197

CHAPTER 5

TRENDS AND PATTERN OF

HIGHER EDUCATION IN KERALA

“Education is not the answer to the question. Education is the

means to the answer to all questions”

Unknown.

The future of humanity depends very much on the cultural, scientific,

and technological developments which evolve from the centres of Higher

education. The mission of a higher educational institution (a college or a

university), hence, is to be a pioneer in the creation of an era so as to

preserve the God-given nobility of human existence, recognizing its moral

and spiritual dimensions. This truth has to be all the more insisted upon as

every centre of excellence in higher education should contribute to the future

development of society through the training of qualified individuals and

promotion of scientific research for welfare of mankind and preserving

human values and upholding human dignity.

Education is not merely the acquisition of textual knowledge, but a

continuous ongoing process towards the attainment of an integral personality and

culture. Education that does not aim at inculcating such human values and

enhancing humane qualities is no education at all. In the context of globalisation,

an education with a wider global perspective is the need of the hour. The vision of

198

an institution of higher learning must be to produce intellectually trained, morally

upright, socially committed, and spiritually inspired individuals who can face any

modern challenge, but with a humane face.

“…It is the pleasure of the bee to gather honey of the flower, but it is also

the pleasure of the flower to yield its honey to the bee.

For to the bee, a flower is a fountain of life,

And to the flower, a bee is a messenger of love,

And to both bee and flower, the giving and receiving of pleasure is a need

and an ecstasy”.1

As Khalil Gibran narrates, “a teacher is flower, a student the bee: The

knowledge of the teacher is nectar; the inquisition of the student is the

redolence of the bee. For the teacher it is the glee and beatitude to pour the

knowledge. And to the student, it is the bliss and salvation to store it”.

Jacques Delors, Chairman of the International Commission on

Education for the 21st century (1996, UNESCO), in his report titled

“Learning: the Treasure Within”, observes, “the Commission does not see

education as a miracle cure or a magic formula opening the door to a world

in which all ideals will be attained, but as one of the principal means

available to foster a deeper and more harmonious form of human

development and thereby reduce poverty, exclusion, ignorance, oppression,

and war”.2

199

Education is valued not only as a means to an end, but also as an end

in itself. And then the word education can be considered as an acronym of

E = Enlightenment

D = Dedication

U = Understanding

C = Curiosity

A = Acceptance

T = Tolerance

I = Intelligence

O = Organisation

N = Nobility.

An educated is one who is enlightened with wider visions to

appreciate everything around, dedicated with a missionary zeal to the service

of the community in particular and society in general, piqued with a curiosity

to learn the why, what, and who of everything, armed with a feeling of

acceptance to the realities of situation to make one pragmatic, acquire a spirit

of tolerance irrespective of caste, creed and religion, approach any situation

in an organized, systematic and streamlined manner to acquire nobler

qualities far from narrow-mindedness and parochialism.

The role and function of higher educational institutions are to be

integral to the process of social engineering. To attain the goal, the higher

educational institutions must provide quality education. The rhetoric of

globalization and modernization apply pressure for a paradigm shift in

contemporary higher education in the country and the state. Higher education

cannot be a hit and miss exercise. Higher education is required to be ‘High’

enough. “Quality” is the buzz word that we hear everywhere, to day. The

higher education in the state of Kerala presents a very sorry picture of

200

continuous degradation of quality, over the years. The notion that the

university is an intellectual thoroughfare is certainly absent; the concept of a

college as a vibrant community of thinking minds is passé.

Literacy

Literacy is a basic step towards education, which is a process of life-

long learning and an entry point to the world of communication and

information. The literacy rate of Kerala, which was 47.18 per cent in 1951

almost doubled in 2001. According to 2001 census, the literacy rate for

Kerala is 90.92 per cent as against the all India average of 65.38 per cent.

Keral’s male literacy rate at 94.20 per cent and female literacy rate at 87.86

per cent is unique feature compared to the corresponding national averages

of 75.85 per cent and 54.16 per cent respectively. Among the districts in

Kerala, the highest literacy rate of 95.90 per cent is in Kottayam and the

lowest in Pakakkad at 84.31 per cent. A taluk-wise analysis reveals that

literacy rate is the highest in Mallappally taluk (97.03 per cent ) of

Pathanamthitta district and the lowest in Nilamboor taluk (81.39 per cent ) of

Malappuram district.3

School Education

In Kerala, there were 12644 schools in the year 2006 consisting of

6817 lower primary schools, 3037 upper primary schools, and 2790 high

schools. Besides there were 587 CBSE Schools, 78 ICSE Schools, 26

Kendriya Vidyalaya and 13 Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalaya.4 (A vivid account

201

6827 6817

3042 3047 2781 2790

0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

L.P U.P H.S

2005 2006

is given in chapter three regarding the number of schools and school

enrolments in Kerala) The following table shows the educational

infrastructure (stage-wise) in Kerala during 2005-06.

Table 5.1

Stage-wise Educational Infrastructure: 2005 and 2006, Kerala.

Year L.P U.P H.S Total

2005 6827 3042 2781 12650

2006 6817 3047 2790 12644

Source: Directorate of Public Instructions, Government of Kerala, 2006

Figure 5.1

Stage-wise Educational Infrastructure: 2005 and 2006, Kerala

202

78

26 13

587

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

CBSE ICSE Kendriya

Vidyalaya

Jawahar Navodaya

Vidyalaya

Table 5.2

National Educational Infrastructure: 2006, Kerala.

Year CBSE ICSE Kendriya Vidyalaya

Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalaya

2006 587 78 26 13

Source: Directorate of Public Instructions, Government of Kerala, 2006

Kerala has been ranked the most developed state at all levels of

schooling, except higher secondary. At the higher secondary level, Haryana

ranked the highest followed by Kerala, Punjab, and Rajasthan.5

Figure 5.2

National Educational Infrastructure: 2006, Kerala

University and Higher Education

The higher education system in Kerala has increased manifold. The

number of universities and colleges today is several times higher compared

to the time of the formation of the State. Arts and science colleges still

203

dominate the higher education sector in Kerala. The number of arts and

science colleges in the government Sector is 39 and in the aided Sector 150.

According to 2006 statistics, the total number of university-wise arts and

science colleges are given in the following table:

Table 5.3

University-wise Arts and Science Colleges: 2006.

Sl.No. Name of University

Govt. Aided Total Un-Aided

1 Kerala 9 37 46 14

2 Calicut 17 45 62 50

3 Mahatma Gandhi

7 56 63 57

4 Kannur 6 12 18 46

Total 39 150 189 167

Source: Directorate of Collegiate Education, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, 2006.

204

Table 5.4

District-wise Number of Government and Private Sector Colleges

(Aided only) in Kerala - (2007)

Sl. Number Districts Government Colleges

Private Aided

Colleges Total

1 Thiruvananthapuram 08 12 20

2 Kollam 01 12 13

3 Pathanamthitta -- 09 09

4 Alappuzha -- 12 12

5 Kottayam 01 20 21

6 Idukki 02 06 08

7 Ernakulam 04 21 25

8 Thrissur 03 17 20

9 Palakkad 03 07 10

10 Malappuram 03 09 12

11 Kozhikkode 06 08 14

12 Wayanad 02 04 06

13 Kannur 02 09 11

14 Kasargod 03 02 05

Total 38 148 186

Source: Official Web Site, Department of Higher Education, government of Kerala.

The above table reveals that the maximum number of arts, science

and commerce colleges are there in Ernakulam district (25) and the

minimum number is there in Kasaragod district. The northern districts –

205

2013

9

12

21825

20

10

12

146 11 5

Thiruvananthapuram Kollam Pathanamthitta

Alappuzha Kottayam Idukki

Ernakulam Thrissur Palakkad

Malappuram Kozhikkode Wayanad

Kannur Kasargod

Kasaragod, Wayanad, and Kannur – lag behind in number of colleges and

the rate of accessibility of higher education. The following chart is ready-

reckoner of the skewed distribution of colleges in Kerala.

Figure 5.3

The skewed distribution of colleges in districts in Kerala 2007

The Faculty in Arts, Science And Commerce Colleges in Kerala

The number of teachers in arts and science colleges has decreased

form 10468 in 2004-2005 to 9802 in 2005-2006. University-wise break up of

teachers shows that the maximum number of teachers is in Mahatma Gandhi

University, Kottayam (3523) followed by the University of Kerala (2833),

University of Calicut (2609) and Kannur University (837). The percentage of

women teachers is 45.

The university-wise number of teachers in Arts and Science Colleges

in Kerala is given in the table given below.

206

Table 5.5

University-wise Number of Teachers in Arts and Science Colleges in Kerala (2003 – 06).

Sl.No Name of University

Number of Teachers

2003-04 2004-05 2005-06

Men Women Total Men Women Total Men Women Total

1 Kerala 1526 1625 3151 1632 1535 3167 1528 1305 2833

2 M.G 1720 1973 3693 1987 1701 3688 1891 1632 3523

3 Calicut 1351 1440 2791 1461 1372 2833 1401 1208 2609

4 Kannur 310 402 712 402 378 780 562 275 837

Total 4907 5440 10347 5482 4986 10468 5382 4420 9802

Source: Economic Review, 2006, Planning Board, Government of Kerala.

Enrollment of Students

The total number of students enrolled in various arts and science

colleges (excluding un-aided colleges) under the four general universities in

Kerala during 2006 is 1.79 lakh as against 1.77 lakh in 2005.6 Although it

shows an overall increase of 1736 students compared to previous year, a

substantial decrease of 2715 is noticed in the case of undergraduates. Out of

this, a bigger decrease is found in B.A and B.Sc courses. Of the 1.79 lakh

enrolled students, 156029 (87.31 per cent ) are degree students and the rest

22677 (12.69 per cent ) are post graduate students. Girl students outdistance

boys in 2006 too as in previous year. Their percentage to the total student

community is 66.87 in 2006.7 SC students constitute 14.19 per cent of the

total students and the corresponding figure for ST students is only 1.05.8

More details are given in the table given below.

207

Table 5.6

Enrolment of Students in Arts and Science Colleges in Kerala: 2005 & 2006.

Name of

Course

2005 2006 Increase

in Enrolment

Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total

BA 23004 45618 68622 22371 45165 67536 -1086

B.Sc. 20791 45114 65905 19788 44382 64170 -1735

B.Com 11143 13074 24217 11338 12985 24323 +106

Sub-

Total

54938 103806 158744 53497 102532 156029 -2715

M.A 1862 5581 7443 2080 6309 8389 +946

M.Sc. 1576 6616 8192 2414 8249 10663 +2741

M.Com 852 1739 2591 1216 2409 3625 +1034

Sub-

Total

4290 13936 18226 5710 16967 22677 +4451

Total 59228 117742 176970 59207 119499 178706 +1736

Source: Directorate of Collegiate Education, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, 2006.

Out of the 1.56 lakh degree students 34.29 per cent are boys and

65.71 per cent are girls. As far as SC students are concerned, boys form

14.44 per cent of the total students; the corresponding ST representation is

only 1.05 per cent. The proportion of SC girls to total girl students is 14.08

per cent. However, the proportion for the ST is only 0.96 per cent.

Out of the total students in various degree courses, 67536 (43.3 per

cent ) are BA students, 64170 (41.1 per cent ) are B.Sc students and 24323

208

59228

117742

59207

119499

0

20000

40000

60000

80000

100000

120000

2005 2006

Boys Girls

(15.6 per cent ) are B.Com students. The percentage of girls in BA courses is

66.9. Sixteen subjects are offered for BA courses, of which the maximum

number of students is admitted to economics. Out of the total B.Sc students,

69.2 per cent are girls. A total of 15 subjects are offered for B.Sc courses.

The maximum number of students has chosen mathematics. In the B.Com

courses, the share of girls to total students is 53.4 per cent.

Figure 5.4

Enrolment of total Students in Arts and Science Colleges in Kerala: 2005 & 2006

The total number of students enrolled for postgraduate courses during

2006 is 22677 as against 18226 in 2005. Out of 22677 students, 8389 (37 per

cent ) are in MA courses, 10663 (47 per cent ) are in M.Sc courses and 3625

(16 per cent ) are in M.Com. The percentage of girl students in post graduate

courses is 74.82. A total of 16 subjects are offered for M.A courses and

among them the maximum number of students has opted for economics, i.e.,

209

1892 students (22.55 per cent ). The percentage of girls to the total M.Sc

students is 77.36. Out of the 10 different subjects offered for M.Sc courses,

the maximum number of students is admitted to mathematics, i.e., 2045

students (19.18 per cent ). In the case of M.Com courses, women’s

representation is 66.46 per cent.

Out of 22677 postgraduate students, SC students are 2827 which is

12.47 per cent of the total. Women SC students constitute 11.73 per cent of

total women students. However, ST students are only 226, not even one per

cent of the total. ST representation among women students is only 0.88 per

cent.

210

Table 5.7

Details of SC/ST students of Arts and Science Colleges in Kerala: 2001-02, 2003-04, 2005-06 (Students in Nos.)

Sl.No. Courses

Scheduled Caste Scheduled Tribe 2001-02 2003-04 2005-06 2001-02 2003-04 2005-06

Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 1 B.A. 1516 3016 4532 3103 4007 7110 3862 7016 10878 90 271 361 260 360 620 376 562 938 2 B.Sc. 1106 2311 3417 2007 3513 5520 2623 5231 7854 66 98 164 103 117 220 124 242 366 3 B.Com 998 1200 2198 1381 1816 3197 1609 2192 3801 89 90 179 109 93 202 162 183 345 4 B.Ed. 40 109 149 60 303 363 79 390 469 6 25 31 10 39 49 14 56 70 5 B.B.A. 40 40 80 53 51 104 120 92 212 5 2 7 5 3 8 7 7 14 6 B.B.S. 4 6 10 4 12 16 11 12 23 4 2 6 4 2 6 4 2 6 7 B.P.E. 5 8 13 7 8 15 12 0 12 0 2 2 0 0 0 1 1 2 8 B.B.M 9 12 21 11 12 23 18 12 30 4 4 8 3 4 7 3 4 7 9 B.C.A 0 10 10 4 15 19 17 15 32 2 0 2 1 1 2 3 1 4 10 M.A. 190 506 696 270 670 940 380 875 1255 16 25 41 21 23 44 33 68 101 11 M.Sc. 117 490 607 163 698 861 271 723 994 12 20 32 12 27 39 24 56 80 12 M.Com. 107 250 357 143 310 453 186 392 578 11 15 26 9 17 26 19 26 45 13 M.Ed. 5 4 9 5 4 9 5 4 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 14 M.S.W. 4 16 20 4 20 24 7 27 34 0 1 1 0 0 0 2 1 3 15 M.B.A. 4 5 9 8 5 13 8 5 13 2 2 4 0 0 0 2 3 5 16 M.C.A. 2 3 5 4 3 7 4 3 7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 17 M.Phil. 4 7 11 7 7 14 7 7 14 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Total 4151 7993 12144 7234 11454 18688 9219 16996 26215 307 557 864 537 686 1223 774 1212 1986

Source: Directorate of Collegiate Education.

211

0

5000

10000

15000

20000

25000

30000

2001-02 2003-04 2005-06

There is a constant and steady increase in the enrolment of scheduled

caste and scheduled tribe students in all the programmes of graduation and

post graduation in the arts, science and commerce colleges in Kerala. This

trend is vivid from the above table. Higher education in Kerala is accessible

to these two categories. In certain cases even seats remain vacant. The

following diagrams adds clarity to the progressive trends.

Figure 5.5

Total strength of Scheduled Caste students of Arts and Science Colleges in Kerala during 2001-02, 2003-04, 2005-06

(the progressive trend)

212

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

2001-02 2003-04 2005-06

Figure 5.6

Total strength of Scheduled Tribe students of Arts and Science Colleges in Kerala during 2001-02, 2003-04, 2005-06

(the progressive trend)

Private Registration

The number of private registrants show a fluctuating trend. It was

78734 in 2002-03 and it declined to 70902 during 2003-04. It then increased

to 72322 during 2004-05. A further decline was there in 2005-06 and the

number fell down to 722229. The University of Kerala has discontinued

private registration in PG Courses from 2003-04. There is no private

registration for P G Courses in the University of Calicut too10.

The following table shows the break up of private registration in the

state (2001 to 2005).

213

Table 5.8

Year-wise break up of private registration (2001 to 2005)

Year Kerala University Calicut University Mahatma Gandhi University

BA MA B.Com M.Com M.Sc Total BA MA B.Com M.Com M.Sc Total BA MA B.Com M.Com M.Sc Total

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19

2001 9888 3949 12458 1952 565 28812 16822 6137 13779 2021 510 39269 3659 2835 11056 14859 203 19612

2002 8978 3640 10510 2625 1000 26753 18624 5930 18052 2734 483 45823 4381 2930 13033 2556 272 23172

2003 6466 N.A 9866 N.A N.A 16332 19738 4643 21534 3205 570 49690 2754 3018 9199 2322 306 17599

2004 6172 N.A 7175 N.A N.A 13347 18455 N.A 22472 N.A N.A 40927 2530 3220 7732 2794 352 16628

2005 7000 N.A 7500 N.A N.A 14500 18096 N.A 23448 N.A N.A 41544 2616 3172 7145 2967 378 16278

Source: Universities in Kerala.

214

The private registration has lead the growth of parallel colleges in the

state. The growth of parallel colleges by leaps and bounds in Kerala has

affected quality of our higher education very much. The parallel colleges

conduct programmes of graduation, post graduation and even professional

courses like MCA and MBA. Faculty available are very poor and even one

per cent of them does not hold the minimum level requirement of academic

brilliance. These parallel colleges are the academic slums and must be

regulated. The recent trend is that they have turned to professional courses of

MCA and MBA as already mentioned above.

Technical Education

The Technical Education System in the state covers engineering,

technology, management, architecture and such at diploma, degree, post

graduate and research levels. industrial trai8ning institutes, fine arts colleges,

technical high schools etc., also come under technical education system.

National Institute of Technology (NIT), Kozhikode, having the deemed

university status, offers graduate and post graduate courses. Cochin

University of Science and Technology (CUSAT) functions in line with the

status of a technical university.

Quality Improvement of Technical Education

In recent years, there has been an exponential growth in the number

of technical institutions especially engineering colleges. This mushrooming

has had implications for quality. In order to upscale and support the ongoing

215

efforts of the government in improving the quality of technical education, a

Technical Education Quality Improvement Programme (TEQIP) has been

launched with the assistance of the world bank, in 2004.

The broad objectives of the programme are:

1. Selected engineering colleges can achieve their own set

targets for excellence and sustain it with autonomy and

accountability.

2. Improve efficiency and effectiveness of the technical

education management system in the institutions selected. The

vision is to ensure the highest quality in technical education at

state level consistent with state and national policies and

requirement to produce the best world-class engineering

professional so as to provide impetus to industry, business and

services.

Engineering Colleges

In recent years, there has been a remarkable increase in the number of

engineering colleges especially in the form of private self-financing colleges.

By the end of the ninth Five Year Plan, the number of engineering colleges

was 44.11 At present there are 84 engineering colleges with a sanctioned intake of

24452 seats. Out of 84 engineering colleges, nine are government, five are private

aided, and 70 are self-financing. University-wise analysis shows that the

maximum number of engineering colleges is in M G University (22), followed by

216

the University of Kerala (19) CUSAT (18), University of Calicut (18), Kannur

University (5), and the Agricultural University (2). The Institute of Human

Resource Development (IHRD), Kerala, also conducts engineering courses.

There are nine Engineering Colleges functioning as self financing institutions

under IHRD.12 The following table carries the list of engineering colleges under

various universities in Kerala during the year 2006-07.

Table 5.9

University-wise Engineering Colleges in Kerala, 2006-07

Sl No. Name of University No. of Colleges

1 University of Kerala 19

2 Mahatma Gandhi University 22

3 University of Calicut 18

4 Kannur University 5

5 CUSAT 18

6 Agricultural University 2

Total 84

Source: Directorate of Technical Education, Thiruvananthapuram, Government of Kerala, 2006.

The total number of approved engineering colleges in India is 1358

with an intake capacity of 450954.13

The district-wise analysis of engineering Colleges in Kerala reveals

that Thiruvananthapuram has the highest density (15), followed by

Ernakulam (13). No government engineering college in Kollam,

217

Pathanamthitta, Ernakulam, and Malappuram districts in the state. In all

other districts there is at least one government engineering college.14

Polytechnics and Technical High Schools

There are 43 government polytechnics and six private aided

polytechnics in the state. The annual intake in the government and aided

polytechnics is 8160 and 1500 respectively for 2006-07. Thus altogether

there is a sanctioned intake of 9660. In addition, six model Polytechnics are

functioning under IHRD.15

At secondary level, there are 39 government technical high schools.

The trade-wise annual intake remains 2085 in 2006-07. Total student

strength during 2006-07 was 6305 compared to 6255 in the year 2005-06.16

Institute of Human Resource Development (IHRD)

IHRD was established by the State Government under Travancore

Cochin Literary, Scientific and Charitable Societies Registration Act of 1955

to develop manpower in the field of electronics, computer and allied areas.

There are nine engineering colleges, six model polytechnics, 18 colleges of

applied science, 25 technical higher secondary schools, two regional centres,

and two extension centres functioning under IHRD. Thus, altogether there

are 62 institutions with intake capacity of 10114 under IHRD at present.17

The ensuing table shows the strength and annual intake of students

institutions under IHRD.

218

Table 5.10

Institutions and annual intake of students under IHRD: 2006

Sl.No. Name of Institutions No. of Institutions

Annual Intake

Students admitted

1 Engineering colleges 9 1405 NA

2 Polytechnics 6 700 681

3 Technical higher secondary schools

25 4320 3022

4 College of applied science 18 1489 1124

5 Regional centres (PGDCA)

2 NA NA

6 Extension centres (PGDCA)

2 NA NA

7 In addition, PGDCA is conduced in 22 institutions mentioned above.

- 1720 NA

8 Data entry techniques and PC Maintenance are conducted in 6 institutions mentioned above

- 480 NA

Total 622 10114 4827

Source:Institute of Human Resources Development (IHRD), Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, 2006.

Note: NA refers to Not Available.

Industrial Training Institutes and Industrial Training Centres

Industrial training department conducts craftsman training through

Industrial Training Institutes (ITIs), Industrial Training Centres (ITCs), and

219

Related Instruction Centres (RICs). There are 34 government ITIs and 354

ITCs in the State. In addition, 41 ITCs under Scheduled Caste Development

Department and one ITC under Scheduled Tribe Development Department

are functioning in the State. Total seat strength under it is is 9901 in 2006-07

and that of ITCs is 14806.

Arts, Sports, Culture, Heritage and…such

Kerala State Sports Council, Directorate of Sports and Youth affairs,

Kerala state Youth welfare Board, Kerala sahithya academy (Thrissur),

Kerala Sangeetha Nataka Akademy, Kerala Lalitha Kala Akademy, Kerala

Folklore Akademy, Kerala Chalachithra Akademy, Kerala Council for

Historical Research, Kerla State Library Council, Kerala Book Marketing

Society, the Centre for Heritage Studies (CHS, Thrippunithura),

Multipurpose Cultural Complex Society (Vailoppilly Samskrithi Bhavan,

Thiruvananthapuram), MARGI (a training-cum-performing group in theatre

arts like Kadhakali and Koodiyattam), Vasthuvidya Gurukulam, Guru

Gopinath Natana Gramam (Vattiyoorkavu), Kumaranasan National Institute

of Culture, Archaeology Department, Directorate of Archives, Kerala State

Film Development Corporation (KSFDC, Thiruvanathapuram), Institute of

Management in Government (IMG, Thiruvanathapuram and Kochi), Bharat

Bhavan, Jawahar Balabhavan (Thiruvanathapuram), Kerala State Institute of

Children’s Literature, Museums, Zoos and Art Galleries in Kerala are other

temples for learning and higher learning and research in Kerala.

220

Sources of Income for Universities in Kerala

The two major sources of income for the universities in Kerala are the

Plan and Non-Plan grants provided to them by the state government. The

plan and non plan grants for the universities during 2004-05 was Rs.

12601.43 lakh. It increased to 13742.58 lakh during 2005-06. In the budget

estimate for 2006-07, the maximum plan grant is given to Kannur University

and the maximum non plan grant to the University of Kerala. The details

regarding the plan and non plan grants provided to the universities from

2004-05 to 2006-07 are given in the following table:

Table 5.11

Grant-in-Aid given to Universities by Government of Kerala during 2004-05 to 2006-07 (Rs lakhs)

2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 RE

Name of University

Plan Non Plan Total Plan Non Plan Total Plan Non Plan Total

Kerala 382.5 4490.85 4873.35 450 4827.66 5277.66 475 5310.43 5785.43

Calicut 297.5 3142.65 3440.15 350 3378.35 3728.35 375 3631.73 4006.73

Mahatma Gandhi

467.5 1875.30 2342.80 450 2015.95 2465.95 475 2167.15 2642.15

Sree Sankaracharya

127.5 820.00 947.50 150 1048.13 1198.13 150 1048.12 1198.12

Kannur 680.0 317.63 997.63 700 372.49 1072.49 700 400.43 1100.43

Total 1955 10646.43 12601.43 2100 11642.58 13742.58 2175 25115.72 14732.86

Source: Detailed budget estimates: 2006-07, Vol.1, Government of Kerala.

221

Expenditure on Education

Kerala State spent Rs.3207.56 crore for education (excluding Art and

Culture, Sports and Youth Services) during 2004-05 against Rs. 3034.39

crore in 2003-04. During 2005-06 it is estimated to have spent Rs. 3803.01

crore. This shows that state’s expenditure on education increased by 5.71 per

cent in 2004-05 over 2003-04 and the estimated expenditure in 2005-06

over 2004-05 shows 18.56 per cent increase. The figures for 2006-07 are not

yet available.18

Expenditure on education is incurred under both revenue and

capital accounts. In 2004-05, Primary education accounted for 41.50 per

cent of the total expenditure on education; secondary education

including vocational education accounted for 35.78 per cent, university

and higher education 16.07 per cent and technical education 4.99 per

cent. Further, out of the total expenditure, 95.01 per cent is earmarked

for general education and the remaining 4.99 per cent for technical

education. Of the 2004-05 expenditure of Rs. 3207.56 crore, Rs.3093.11

crore (96.43 per cent ) was Non Plan and Rs.114.45 crore (3.57 per cent )

was Plan. The details of revised estimates for 2005-06 and budget

estimates for 2006-07 are given below in the table.

222

Table 5.12

Stage-wise Expenditure on education: 2004-05 to 2006-07 (Rs. Crore)

Sl.No Stage 2004-05 2005-06(RE) 2006-07(BE)

Plan Non Plan

Total Plan Non Plan

Total Plan Non Plan

Total

1 Primary Education

6.67 1324.61 1331.28 7.50 1525.00 1532.50 7.50 1520.25 1527.75

2 Secondary Education

5.81 1141.94 1147.75 35.10 1399.85 1434.95 40.72 1445.37 1486.09

3 University & Higher Edn

25.93 489.43 515.36 29.71 540.34 570.05 30.51 531.77 562.28

4 Adult Education

0.19 0.00 0.19 0.50 0.00 0.50 0.50 0.00 0.50

5 Language Development

9,05 13.35 22.40 1.84 13.50 15.34 1.51 13.67 15.18

6 General 25.01 5.67 30.68 31.39 5.29 36.68 27.36 5.33 32.69

Sub Total General Edn.

72.65 2975.00 3047.65 106.04 3483.97 3590.01 108.10 3516.38 3624.48

7 Technical Education

41.80 118.11 159.91 71.40 141.60 213.00 59.54 143.23 202.77

Total Education

114.45 3093.11 3207.56 177.44 3625.57 3803.01 167.64 3659.61 3827.25

Source: Detailed budget estimates: 2006-07, Vol.1, Government of Kerala. Note: RE refers to Revised Estimate and BE refers to Budget Estimate.

Education Cess in Kerala

An Education Cess @ 2 per cent on direct and indirect central taxes

has been imposed through Finance Act 2004, “so as to fulfill the

commitment of the Government to provide and finance Universalized

Quality Basic Education”.

Unemployment

As on December 31, 2004, the number of employment seekers in

the live register of employment exchanges in India was 405 lakh. This

223

number decreased to 394 lakh in December 2005 and increased to 400

lakh in April 2006.

According to live registers of employment exchanges in Kerala, the

total number of work seekers in 2004 was 37.56 lakhs. This number

decreased to 36.7 lakhs in 2005 registering a decrease of 2.3 per cent. The

total number in September 2006 is 39.87 lakhs of which 38.01 lakhs are

general work seekers and 1.86lakhs professional/ technical work seekers.

The number of work seekers below SSLC decreased from 6.73 lakhs

in 2004 to 6.29 lakhs in 2005 and increased to 6.56 lakhs in September 2006.

The total number of work seekers who posses SSLC and above decreased

from 30.83 lakhs in 2004 to 30.4 lakhs in 2005 and increased to 33.31 lakhs

up to September 2006.

Table 5.13

Number of Work seekers in Kerala, 2006 (No. Lakh)

Year (ending

December)

Below SSLC SSLC and Above Total Work

Seekers Persons Percentage to total

Persons Percentage to total

2001 9.67 21.8 34.64 78.2 44.31

2002 7.12 19.3 29.68 80.7 36.80

2003 7.46 18.6 32.58 81.4 40.04

2004 6.73 17.9 30.83 82.1 37.56

2005 6.29 17.1 30.41 82.9 36.70

September 2006

6.56 16.5 33.31 83.5 39.87

Source: Directorate of Employment, Thiruvananthapuram, Government of Kerala, 2006.

224

9.67

34.64

7.12

29.68

7.46

32.58

6.73

30.83

6.29

30.41

6.56

33.31

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 Sept. 2006

Below SSLC SSLC and Above

The number of graduates registered in employment exchanges stood

at 2.4 lakh in 2004. It decreased to 2.3 lakh in 2005 and increased to 2.4 lakh

in September 2006. The number of job seekers with post graduate degree

decreased from 0.61 lakh in 2004 to 0.55 lakh in 2005 and increased to 0.57

lakh in September 2006.

Figure 5.7

Number of Work seekers in Kerala, 2006 (No. Lakh)

Table 5.14

Number of Work Seekers in Kerala, 2006. (No.Lakh)

Year Graduate Post Graduate Total

2004 2.4 0.61 3.01

2005 2.3 0.55 2.85

September 2006 2.4 0.57 2.97

Total 7.1 1.73 8.83

Source: Compiled from the Data, Directorate of Employment, Thiruvananthapuram, Government of Kerala, 2006.

225

Of the total employment seekers in 2006, 17.1 per cent are below

SSLC, 15.7 per cent plus two or equivalent, 6.3 per cent graduates and 1.5

per cent post graduates The share of Work Seekers in various levels of

education is given in Table 9.

Table 5.15 Share of Employment Seekers according to level of Education – Kerala

(1996, 2000, 2006)

Sl. No Level of Education

Share (Per Cent)

1996 2000 2006

1 Below SSLC 25.0 22.6 17.1

2 SSLC 60.4 57.3 59.4

3 Plus Two 8.7 12.6 15.7

4 Degree 4.9 6.1 6.3

5 P G 1.0 1.4 1.5

Total 100 100 100

Source: Directorate of Employment, Thiruvananthapuram, Government of Kerala, 2006.

The number of professional and technical work seekers in 2004 was

1.77 lakh. This number increased to 1.86 lakh in September 2006. It is seen

that more than 93 per cent of the technical and professional employment

seekers are ITI and diploma holders in engineering.

The share of employment seekers with various professional and

technical qualifications is given in Table 10.

226

Table 5.16

Share of Professional and Technical Work Seekers in Kerala

Sl.No Educational Qualification Share (Per cent)

1996 2000 2006

1 Medical Graduates 1.53 1.48 1.93

2 Engineering Graduates 5.64 5.93 3.61

3 Diploma in Engineering 22.15 25.87 23.36

4 ITI Certificate holders (NTC) 69.67 65.94 70.31

5 Agricultural Graduates 0.98 0.77 0.45

6 Veterinary Graduates 0.03 0.01 0.34

Total 100 100 100

Source: Directorate of Employment, Thiruvananthapuram, Government of Kerala, 2006.

The number of medical graduates who had registered their names in

the employment exchanges decreased from 3910 in 2004 to 3428 in 2005

and again decreased to 2724 in September 2006. The number of Veterinary

graduate work seekers has decreased from 796 in 2004 to 547 in 2005 and

increased to 611 in September 2006. The number of job seekers in

agricultural Graduates has sharply decreased from 1662 in 2004 to 803 in

2005 and again to 738 in September 2006.19

A particular feature of Kerala’s unemployment situation is that

women outnumber men seeking employment through employment

exchanges. This position is reflected in all the 14 districts in Kerala. Out of

227

the total number of 37.93 lakh job seekers in March 2006, women number

21.98 lakh.20

Thiruvananthapuram district ranks first in the number of job seekers

in both general and professional categories. As on March 31, 2006, the total

number of work seekers in Thiruvanathapuram District is 5.49 lakh of which

3.36 lakh are women and 2.13 lakh are men. The second largest number of

work seekers is from Kollam District. There are 3.99 lakh job seekers in

Kollam District in March, 2006. Out of 2.35 lakh are women and 1.64 lakh

men.

Today, there is a strong feeling that the skills of graduates from the

state do not match the needs and expectations of the employment sector. The

ever increasing number of graduates / postgraduates work seekers in Kerala

is the best index of the unemployability syndrome. What are these skills,

which are expected by the employers of the graduate / postgraduate

workforce? The five top skills identified by employers and required of the

educated workforce are:

1. time management,

2. ability to work under pressure,

3. accuracy and attention to detail,

4. oral communication skills and

5. managing different tasks at the same time.

228

The UNESCO document on “Thematic Debate : The Requirements of the

World of Work” has added a few more to this list as :

“1. flexibility 2. innovativeness 3. creativity 4. entrepreneurship 5.

versatility and 6. teamwork”21

Today, these skills are the parameters by which the quality of higher

education is assessed. Such education enables persons, societies and even

nations acquire competencies required for living meaningfully in a

competitive globalised world. These are the very generic graduate skills or

life skills needed for living a meaningful life.

Taking stock of the higher education scene in Kerala, it is crystal clear

that there is a total lacuna in many skills mentioned above among the

graduates and postgraduates passing out of the portals of our higher

education. Oral communication skills, innovation, creativity and versatility

are the areas of high danger. The large mass of ‘unemployables’ are taught

and released by poorly qualified, under motivated, lowly compensated

faculty with inadequate faculty and outmoded curricula. Yet it is the large

majority which is called upon to grapple with the huge task of nation

building. They are called upon to provide good governance, develop future

businesses, build health and educational infrastructure needed for raising the

standard of living and improving the quality of life.

We have more young adults and they feel the need for advanced

education. In comparison to the developed nations, this is an opportunity to

229

be grabbed by the state. As the West struggles to cope with increasingly aged

and decrepit populations due to the low birth rates, we have access to the

demographic dividend. This dividend can be encashed only if the workers

have the education and skills to learn, grow, achieve, innovate and explore.

Hence, there is need for higher education of a quality to prepare this

workforce.

Table 5.17

International students in Indian Universities from important countries from

1990-91 to 2005-06

Countries 1990-91 1995-96 2000-01 2004-05 (up to Jan.31)

Jordan 1506 291 58 92

Oman 8 30 216 216

Iran 370 240 217 245

Bangladesh 399 1244 576 545

Nepal 651 695 821 873

Malaysia 993 857 148 92

Mynmar 000 11 23 27

Thailand 186 197 259 307

Sudan 1521 450 381 301

Kenya 3495 22213 968 548

Total 12899 10087 7791 8145

Source: University news 43(09), February 28 – March 06, 2005.

230

Education literarily means taking out (from Latin word educare) it is

not indoctrination views and ideas or just an imposition of one’s views upon

others. In short, education should not be an inflection. The moment

education becomes infliction, the consequence will be the student

indiscipline, strikes and agitation in the campus. Unfortunately the higher

education in Kerala continues to be dominated by models and value system

of colonial regime, emphises on narrow individualism, unhealthy

competitive styles and mere acquisition of information neglecting national

objectives, skill development and character building and is ineffective in

making students face the challenges of the fast growing world and stand on

their own legs.

The New Trends in Higher Education in Kerala

Universities and colleges in Kerala have now shifted their emphasis

from conventional courses to professional and technical job oriented courses.

Tourism management, hotel management, hospital management, forensic

medicine, marine diversity, convergence media studies, bio informatics,

micro biology, aqua culture, clinical nutrition and dietetics, food science and

quality control, child development, bio technology, MSW, radio diognisis,

computer applications, vedic studies are a few examples of such courses.

The new trends of higher education in Kerala during the last decade

can be listed as follows:

231

There has not been any sizable growth in the number of arts and

science colleges in government as well as private sector during the

period in Kerala.

There has been a significant growth of private aided and private

unaided technical and engineering colleges during the last decade in

Kerala.

The private unaided medical colleges have been licensed and around

seven such colleges are in operation now.

The popularity of graduate and postgraduate programmes in arts,

science, humanities, and commerce has lessened.

There has been a decline in the enrolment of students in the

conventional B.A., B.Sc., B.Com and M.A., M.Sc., M.Com courses

run by our colleges.

Private registration for the conventional degrees in Kerala has been

reduced.

Private unaided institutions in management and professional courses

have been on an increase.

There has been a significant growth in the enrolment of SC/ST

students for graduate and postgraduate courses in colleges.

232

There has been a general awareness regarding the quality of higher

education in Kerala.

The number of higher education instructions under the domain of

IHRD has been increased.

Enrolment of boys in arts, science and commerce colleges has been

reduced drastically.

Technical and job oriented courses have been started by our colleges

and universities.

The importance of sports and games activities have been reduced

significantly. Instead, the accessibility to computer and Internet has

been on rise.

Commodification of education and the establishment of market

mechanism in higher education is increased at an alarming

There has not been any parallel growth in fund allocation and the

infrastructural development to meet the ever increasing demand for

quality higher education.

The Universities in Kerala are still basically a replica and prototype

model of english universities in the 19th century.

The higher educational system is still dominated by the traditional set

up of rules, regulations, and statutes that offer little scope for quick

233

improvement in its present work-system and the required level of

autonomy and flexibility.

The work culture of our universities and colleges is a static and rigid

mode of functioning that adheres to bureaucratic standards.

The system has little internal urge to accept a change and dynamic

mechanism in an institution that is susceptible to changes.

The level and quality of innovation and research has low social and

educational relevance at time.

Our universities and colleges are often reduced to the level of

examination conducting bodies.

The growing number of institutions and unrestricted qualitative

growth of students, faculty and courses often is not matched with a

suitably qualitative mechanism for improvement and knowledge

advancement.

The absence of innovation and lack of willingness to overcome this

rigidity has crippled the growth of higher educational system in the

state.

The inclination to do mere personal purpose based or narrow-visioned

research has marred the prospects of fundamental and original

research in many cases.

234

Changing Scenario Since the Sixties on Educational Front in Kerala

A microscopic study of the educational scenario since the sixties,

in Kerala, reveals a paradigm shift in interests of the students, teachers,

parents, government, and the society as a whole. The following table

depicts it:

Table 5.18

Changing scanrio in the interest of students and teachers in Kerala

Increased Decreased

Students on rolls

Choice of subjects

Private tuitions

Use of study-guides

Academic dishonesty in invigilation

and examinations

Parental pressure

Mass media influence

Political influence

Peer pressure and competition

Standard in education

Students’ attendance in classes

Students’ respect for teachers

Teachers concern for students

Strict rules and regulations of

boards/universities

Values, respect, and camaraderie

Sense of belongingness

Work ethics

Extra curricular activities

Source: Self Study Report.

235

Table 5.19

Emerging Trends in Policy, Planning and Financing of Higher Education in

Kerala

Conventional System Emerging System

Welfare approach

Public higher education

Public financing

Privat:state-finaanced institutions

Privaste: govern,ment recognised institutions

Private: degree awarding institutions

Private: philanthropy and educational considerations

No fees

Low levels of fees

No student loans

Commercially ineffective loan programmes with no security

High default rates

Scholarly / academic disciplines of study

Formal/full-time education

Selection criteria for heads of institutions and faculty: academic background

Market approach

Mixed and private higher education

Private financing

Privat: self-financing institutions

Privayte institutions requiring no government recognition.

Private: non degree awarding

Private: commercial motives, profit motives

Introduction of fees

High levels of fees

Student loans

Effective/viable loan programmes with security/mortgage

High recovery rates

Self-financing/viable/profitable study

open/distance/part-time education

Selection criteria: expertise in financial/money/resource generation

Source: Self- study Report.

236

Table 5.20

Conflicting Interests of the state and Markets in Higher Education

Dimension State Market

Motivation

Main concern

Area of interests

Duration of interest

Team effort

Research

Time schedule

Nature of universities

Service

Knowledge

Generic

Long-term

Rarely

Publish/Public good

Flexible

Diversity

Profit

Skills

Specific

Short-term

Always

Confidential/Private

good

Rigid

Uniformity

Source: Self-study Report.

237

Table 5.21

Trends towards Private Higher Education in Kerala

Dimension High Public

(Traditional) High Private

(Modern)

Mission/ Purpose

Ownership

Sources of Revenue

Control by government

Norms of Management

Serve as a clear public mission as determined by the state

Publicly owned

Public/Tax payers

High state Control

Academic norms, shared governance, anti-authoritarianism

Mission avowedly both public and private

Public corporation or constitutional entity

Mainly public, but some tuition or cost sharing

Some control by the state

Academic norms, but acceptance of need for effective management

Mainly to respond to students’

private interests

Private non-profit; clear public accountability

Mainly private, but some public assistance to the needy

High degree of autonomy; state control limited to overseeing

Limited adherence to academic norms, high management control

Mission serves private interests of students/clients

Private for profit.

All private, mainly tuition

Almost no control by the state.

Operated like business, norms from business management.

Source: Self-study Report.

The “Is” and “Ought” dichotomy of the higher education in Kerala is

given in the following Table:

238

Table 5.22

The “Is” and “Ought” dichotomy of higher education in Kerala.

Present Status

Future Changes

1 More emphasis on deliberation of information.

It is at present a teaching centred system

It is more concerned with the mode knowledge delivery system.

It is a system confined to a static and rigid mode of learning.

The present system stresses more on what is delivered.

The system stresses on limited and close package of learning.

It is streamlined with emphasis on exam based having no concept of continuity.

It concentrates more on present needs of learners.

1 The emphasis is on knowing about knowledge and its source.

It will be learning oriented system.

It will pay attention to qualitative aspects of knowledge.

It will offer more flexible system of learning.

The future system will stress on why and whether knowledge is rightly delivered or not?

The new age education promotes a culture of free and liberal system of learning

It will be knowledge based and will offer opportunity without any barriers.

The coming system promotes and motivates fundamental and innovative ideas.

239

Figure 5.8

Features of Education in the New Age

Open and flexible system

Realistic broad based and futuristic visionary dreams of learning

Edutainment and

infotainment

New knowledge with a personal touch and need based and utility

oriented

Learning centred. More emphasis on

insight and and knowledge thanmere

information collection

Direct and easy access to every

learner

Education in

the 21st century

240

Education is given a central place in human development. Education

is not only an input in the formation of human capital, but also a basis tool of

all round progress. Education should empower the vast majority of the

population in their struggle against deprivation.

Table 5.23

Proportion of literate persons in population, Kerala and India during the census periods 1981-2001

Year Persons Males Females

Kerala India Kerala India Kerala India

1981 81.6 43.6 87.7 56.4 75.7 29.8

1991 89.8 52.2 93.6 64.1 86.1 39.3

2001 90.9 65.2 94.2 75.6 87.9 54.0

Source: Human Development Report, 2005, Kerala.

A comparison with all India figures shows that the difference between

male and female achievement levels is much narrower in Kerala than in

India as a whole. This trend in high profile literacy of Kerala has been

acclaimed and appreciated the world over. It is our unavoidable duty to keep

the trend. Let the gods own country be the beacon of light to the rest of the

country in terms of literacy and the standard of higher education

241

References

1. Khalil Gibran, “The Prophet”.

2. The UNESCO Report, 1996, “Learning: the Treasure Within”, Paris.

3. Economic Review, 2006, Kerala State Planning Board, Thiruvanathapuram,

Feb.2006.p.314.

4. Ibid.

5. Ibid. P. 315.

6. Directorate of Collegiate Education, Thiruvananthapuram, Government of

Kerala.

7. Primary.

8. Ibid.

9. Primary.

10. Primary.

11. Economic Review, 2006, Kerala State Planning Board, Thiruvanathapuram,

Feb.2006.p.319.

12. Primary.

13. Report, AICTE, 2004-05. New Delhi, India.

14. Primary.

15. Primary.

16. Primary.

17. Institute of Human Resources Development, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala,

2006.

18. Planning Board Data, 2005-06, Kerala.

19. Directorate of Employment, 2006, Government of Kerala.

20. Ibid.

21. Pratiba Khanna, “Changing Sceneries of Higher Education: Challenges to

Quality Assurance and Sustenance” University News, 43 (07), Feb. 14-20,

2005, Vol.43, p.4.

242

1 Khalil Gibran, “The Prophet”. 2 The UNESCO Report, 1996, “Learning: the Treasure Within”, Paris. 3 Economic Review, 2006, Kerala State Planning Board, Thiruvanathapuram, Feb.2006.p.314. 4 Ibid. 5 Ibid. P. 315. 6 Directorate of Collegiate Education, Thiruvananthapuram, Government of Kerala. 7 Primary. 8 Ibid. 9 Primary. 10 Primary. 11 11. Economic Review, 2006, Kerala State Planning Board, Thiruvanathapuram, Feb.2006.p.319. 12 Primary. 13 Report, AICTE, 2004-05. New Delhi, India. 14 Primary. 15 Primary. 16 Primary. 17 Institute of Human Resources Development, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, 2006. 18 Planning Board Data, 2005-06, Kerala. 19 Directorate of Employment, 2006, Government of Kerala. 20 Ibid. 21 Pratiba Khanna, “Changing Sceneries of Higher Education: Challenges to Quality Assurance and

Sustenance” University News, 43 (07), Feb. 14-20, 2005, Vol.43, p.4.