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Defining Terms
Developmental Psychology Branch of psychology that specifically
examines the physiological, cognitive, social, and emotional changes in an organism from conception to death.
Developmental Psychologists utilize a number of different methods of inquiry to gather this information.
Cross-Sectional Study
Study people of different ages at the same point in time
Advantages Inexpensive Can be completed quickly Low attrition
Disadvantages Different age groups are not necessarily much alike Differences may be due to cohort differences rather
than age
Longitudinal Study
Study the same group of people over time Advantages
Detailed information about subjects Developmental changes can be studied in detail Eliminates cohort differences
Disadvantages Expensive and time consuming Potential for high attrition Differences over time may be due to assessment
tools and not age
Biographical or Retrospective Study
Participant’s past is reconstructed through interviews and other research about their life
Advantages Great detail about life of individual In-depth study of one person
Disadvantages Recall of individual may not be accurate Can be expensive and time consuming
Prenatal Development Prenatal - period of time from conception to birth Zygote – a fertilized egg with full set of genes
Fewer than half survive first two weeks Divide into 100 cells by first week, then begin to
differentiate Embryo
From about two weeks after conception to three months after conception (most of first trimester)
Organs begin to form; heartbeat Fetus (Latin: “offspring” or “young one”)
Three months after conception to birth (second and third trimesters)
Organs continue to form (6 months- stomach gives preemie a chance to survive); response to sounds
Placenta Connects fetus to mother Brings oxygen and nutrients and takes away wastes
Prenatal Development Teratogens
Any agent that causes a structural abnormality following fetal exposure during pregnancy
Cocaine, alcohol, tetracycline, x-rays, lithium, diazepam (Valium), HIV
Fetal alcohol syndrome (1 in 800)▪ Occurs in children of women
who consume large amounts of alcohol during pregnancy
▪ Symptoms include facial deformities, heart defects, stunted growth, and cognitive impairments
Teens whose mothers drank are at heavy risk for alcohol dependence
Prenatal Developmenthttp://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0072495855/student_view0/chapter3/animation__fetal_development_and_risk.html
Critical period Specific time during which an organism has to experience
stimuli in order to progress through developmental stages properly.
If period passes without proper stimulation/development, development is hindered permanently
The Competent Newborn: Reflexes
Rooting Baby turns its head toward
something that brushes its cheek and gropes around with mouth
Sucking Newborn’s tendency to
suck on objects placed in the mouth
Swallowing Enables newborn babies to
swallow liquids without choking
Grasping Close fist around anything
placed in their hand
Stepping Stepping motions made by
an infant when held upright
Babinski Stroke bottom of foot –
toes fan and curl Moro
Drop baby unexpectedly (?!) or make loud noise and it will throw arms out, arch back and then grasp for something
Crawling Place neonate on stomach
and press down on soles of feet – arms and legs move rhythmically
The Competent Newborn: Temperament Temperament refers to characteristic patterns of
emotional reactions and emotional self-regulation Thomas and Chess identified three basic types of
babies (1977) + Kagan (1988) added a fourth Easy
▪ Good-natured, easy to care for, adaptable Difficult
▪ Moody and intense, react to new situations and people negatively and strongly
Slow-to-warm-up▪ Inactive and slow to respond to new things, and when
they do react, it is mild Shy Child
▪ Timid and inhibited, fearful of anything new or strange Temperament may predict later disposition
The Competent Newborn: Sensory Learning
In addition to reflexes present at birth, neonates also have the ability to learn
Habituation - basic type of learning involving decreased response to a stimulus judged to be of no importance/novelty
Habituation Example Visual learning – focus on FACES Olfactory learning – fully functioning; smell of
mother Auditory learning – response to mothers voice Taste – Fully functioning; preference for
sweets!
The Competent Newborn:Visual Perception
Clear for 8-10 inches Good vision by 6 months Depth perception
Visual cliff research Despite his mother’s beckoning,
an infant hesitates to cross the “visual cliff”—an apparently steep drop that is actually covered by transparent glass.
Most infants 6 to 14 months of age were reluctant to crawl over the cliff, suggesting they had the ability to perceive depth.
The ability to perceive depth is partly innate and partly a product of early visual experience.
The Visual Cliff
Dude. I’m not going
that way!
Physical Development: Body and Brain
Children grow about 10 inches and gain about 15 pounds in first year
Growth occurs in spurts, as much as 1 inch overnight!
Growth slows during second year Neural “pruning and paving”
Motor and Memory Development Developmental norms
Ages by which an average child achieves various developmental milestones
Occurs in a proximodistal and cephalocaudal manner “Back to Sleep” movement to reduce SIDS may delay
crawling Maturation
Automatic biological unfolding of development in an organism as a function of passage of time
Relatively uninfluenced by experience Memory not solidified until after 3rd birthday
Known as “infantile amnesia” Development of hippocampus?
Cognitive Development Cognition – all mental activities
associated with thinking, knowing, remembering and communicating
Jean Piaget Cognitive developmental psychologist who
studied intellectual development in children
Stage-based theory of cognitive development
Intellectual growth as a process of adaptation (adjustment) to the world. This happens through▪ Formation of schemas – mental frameworks▪ Assimilation – using an existing schema to
understand a new situation▪ Accommodation – modifying schemas to
incorporate new information▪ Adjusting schemas (equilibration
) when new information doesn’t fit existing ones (disequilibrium)
Piaget’s Stages of Development
Sensorimotor Stage (birth to 2 years) Take in world through senses Object permanence and the A not B error
Preoperational Stage (2-7 years) Egocentrism; intuitive over logical reasoning Development of a theory of mind, ideas about their
own and others’ cognitions and their resulting behaviors
The Mountain problem, Mountain Problem Video
Concrete Operations (7-11 years) Logical reasoning about concrete events Principles of conservation ; Conservation Video
Formal Operations (12 through adulthood) Hypothetical problems solving Understand abstract ideas
Criticisms of Piaget's Theory
Many developmental theorists such as Vygotsky questioned the assumption that there are distinct stages in cognitive development
Criticism of notion that infants do not understand world
Piaget may have underestimated influence of social interaction in cognitive development
Lev Vygotsky believed development was a function
of social interaction
Social Development: Attachment
Stranger Anxiety Appears around 8 months – coincides
with mobility Protective mechanism
Attachment through Contact Humans form a bond with those who
care for them in infancy Based upon interaction with caregiver Harry Harlow’s work: role of physical
contact in attachment Attachment through Familiarity
Imprinting (Lorenz): 1:07. tendency to follow the first moving thing seen as the basis of attachment
Occurs in many species of animals in a critical periodTop: Harlow’s experiment;
Bottom: Lorenz and imprinting
Social Development: Attachment Attachment Differences
Mary Ainsworth’s Strange Situation▪ Secure attachment: Explores freely while the mother is present,
will engage with strangers, will be visibly upset when the mother departs, and happy to see the mother return.
▪ Anxious-ambivalent insecure attachment: Anxious of exploration and of strangers, even when mother is present. When mother departs, the child is extremely distressed. The child will be ambivalent when she returns, seeking to remain close to the mother but resentful, and also resistant when the mother initiates attention.
▪ Anxious-avoidant insecure attachment: Avoids or ignores mother - showing little emotion when the mother departs or returns. Will not explore much regardless of who is there. Strangers not treated much differently from mother. Not much emotional range displayed.
Erikson’s “Basic Trust” Deprivation of Attachment
Impact of denying infant monkeys physical comfort from their mother
Cases of “Genie” and “Victor” Daycare?
Self Concept and Parenting Styles
Self Concept: understanding of who we are If infants can achieve attachment, children
must achieve a positive self concept Develops gradually in first year “Mirror Test” By 18 months, children know THEY are the
image in the mirror, and that it is not another person
Children with a positive self concept are more confident, assertive, optimistic, and sociable, but how is this achieved?
Diana Baumrind’s 4 Parenting Styles may help explain… Authoritarian – demanding not responsive Permissive – not demanding but responsive Neglectful – not demanding, not responsive Authoritative – demanding and responsive
Impact of parenting styles on children? Authoritative appears to be best, but… Correlational NOT causational research!
Mirror Test
Relationships With Other Children Solitary play
Children first play by themselves Parallel play
As they get older, children play side-by-side with other children, but not interacting
Cooperative play By about 3 or 3½, children begin
playing with others Peer group
A network of same-aged friends and acquaintances who give one another emotional and social support
When children start school, peers begin to have greater influenceParallel Play vs.
Cooperative Play
Sex-Role Development Gender identity
Knowledge of being a boy or girl Occurs by age 3
Gender constancy Child realizes that gender cannot
change Occurs by age 4 or 5
Gender-role awareness Knowing appropriate behavior for
each gender Gender stereotypes
Beliefs about presumed characteristics of each gender
Sex-typed behavior Socially defined ways to behave
different for boys and girls May be at least partly biological in
origin
The Nature of Adolescence
A “Carefree Time” vs. G. Stanley Hall’s “Storm and Stress”
The American experience? Trends today? Cultural differences?
Physical Changes
Growth spurt Begins about age 10½ in
girls and about 12½ in boys Sexual development
Primary (reproductive) vs. Secondary (non-reproductive) sexual characteristics
Puberty▪ Onset of sexual maturation
Menarche▪ First menstrual period for
girls Neurological changes –
frontal lobe maturation
Physical Changes: Sexual Activity
Early and late developers: Implications?
Adolescent sexual activity Approximately ¾ of males
and ½ of females between 15 and 19 have had intercourse
Average age for first intercourse is 16 for boys and 17 for girls
Teenage pregnancy Rate of teen pregnancy
has fallen in the last 50 years
Highest in U.S. of all industrialized nations
Cognitive Changes Frontal Lobe (cont.)
Hypocrisy Idea of self vs. society Hyperaware of others’
perceptions (self concept shifts to includes others’ thoughts)
David Elkind’s Theories Imaginary audience:
delusion that everyone else is always focused on them
Personal fable: delusion that they are unique and very important
Invulnerability Nothing can harm them Reckless behavior
Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development
Preconventional (preadolescence) “Good” behavior is mostly to
avoid punishment or seek reward
Conventional (adolescence) Behavior is about pleasing
others and, in later adolescence, becoming a good citizen
Postconventional (adulthood...maybe) Emphasis is on abstract
principles such as justice, equality, and liberty
Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development The “Heinz Dilemma”
A woman was near death from a special kind of cancer. There was one drug that the doctors thought might save her. The drug was expensive to make, but the druggist was charging ten times what the drug cost him to produce. The sick woman's husband, Heinz, went to everyone he knew to borrow the money, but he could only get together about $1,000 which is half of what it cost. He told the druggist that his wife was dying and asked him to sell it cheaper or let him pay later. But the druggist said: "No, I discovered the drug and I'm going to make money from it." So Heinz got desperate and broke into the man's store to steal the drug for his wife.
Should Heinz have broken into the store to steal the drug for his wife? Why or why not?
The response is not as important as the reasoning WHY in determining which stage of moral reasoning a person is in
Criticisms of Kohlberg’s Theory
Research shows that many people never progress past the conventional level
Theory maintains that our rationale remains consistent – does it?
Theory does not take cultural differences into account
Theory is considered by some to be sexist in that girls often scored lower on tests of morality
Personality and Social Development
Major task in adolescence is identity formation (progresses through college)
Forming an identity (James Marcia, 1980) Achievement
▪ Successfully find identity Foreclosure
▪ Settle for identity others wish for them (images in society/parents plant) Moratorium
▪ Explore various identities, but unable to commit Diffusion
▪ Unable to “find themselves” – refusal to deal with the task; escapist techniques
Different “selves” conflicting (i.e. having friends over) causes stress- unification occurs when you’ve become comfortable with one that fits all (or most)
Erikson’s 8 Psychosocial Stages Identity vs. Role Confusion (teens to early 20s) Intimacy vs. Isolation (early 20s to early 40s)
Personality and Social Development
Relationships with peers Adolescents often form
cliques, or groups with similar interests and strong mutual attachment
Relationships with parents Adolescents test and question
every rule and guideline from parents (can sniff out hypocrisy)
Can be a difficult time for parents AND children
Relative influence?
Some Issues of Adolescence
Declines in self-esteem Related to appearance Satisfaction in appearance is related to higher self-
esteem Depression and suicide
Rate of suicide among adolescents has increased 600% since 1950, but has leveled off since ’90s
Suicide often related to depression, drug abuse, disruptive behaviors, or child abuse
Youth Violence- tried as adults? (remember the frontal lobe)
Emerging Adulthood – trends in lengthening this period
Love, Partnerships, and Parenting
Forming partnerships First major event of
adulthood is forming and maintaining close relationships
Erikson’s Intimacy vs. Isolation
Parenthood Having children alters
dynamics of relationships Marital satisfaction often
declines after birth of child
Other Issues… The World of Work
Balancing career and family obligations is a challenge
Many adults define who they are by what they do
Cognitive Changes Fluid intelligence declines with old
age Crystallized intelligence does NOT
decline, and even can increase as learning continues throughout life
Personality Changes Less self-centered, better coping
skills Some men and women have a
midlife crisis (or midlife transition) Empty Nest Myth
Many parents report feeling a sense of relief when their
children move out!
Physical Changes In late adulthood, physical deterioration is
inevitable As early as the twenties, strength, reaction
times, sensory abilities and cardiac capacity decline, though in late adulthood we may finally notice
Menopause and the end of fertility
Social Development Independent and satisfying
lifestyles – Erikson’s Generativity vs. Stagnation
Retirement Most people will stop working
and face challenges with that sudden change
Redefining of self Marital satisfaction
Sexual behavior Research shows that many
older couples continue to be sexually active
It is not until age 75 that half of men and most women report a complete loss of interest in sex
I’m too cool for ceramic
s
I can’t wait to swill my
whiskey from this vessel!
Cognitive Changes Research has
demonstrated that those who continue to “exercise” their mental abilities can delay mental decline
Even PHYSICAL exercise seems to have a positive impact on cognitive maintenance
However, Alzheimer’s disease afflicts approximately 10% of people over 65 and perhaps as many as 50% of those over 90
Checkmate, Sucka!
Facing the End of Life
Elizabeth Kubler-Ross’s stages of grief/death Denial Anger Bargaining Depression Acceptance Giraffe: Stages of Dyin
g Erikson’s Integrity vs.
Despair