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Chapter 5Chapter 5Interaction, Groups, Interaction, Groups, and Organizations:and Organizations:
Connections That WorkConnections That Work
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Social networks: sets of relationships between individuals, groups, and/or organizations
Micro-, meso-, and macro-level networks:Friends and familyLocal civic, sports, and religious organizations Alumni groups, political parties, subculturesThe nationGlobal entities
Today the internet influences our networks
Networks & Connections
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Networks connect us to society and place us within larger social structures
Networks can create opportunities for their members, but also generate obligations that limit members’ freedom
Individuals’ access to networks differs by their gender and other characteristics
Differences in access to opportunity-enhancing networks are one reason for persistent inequality
Networks & Connections
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Social interaction consists of two or more individuals purposefully relating to each other
Interaction creates micro-level connections
All interaction has three components:An action A common goal A social context governed by norms
The action, goal, and context help us interpret the meaning of the interaction
The Process of Interaction
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
People assume that others will share their interpretations of a situation
Shared interpretations include situational norms, which create cues for appropriate behavior
• Dress• Manner• Actions• Communication (verbal and non-verbal)
Interaction norms and expectations are learned through socialization
The Elements of Social Interaction
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Interaction includes verbal and non-verbal communication
Non-verbal communication: interactions using facial expressions, the head, eye contact, body posture, gestures, touch, walk, status symbols, and personal space
Non-verbal communication are:• Culturally specific• Learned through socialization• Used in all cultures
The Elements of Social Interaction
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Personal space: an example of non-verbal communicationThe amount of personal space people need varies by:
Cultural settingGenderStatusSocial context
Personal space communicates social positions
People in higher positions have greater control of physical spaceGender differences
The Elements of Social Interaction
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Categories of Social Distance in the U.S.Intimate distance (0-18 inches)
Private and affectionate relationships
Personal distance (18 inches - 4 feet)Friends and acquaintances
Social distance (4-12 feet)Impersonal business relations
Public distance (12 feet or more)Public speaking, especially in formal settings or with high-status speakers
The Elements of Social Interaction
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Rational Choice Theory (or Exchange Theory)
Relationships are formed and maintained based on individual rewards and costs
An interaction is sustained when its benefits are high and costs are low
Assumes that our choices about interaction:
Are based on calculations of self-interest (current or eventual payoff)Are guided by reasonInvolve expectations of reciprocity (individual contributions will balance out over time)
Interaction: Theoretical Perspectives
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Symbolic Interaction TheoryFocuses on how people interpret interactions and manipulate others’ interpretationsTwo variations
EthnomethodologyDramaturgy
Interaction: Theoretical Perspectives
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Symbolic Interaction Theory
EthnomethodologyFocuses on the most basic norms governing interactionNorms are not taken for granted, but studied empiricallyResearch is often carried out by violating norms and observing people’s reactionsResearch shows how people develop shared meanings and rules
Interaction: Theoretical Perspectives
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Symbolic Interaction Theory
Dramaturgy Analyzes interaction as if it were a staged play with audiences, parts, scripts, props, and settingsWe perform different parts for different audiencesWe learn parts and scripts through socialization“Impression management”: we attempt to convey a positive, advantageous image of ourselves“Front stage” behavior: public, scripted, presents an image we hope others will take as real“Back stage” behavior: we relax, let feelings show
Interaction: Theoretical Perspectives
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Social statuses: positions that individuals hold in the social world
Statuses define how we interact with others Interaction differs according to whether participants are of equal or unequal status
Status set: an individual’s combination of statuses
Ascribed status: a status that is assigned at birth and does not change during an individual’s lifetime
Achieved status: a status that is chosen or earned by decisions one makes or by personal ability
Master status: a person’s most important status, that takes precedence over other statuses
Social Status: The Link to Groups
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Roles: the expected behaviors, rights and obligations associated with a status
Role behaviors are part of our culture, learned through socializationRoles and statuses link us to others in the social worldExpectations for a particular status depend on the statuses of those the individual is interacting with
Statuses can be formal or informal
Statuses connect us to meso- and macro-level organizations
The Relationship Between Status and Role
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Role strain: tension between roles within one status
Role conflict: conflict between the roles of two or more statuses
Role Strain and Role Conflict
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Group: two or more people who interact with each other because of shared interests, goals, experiences, and needs
Members have a sense of belongingMembership is well-definedThere are rules for members’ behavior(Not all collections of people are groups!)
Groups form through a series of steps:Initial interactionEmergence of a collective goalAttempts to expand collective goals
Groups: The Micro-Meso Connection
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Durkheim’s study of suicide
Showed how groups impact individual behavior by comparing different groups’ suicide rates
Group conditions leading to suicide:Anomie – the group lacks norms or rulesEgoism – bonds tying individuals to the group are too weakAltruism – bonds tying individuals to the group are too strong
The Importance of Groups for the Individual
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Primary groups: Close, personal relationshipsSense of belonging, caring, identity, loyalty Strong influence on behaviorSmall membership, lasting relationshipsHave intrinsic value: belonging is the goal
Secondary groups: Formal, impersonal, businesslike relationshipsExist to accomplish a task or goalSpecialized tasks and communicationLarge membership; may be short or long-term
Types of Groups
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Reference group: members act as role models for one another and establish standards against which members measure their conduct
In-group: members feel a sense of loyalty and belonging; often a reference and/or a primary group
Out-group: a group that exists in competition with or opposition to an in-group
Types of Groups
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Modern organizations: formal, rational, bureaucratic; originated during industrialization in the 1700s
Formal organizations: complex secondary groups formed to pursue and achieve certain goals
Rationality: the attempt to reach maximum efficiency
Bureaucracy: a specific type of large, formal organization that attempts to maximize efficiency by establishing formal relations, clear procedures, and stated goals
(Contrast: traditional organizations are run on the basis of custom or whim)
The Evolution of Modern Organizations
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Organizational societies: societies in which a majority of people work in organizations
McDonaldization of society: increasing dominance of organizations characterized by
Efficiency maximized by samenessPredictability, nothing left to chanceCalculation of everythingIncreased control over customers and employees
Does McDonaldization lead to dehumanization?
The Evolution of Modern Organizations
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Max Weber Studied growth of bureaucracy in the 20th centuryDeveloped “ideal types,” or conceptual models
Ideal type bureaucracy characteristics:Division of labor based on technical competenceAdministrative hierarchyFormal rules and regulationsImpersonal relationshipsEmphasis on rationality and efficiencyProvision of life-long careers
Bureaucracies also have an informal structure, unwritten rules and relationships
Characteristics of Bureaucracy
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Some categories of people face special challenges in bureaucracies:
Professionals may face conflicting loyalties to their profession and to the bureaucratic organization
Members of minority groups, such as ethnic minorities or women, may have little opportunity to reach the highest levels
(Nonetheless, both groups make important contributions to bureaucracies.)
Individuals in Bureaucracies
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Problems of bureaucraciesAlienation: workers with boring, dead-end jobs feel uninvolved, uncommitted, unappreciated
Oligarchy: concentration of power in a small group
• The iron law of oligarchy
Goal displacement: original purposes are displaced by new, secondary goals
Parkinson’s law: work expands to fill the time available, creating inefficiencies
Alternative organizational structuresEmployee-owned organizationsDemocratic-collective organizations
Problems in Bureaucracies
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
National & Global Networks
New transportation and communication systems, including the internet, are generating global networks
Multinational corporations make their own rules, without oversight bodies
National and international organizations are governed through rational, bureaucratic systems
Some groups rebel against these structures, resulting in global conflicts
The Macro-Level
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Around the world, women are central to economic and social life, but are also marginalized and impoverished
At the macro-level, the United Nations has created many policies to help raise the status of women worldwide
Education initiatives
Micro-lending agencies
Policy Issues: Women and Globalization