Girna river. In between Girna and Mosam rivers

have Phud system bund; water accumulated in this bund diverted in Dahikute

small irrigation project and then excess water was discharged into Kanoli river. A

medium irrigation project is constructed across Kanoli river on the boundary of

Dhule and Jalgaon district. About 13 villages benefited of drinking water and

irrigation due to the water diverted in this Kanoli project.

c) Panzara – Iras nala – Waghada nala - Nakane Reservior Link: The engineers

noticed Malngaon, Latipada and Jamkheli irrigation projects in Sakri tehsil were

overflowed while at the same time Dedargaon, Nakane reservoirs were dried up.

A phud system bund near Sayyadnagar in Sakri tehsil and 25 km long canal used

to divert water from Panzara river to Iras nala, Waghada nala and in Nakane

reservoir through Express canal. Total journey of this diverted water is 56 km. It

126

only required repairing of existing canal. After filling Nakane reservoir about 255

small ponds were filled with same diverted water.

Table No. 5.19 Proposed River Linking Projects in Dhule District.

Sr. No. River Link

Volume of

water to be

diverted

M.C.Ft.

Cost

(lakh

Rs.)

1 Panzan Left canal-Bori-Kundane-

Anchale joint canal 780 5280

2 Burai-Nai-Amaravati joint canal-

First Stage 260 120

3 Burai-Nai-Amaravati joint canal-

Second Stage 380 2,437

4 Malangaon-Burai river link canal 780 5,245

5 Burai-Amaravati river link canal 260 763

6 Panzara river – Lendi nala to Varshi joint

canal 260 780

7 Amaravati left canal-Chorzira-Dhavade

Zirve joint canal 130 580

8 Amaravati-Right canal- Madari nala river

link canal 130 170

9 Purmepada left canal- Moghan-

Dedargaon joint canal 260 900

10 Panzara to Sonvad canal-Hol-

Shindkheda-Burai river link canal 730 1,500

11 Lower Panzara left canal-Ghanegaon

joint canal 50 900

12 Lower Panzara left canal-Kothare-

Borsule joint canal 20 500

13 Lower Panzara left canal-Kheda joint

canal 150 500

14 Lower Panzara left canal-Gondur joint

canal 40 130

15 Lower Panzara left canal-Devbhane joint

canal 70 270

Total: - 4,300 20,075

Source: - Zende, Sanjay (2007)

d) Panzara – Bhat nala – Sonvad Project Link: There is phud system bund on

Panzara river and about 14 km. long canal near Nyahlod village in Dhule tehsil.

Water diverted into Bhat nala through the canal. It merges in to Sonvad Project.

This river link has solved the drinking water problem of near about 50 villages.

127

Same water is utilized to irrigate 2000 ha land and standing crops. Pnazara – Bhat

nala – Sonavad Project river link solved the drinking water problem of 116

villages comprising 6, 50,000 population inclusive Dhule city.

The people, engineers, administrators and politicians were inspired with

success of River Linking on small scale in Dhule district and suggested some river

links for the future. (Table No. 5.21)

Fig. No. 5.9

5.5 STUDY OF WATER CONSERVATION MEASURES IN DHULE

DISTRICT:

Dhule District is one of the drought prone districts of the Maharashtra. The

NGOs have done ‘Water Conservation’ through watershed management activities in

Maharashtra as well as in Dhule district. Full involvement of villagers and

cooperation extended by NGOs outside the district made the miracle for water

conservation a reality. Some unique examples of watershed management have been

observed in the study area. They are as follows:

5.5.1 ‘Angioplasty Technique’ Model of Shirpur Tehsil:

The mega project of water conservation in Shirpur and Shindkheda tehsils is

undertaken by Priydarshini Co-operative Cotton Mill, Shirpur under the supervision

128

and guidance of Mr. Suresh Khanapurkar, retired Senior Geologist. The basic idea of

water conservation was put forth by Hon’ble Amrishbhai Patel (M.L.A.) and being

implemented by Mr. Suresh Khanapurkar. According to Mr. Khanapurkar due to over

exploitation of groundwater resources, the groundwater levels have declined and all

the dug wells in the Tapi alluvium dried up. Semi-pervious alternate layers of silt and

sand transmit very little water. Hence the situation was becoming more critical day by

day. However, the wells which are very close to canals from last 20 years also dried

up. It very clearly shows that there is very little lateral and vertical percolation

through yellow silt. Secondly, 85% area of the district is covered by the hard rock

such as basalt. Heavy rainfall within short duration (36 rainy days) increases runoff

while percolation is very little. Hence the dug and bore wells in basalt area hardly

yielding water at the most up to December. There is severe scarcity of drinking water

as well as for irrigation only kharip crops were possible.

The project was initiated over 100 sq. km. non–command area of 16 villages

in 2004 and covered 35 villages till today. To overcome these problems 14 small

streams in the project area were widened up to 20 to 30 m and deepened up to 10 to

15 m from their origin in basalt and alluvial area. (Photo Nos. 27, 28, 31 and 36) Total

length of streams widened and deepened are about 30 km. In this way impervious

layer of yellow soil in alluvium and hard massive basalt were removed and 91 cement

plugs of appropriate dimensions without gates and waste ware were constructed.

(Photo Nos. 32 and 33) Hence the Project is named as ‘Angioplasty Technique’ in

Water Conservation. Storage capacity of these bunds range from 10 T.C.M. to 150

T.C.M. Along with this method, direct inject of surplus water is being carried out.

Surplus water of Karwand and Aner dam is injected in to 59 dry dug wells having

depth of 50 m. directly with proper filtration. (Photo No. 28) About 26 km long canals

are constructed for the same. It was supported by three Field Ponds. Due to this

watershed both in alluvium and basalt area water table has raised to a great extent. In

basalt area even dry bore wells of 150 m. in depth attained water level at a depth of 6

m. below ground level and in alluvium area at a depth of 20 m. below ground level.

Total expenditure of the total conservational work is around Rs. 15 crore to recharge

1019 crore liters (10.19 M. Cu. M.) of water. Area brought under irrigation due to this

project is 1952 ha. in Shirpur tehsil. (Photo Nos. 34, 35 and 38) Cost benefit ratio of

Direct recharge method is 1:71 while 1:15 for Cement bunds.

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Visible results of the mega project of water conservation in Shirpur and Shindkheda

tehsils which is undertaken by Priydarshini Co-operative Cotton Mill, Shirpur are as

follows:

• Water level in basalt area, which has depleted up to 150 m. has risen by 140 m.

Now mean now water level is at 10 m. below ground level.

• Water table in alluvium area, which has depleted up to 150 m. has risen by 110m.

Now mean water level is at 40 m. below ground level.

• Streams flow up to the month of March which previously dried in November

• Area under irrigation has been increased and farmers are cultivating two or three

crops in rain fed and non- command area.

• Energy consumption has decreased due to reduction in suction height, means low

HP pumps have been installed.

• Fishery was started in cement plug reservoir in order to increase their income.

• Water table increased up to 100 to 150 feet in two km on both sides and 1 km in

downstream side of cement bund.

5.5.2 Self Development of Baripada Village, Sakri Tehsil:

Baripada is a part of revenue village Manjari in Sakri tehsil of Dhule district.

It is located to the far east, along state boundary between Maharashtra and Gujarat. It

represents a unique example of community participation in rural development through

soil, water and forest conservation. Rural development activities in the village

Baripada are being initiated by local youth and supported by two NGOs.

Total revenue land of the Baripada is only 445 ha. As the village Baripada is

located in the arms of the Sahyadri ranges, it was blessed with thick forest cover and

rich in biodiversity. Numerous plant and animal species were present in abundance.

But illegal cutting of teak and other plants mainly by the outsiders proved the

degradation of the forest cover. Subsequently, hills slopes turned into barren lands.

Water table decreased considerably and out of 35 about 12 dug wells in the village

dried up. Problem of drinking water became so severe that women have to bring water

from 3 to 5 km distance. Supply of fuel wood becomes lean and irregular. Means of

livelihood were diminishing slowly. Hence women of the village turned to liquor

production which led to social disquiet and problems in the village. In this scenario,

Chaitram Pawar, a village youth noticed overall situation and felt to do something for

the village at the cost of his job in HAL, Nasik. Dr. Anand Phatak who was associated

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with NGO Vanavasi Kalyan Ashram inspired, guided and helped him. Later on Forest

Department also helped the village. Pawar mobilize the village community and urged

them to act. He convinced villagers that deforestation leads to peter out sources of

fuel wood, fruits, wild vegetables, medicinal plants and other minor forest products.

In village gathering on May, 23rd

1993 a local informal committee was formed

which later known as ‘Forest Protection Committee’. The committee members are

appointed for one year and each family gets a chance to represent it. Forest Protection

committee framed following rules to regulate human and cattle movement in the

forest area:

i. To appoint two elderly persons as watchmen and would be paid by all villagers.

ii. A person found tree cutting, carrying wood or grazing would be punished

accordingly.

iii. Bullock cart is not allowed to enter the forest for any purpose.

iv. Fifty acres of forest land was reserved for grazing cattle. Villagers are allowed to

collect dry fuel wood to fulfill needs of whole year in particular 30 days.

v. To enroll children to the school.

vi. To construct toilet for each house.

Environmental Impacts and Social Empowerment: Along with these activities

NGOs Jaseva Foundation and Vanvasi Kalyan Ashram helped and guided villagers to

install improved toilets, setting kitchen garden to recycle waste water etc. Village

undertake watershed programme to protect soil, water and forest and adopt measures

like CCT, loose boulder and earthen dams and plantation. (Photo Nos. 41, 45 and 46)

As a result of motivation several collective activities have increased such as group

marriages, a method of conflict solving within village. Thus the village became

popular in the district. It received a award of Rs. 100000/- from Government of India.

The amount utilized to start jaggery making unit which employees 25 youths in the

village. A group of nine youths received training for honey bee keeping at

Mahabaleshwar. The forest department legitimated the informal village protection

group under ‘Joint Forest Management’ scheme. (Photo No. 40) Plantation of certain

species was undertaken through JFM scheme. Gradually village Baripada became

self-sufficient in terms of water, fuel wood, vegetables, food grains etc. Now it

supplies water to neighboring settlements. Women started a fish farming in common

village pond. Now liquor production is completely stopped by the women. The

collective efforts of villagers have cleared the way for other development activities

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and also won accolades at national and international levels. The village community

participated in a competition on "Local Knowledge and Innovation of the Rural Poor"

in the Asian region, organized by the International Fund for Agricultural

Development, Rome, and SRISTI in 2003 and won 2nd

prize. Thus village Baripada

has put forth the best example of local level resources management through

community participation. (Photo No. 42)

5.5.3 Water Conservation in Lamkani, Dhule Tehsil:

Village Lamkani is located in the heart land of Dhule district. Administratively

it is a part of Dhule tehsil. According to Census 2001 population of the village was

6150. Dhule district is a part of drought prone region of the state. Annual average

rainfall of the village is 350 to 400 mm. Hence the vegetation is restricted to scrub

and grasses and agriculture is rain fed. High temperature and scanty rainfall makes

summer harsher. It results in to scarcity of drinking water. Production of fodder is also

limited. An east-west running dyke is located to the south of the village. It has

become barren due to overgrazing and tree cutting. Many farmers dug tube wells,

very soon over drafting resulted in lowering of water table. About 200 tube wells

became dry and farmers were not able to repay the loans for the same. Overall the

situation was worst.

Dr. Dhananjay Newadkar, a consultant pathologist working in Dhule city and

native of Lamkani, met with an accident in 2003 and came in contact with local

people. He inspired the villagers of Lamkani to undertake eco-developmental

activities. They visited some model villages in this respect in Maharashtra. A slope of

400 ha. in area of the dyke lies within boundaries of the village under the possession

of forest department was selected for the watershed management programme.

First of all, the bans on grazing and tree cutting were implemented by the

villagers in the meeting. Joint Forest Management committee was established. During

the year 2002 Continuous Contour Trenches work was completed on 50 ha. land.

Next year Continuous Contour Trenches, gully plugging and loose boulders dam were

undertaken on next 50 ha. under employment guarantee scheme. Many people

participated voluntarily. (Photo Nos. 19, 37 and 39)

Father Baker granted 15 lakh and villagers donated Rs.65,000 for the further

watershed management. Eco-developmental activities of soil and water management

were completed on 300 ha. with strict ban on grazing and tree cutting up to year 2007.

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Some people were found guilty of grazing and more than Rs. 1 lakh deposited to

forest department in the form of fine.

Visible result of the joint efforts of the villagers and eco-developmental

activities come up in different forms. Now the dyke slope is covered by dense grass.

Farmers and milk producers of 20-25 villages utilize grass with minimum charges.

Livestock and milk production has been substantially increased. During year of

drought 2008 farmers utilized about 400 tones of grass as fodder and minimize the

intensity of drought. Increased vegetation resulted in number of various animals such

as dear, fox, snake, sparrow, parrot etc. The main result of all water conservation

activities is increased water table. Not only tube wells but abandoned dug wells also

full of water. Now farmers are cultivating two to three crops in a year.

Government of Maharashtra declared 1st prize under the ‘Mahatma Phule Jal

Abhiyan’ to Lamkani in Dhule district. It also received ‘Sant Tukaram Vangram’

Prize in the year 2007. District Rural Development Agency, Dhule included village

under ‘Hariyali Scheme’. So it is possible to undertake watershed management on 500

ha. in next 5 years.

5.6 PROBLEMS OF WATER RESOURCES:

According to G. N. Pradeep Kumar (2006) water is the most valuable and vital

resource for sustained of life and also for any development activities with the surface

water source dwindling to meet the various demands, groundwater has become the

only reliable resource. The indiscriminate use of the vital natural resource is creating

groundwater mining problems in varies parts of the world (Todd, 2005). India’s

growing water shortage despite its being one of the wettest country in the world is

worrisome (Sing and Gandhi, 1999). Area under study experiences problems of

various intensities like scarcity of water, salinity, droughts, floods and depletion of

aquifers.

5.6.1 Scarcity of Drinking Water or Water Stress:

Scarcity is associated with concepts of ‘security’, a much-used term in global

policy circles that not only means the provision of adequate water to households but,

in water resource development and planning discussions, paints the picture of a bleak

future that conveys a sense of urgency to deal with the ‘problem’. Globally, ‘water

security’ is represented as a simplistic linkage between increasing populations,

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increased environmental scarcity, decreased economic activity/migration and

weakening of states resulting in conflicts and violence. (Lahiri - Dutt, Kuntala, 2008).

Table No. 5.20 Villages Facing Scarcity of Drinking Water.

Sr.

No. Particulars Dhule Sakri Shindkheda Shirpur Total

1 Total Inhibited Villages 168 225 141 147 681

Inhibited Pada 13 258 0 100 371

2

Villages with Perennial Water

Supply 162 216 141 131 650

Pada with Perennial Water

Supply 11 258 0 32 324

3

Villages with Water Supply

Scheme 157 216 135 131 639

Pada with Water Supply

Scheme 11 214 0 32 257

4 Villages facing Water Scarcity 9 35 36 4 84

Pada facing Water Scarcity 0 1 0 34 35

5 Tanker fed Villages 9 33 32 4 78

Tanker fed Pada 0 1 0 34 35

6 No. of Tankers 4 13 12 4 33

Source: District Statistical Abstract, 2011

According to World Business Council for Sustainable Development, it is a

situation where enough water is not available for all uses i. e. agriculture, household,

industrial etc. It is difficult to express the stress of water in terms of per capita

availability of water. But it has been suggested that if annual availability of per capita

water is less than 1700 cu. m., the region begin to experience water stress. And below

1000 cubic meters water scarcity impedes human health and overall economic

development of the region. Table No. 5.20 shows the total availability, utilization, per

head and per hector availability of the major river basins of Maharashtra. Tapi basin is

only basin which experience scarcity of water because per head and per hector

availability of water is the lowest in the state.

Due to low, erratic and poorly distributed rainfall, the availability of water

resources in Dhule district is low. Moreover major part of the district is covered by

hard rock like Deccan basalt. It has low primary porosity. Hence the groundwater

potential is dependent on the thickness of weathering. Deposition of alluvium is

restricted to the both banks of Tapi river and the lower reaches of her tributaries. All

above geographical, geological and climatic conditions are unfavorable for

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availability of surface and groundwater. Therefore, it is very difficult to fulfill the

household, irrigation, industrial and livestock water needs of the study area. The

rivers and streams become dry immediately after monsoon season. Dug wells hardly

yield up to November to January and during summer season the situation becomes

worst.

Table No. 5.21 Basin wise Availability of Water and Utilization in Maharashtra.

Name of

Basin

Natural

Average

Availability

Present

Utilization

(1996)

Availability

per head

(1991)

Availability

per

hectare

Classification

For

Planning

Godavari

Basin

50880 12795 1756 4520 General

(1795) (451) -- --

Tapi

Basin

9118 2747 803 2444 Scarcity

(322) (97) -- --

Narmada

Basin

580 24 3602 9063 Abundant

(21) (1) -- --

Krishna

Basin

34032 6881 1827 6048 General

(1200) (243) -- --

West

Flowing

Rivers in

Konkan

69210 3076 3497 37130

More Than

Abundant (2441) (108) -- --

Maharashtra

Region

163820 25523 2076 7267 General

(5779) (900) -- --

Source: - Sarbhukan, 2001.

• Availability - M. Cu. M. (TCM) •Utilization - M. Cu. M. (TCM)

• Availability / Head - M. Cu. M. (TCM) •Availability / Hectare - M. Cu. M. (TCM)

Major part of Dhule, Sakri and Shindkheda experiences severe scarcity of

drinking water. Table No. 5.19 depicts the scarcity of drinking water in the study area.

36 villages of Shindkheda tehsil, 35 villages of Sakri tehsil and nine villages of Dhule

tehsil are facing acute shortage of drinking water. Therefore, several villages of

Shindkheda, Sakri and Dhule tehsils depend on tankers for drinking water (Fig. No.

5.9).

5.6.2 Salinity in Shindkheda Tehsil:

Problem of the salinity is very complex and there is uneven pattern of

occurrence of saline water. Electrical conductivity (EC) measured in microsiemens

per centimeter (µS/cm) with reference to a temperature of 25oC is known as Salinity.

Salinity of groundwater can be a useful indicator for potential severity of land

135

salinisation. It is important to monitor the groundwater salinity if the water is to be

extracted for uses such as irrigation for agriculture, drinking water supplies etc.

Salinisation of water resources is one the most widespread processes that degrades

water-quality and endangers future water exploitation (Gaye, 2001). Therefore,

monitoring and identifying the origin of the salinity are crucial for both water

management and remediation. Especially, in arid and semiarid regions, salinity of

water restricts use of water for household and agricultural purpose. This salinisation is

often due to inflow of saline dense water during heavy withdrawals of fresh water

from coastal aquifers and or mobilization of saline waters by over-exploitation of

inland aquifer systems. Now a days salinity of water in certain places is also growing

due to extensive irrigation and use of fertilizers and other pesticides.

“Salinity” includes hundreds of different ions; however, relatively few make

up most of the dissolved material in water bicarbonate, calcium, chloride, nitrate,

magnesium, sodium and sulfate. Local concentrations of boron, bromide, iron and

other trace ions may be important.

A tract of 10 to 12 km. to the south of the Tapi river in Shindkheda tehsil

(Fig. No. 5.10) is found to be Saline. This part of the study area does not produce

irrigated crops because of saline groundwater. It does not permit well irrigation. From

the observation in the field, it is noticed that the farmers do not use groundwater for

irrigation purpose. Rather farmers cultivate the crops which tolerate saline water such

as cotton.

According to the American standards the following limits for the safe use in

irrigation were indicated:

• Chlorides – 100 ppm

• Bi-carbonates – 450 ppm

• Total Solids – 2000 ppm

From the chemical analysis of the groundwater it is proved that above said

elements are present in the groundwater of several villages in excessive quantity,

which are not safe from the irrigation point of view (Appendix-I, II and III). Amount

of chlorides in groundwater crosses the upper limit in several villages such as:

Nirgudi - 710, Chimthane – 532, Melane – 470, Nardana I – 462, Nardana II – 930,

Dondaicha – 1030, Patan – 618 and Rami – 589 etc. The concentration of sulfate is

also very high in Dhamane – 1020, Varul – 1160, Shindkheda – 760, Nardana – 940,

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Dondaicha – 600. Likewise Total Solids in the groundwater of Dhamane - 2870,

Melane – 1758, Nardana – 2330, Shindkheda – 1243, Dondaicha – 2850, Betawad –

1270, Salve – 1015, Chimthane – 1710, Virdel – 1260 and Bahmane – 1031 villages

is beyond permissible limits.

5.6.3 Flood Affected Villages:

Tapi is the second largest west flowing river of India with the catchment area

of 65145 sq. km. Dhule district which is located in the middle Tapi basin, where the

gradient is only 0.41 m/km. as compare to the total gradient 1.04 m/km. The river has

constructed several meanders in this section, so it becomes difficult to discharge a

large volume of water during rainy season. Therefore, river Tapi experiences

devastating floods submerging settlements and agricultural land. There were several

records of severe floods in the study area in historical and current past

Fig. No.5.10

such as 1930, 1944, 1945, 1959, 1968, 1978, 1979, 1989, 1994, 2004 and 2006.

Following are villages which are frequently hit by floods of Tapi and its tributaries

(Fig. No. 5.10).

137

• Shirpur tehsil – Shirpur, Tonde, Holnanthe, Bhaver, Pilode, Japora, Savalde,

Gidhade, Vanaval, Upparpind, Tekwade, Anturli.

• Shindkheda tehsil – Dondaicha, Humbarde, Kamkheda, Sukvad, Sulwadw,

Varpade, Ranjane, Betavad.

• Dhule tehsil – Dhule, War, Kundane, Nakane, Khede, Akalad, Ner, Dhule, Morane,

• Sakri tehsil – Tamaswadi, Datarti, Sakri, Malpur, Kasare, Varkhede, Japi,

Shirdhane, Nyahlod,

5.6.4 Depletion of aquifers:

The study area is well known for the cultivation of crops like cotton and

sugarcane. The fertile alluvial soil, availability of assured irrigation has promoted the

cultivation of the above crops in the district. The northern tehsils, including Shirpur

and Shindkheda, are intensively cultivated by these water intensive crops for last 30

years. The cultivation of these crops has resulted in the lowering of water table and

depletion of aquifer. The tube wells are going deeper and deeper. Dug wells have

replaced by deep tube wells. It is important to note that the increase in pumpage takes

place due to individual initiative and efforts of well digging/drilling, whereas recharge

augmentation is the need of the whole community (Limaye, 1994).

Foster et al (2007) observed that despite generally very limited potential, these

recourses are very intensively exploited, but such development has encountered

significant problems. Dhule district has been suffering from depletion of aquifers due

to increase in number of tube wells for irrigation and chronic water shortage for years.

Around 1980s the water table was about 30 m. b.g.l. Thereafter number of tube wells

and dug wells increased tremendously. Thousands of pumps of various capacities are

currently extracting groundwater throughout the district. As many as 71407 dug wells

and bore wells are presently in use within district for irrigation and water supply

schemes. Hence this area has been experienced sinking of water table between 10 to

50 m. mainly in alluvial part of Tapi basin in Shindkheda and Shirpur tehsils. Now

water table is about 60 m b.g.l. Ever increasing population and land under agriculture,

demand for water has been increasing day by day. It means that due to human

consumption as well as agricultural irrigation water table is sinking. Future risk to

groundwater resources in basalts or Deccan traps of western India is likely to occur in

sub-basins in which groundwater pumpage for irrigational use has increased

considerably in the past two decades. Such sub-basins occur in the high rainfall area

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as well as in the low rainfall area. The main threat is the declining yields from dug

wells and bore wells (Limaye, 1994). The depletion of aquifer has become a problem

and may increase in the near future. There is variety of impacts of depletion of

aquifer. The first and most important impact is the loss of base flow. Secondly almost

all the lined dug wells of this area have been dried up and abandoned. (Photos No. 43

and 47) The loss of base flow results into following adverse effects on various

components of landscape.

• Increased cost of pumping and maintenance.

• Loss of wetland vegetation.

• Increased intensity and frequency of droughts.

• Loss of wildlife and reduction in biodiversity.

• Changes in channel morphology.

• Accelerated erosion and gully formation.

5.6.5 Frequent Droughts:

Drought is defined as a deficiency in precipitation over an extended period,

usually a season or more, resulting in a water shortage causing adverse impacts on

vegetation, animals and or people. Average annual rainfall of the study area is 592

mm. The district suffers from uncertain and poor distribution of rainfall. Many parts

of the district experiences dry spells of 2 – 10 weeks. The region is also affected due

to delayed onset and early withdrawal of monsoon winds. Historically, Dhule district

has been known for the droughts. Droughts of various intensities occur once in 4 to 6

years, which adversely affect the agricultural produce and the economy of the district

as a whole (Sarbhukan, 2001).

Long-term rainfall data (1901-2006) for four tehsil is used to compute normal

rain- fall and the departure of the yearly rainfall from the normal to study the

recurrence of drought and to demarcate drought-prone area of the district. Gamma

distribution is fitted to the frequency distribution of annual average rainfall. From

Gamma probabilities we have calculated the estimated frequencies of each class and

tehsil (Table No. 5.22). This table clearly indicates that drought and severe droughts

will hit Shirpur tehsil in only 15 out of 106 coming years. On the other hand Sakri

tehsil have to go through droughts for 37 out of 106 years. It is the highest probability

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Table No: 5.22 Probabilities of Normal Rainfall and Drought Years.

Rainfall

in mm

Tehsil Dhule Shirpur Shindkheda Sakri District

Climatic

Condition

Years

(%)

Years

(%)

Years

(%)

Years

(%)

Years

(%)

<150 Acute

Drought 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0)

150-300 Severe

Drought 4 (4) 1 (1) 4 (4) 6 (6) 1 (1)

300-450 Drought 21 (20) 14 (13) 25 (24) 31 (29) 19 (18)

450-600 Normal

Rainfall 34 (32) 29 (27) 37 (35) 39 (37) 42 (40)

600-750 Moderate

Rainfall 27 (25) 30 (28) 26 (25) 22 (21) 31 (29)

750-900 High

Rainfall 14 (13) 19 (18) 10 (9) 7 (7) 11 (10)

900-1050 Very High

Rainfall 5 (5) 9 (8) 3 (3) 1 (1) 2 (2)

1050-1200 Excess

Rainfall 0 (0) 3 (1) 1 (1) 0 (0) 0 (0)

>1200 Excess

Rainfall 1 (1) 1 (1) 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0)

Years 106 106 106 106 106

Mean 597 665 560 526 586

C. V. 32.03 30.51 30.36 29.86 24.90

Source: Computed by Researcher

of droughts within district. Likewise Shindkheda and Dhule tehsils will experience 29

and 25 years of drought condition in forthcoming 106 years. The total probability of

Fig. No.5.11

140

normal, moderate, high and excess rainfall is also in the favour of Shirpur tehsil. As

far as rainfall is concerned, about 91 years will bring prosperity for Shirpur tehsil and

these years can be described as normal, moderate, high and excess rainfall.