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3/14/2014 1 Essential knowledge 2.D.4: Plants and animals have a variety of chemical defenses against infections that affect dynamic homeostasis. a. Plants, invertebrates and vertebrates have multiple, nonspecic immune responses. Students should be able to demonstrate understanding of the above concept by using an illustrative example such as: Invertebrate immune systems have nonspecic response mechanisms, but they lack pathogenspecic defense responses. Plant defenses against pathogens include molecular recognition systems with systemic responses; infection triggers chemical responses that destroy infected and adjacent cells, thus localizing the eects. Vertebrate immune systems have nonspecic and nonheritable defense mechanisms against pathogens. b. Mammals use specic immune responses triggered by natural or articial agents that disrupt dynamic homeostasis. Evidence of student learning is a demonstrated understanding of each of the following: 1. The mammalian immune system includes two types of specic responses: cell mediated and humoral. 2. In the cellmediated response, cytotoxic T cells, a type of lymphocytic white blood cell, “target” intracellular pathogens when antigens are displayed on the outside of the cells. 3. In the humoral response, B cells, a type of lymphocytic white blood cell, produce antibodies against specic antigens. 4. Antigens are recognized by antibodies to the antigen. 5. Antibodies are proteins produced by B cells, and each antibody is specic to a particular antigen. 6. A second exposure to an antigen results in a more rapid and enhanced immune response. Memorization of the structures of specic antibodies is beyond the scope of the course and the AP Exam. Essential knowledge 3.D.2: Cells communicate with each other through direct contact with other cells or from a distance via chemical signaling. a. Cells communicate by celltocell contact. To foster student understanding of this concept, instructors can choose an illustrative example such as: Immune cells interact by cellcell contact, antigenpresenting cells (APCs), helper Tcells and killer Tcells. [See also 2.D.4] LO 2.29 The student can create representations and models to describe immune responses. [See SP 1.1, 1.2] LO 2.30 The student can create representations or models to describe nonspecic immune defenses in plants and animals.[See SP 1.1, 1.2] Reinforcement: LO 3.34 The student is able to construct explanations of cell communication through celltocell direct contact or through chemical signaling. [See SP 6.2] LO 3.35 The student is able to create representation(s) that depict how celltocell communication occurs by direct contact or from a distance through chemical signaling. [See SP 1.1] I. Pathogens, agents that cause disease, infect a wide range of animals, including humans II. The immune system recognizes foreign bodies and responds with the production of immune cells and proteins How does recognition occur?

Chapter 43 Immune System Notes 1314 digestion of foreign substances Pathogen PHAGOCYTIC CELL Vacuole Lysosome containing enzymes A. Innate defenses include: 1. barrier defenses 2

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Page 1: Chapter 43 Immune System Notes 1314 digestion of foreign substances Pathogen PHAGOCYTIC CELL Vacuole Lysosome containing enzymes A. Innate defenses include: 1. barrier defenses 2

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Essential knowledge 2.D.4: Plants and animals have a variety of chemical defenses against infections that affect dynamic homeostasis.

a. Plants, invertebrates and vertebrates have multiple, nonspecific immune responses.

Students should be able to demonstrate understanding of the above concept by using an illustrative example such as:

• Invertebrate immune systems have nonspecific response mechanisms, but they lack pathogen‐specific defense responses.

• Plant defenses against pathogens include molecular recognition systems with systemic responses; infection triggers chemical responses that destroy infected and adjacent cells, thus localizing the effects.

• Vertebrate immune systems have nonspecific and nonheritable defense mechanisms against pathogens.

b. Mammals use specific immune responses triggered by natural or artificial agents that disrupt dynamic homeostasis.

Evidence of student learning is a demonstrated understanding of each of the following:

1. The mammalian immune system includes two types of specific responses: cell mediated and humoral.

2. In the cell‐mediated response, cytotoxic T cells, a type of lymphocytic white blood cell, “target” intracellular pathogens when antigens are displayed on the outside of the cells.

3. In the humoral response, B cells, a type of lymphocytic white blood cell, produce antibodies against specific antigens.

4. Antigens are recognized by antibodies to the antigen.

5. Antibodies are proteins produced by B cells, and each antibody is specific to a particular antigen.

6. A second exposure to an antigen results in a more rapid and enhanced immune response.

✘Memorization of the structures of specific antibodies is beyond the scope of the course and the AP Exam.

Essential knowledge 3.D.2: Cells communicate with each other through direct contact with other cells or from a distance via chemical signaling.

a. Cells communicate by cell‐to‐cell contact.

To foster student understanding of this concept, instructors can choose an illustrative example such as:

• Immune cells interact by cell‐cell contact, antigen‐presenting cells (APCs), helper T‐cells and killer T‐cells. [See also 2.D.4]

• LO 2.29 The student can create representations and models to describe immune responses. [See SP 1.1, 1.2]

• LO 2.30 The student can create representations or models to describe nonspecific immune defenses in plants and animals.[See SP 1.1, 1.2]

Reinforcement:

• LO 3.34 The student is able to construct explanations of cell communication through cell‐to‐cell direct contact or through chemical signaling. [See SP 6.2]

• LO 3.35 The student is able to create representation(s) that depict how cell‐to‐cell communication occurs by direct contact or from a distance through chemical signaling. [See SP 1.1]

I. Pathogens, agents that cause disease, infect a wide range of animals, including humans

II. The immune system recognizes foreign bodies and responds with the production of immune cells and proteins

How does recognition occur?

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III. All animals have innate immunity, a defense active immediately upon infection

A. Present before any exposure to pathogens and is effective from the time of birth

B. Involves nonspecific responses to pathogens

IV. Vertebrates also have adaptive immunity (acquired immunity)

A. It involves a very specific response to pathogens

How do vertebrates develop adaptive immunity?

Pathogens(such as bacteria,fungi, and viruses)

INNATE IMMUNITY(all animals)

• Rapid response

Recognition of traits sharedby broad ranges ofpathogens, using a smallset of receptors

Recognition of traits specific to particularpathogens, using a vastarray of receptors

• Slower response

Barrier defenses:SkinMucous membranesSecretions

Internal defenses:Phagocytic cellsNatural killer cellsAntimicrobial proteinsInflammatory response

Humoral response:Antibodies defend againstinfection in body fluids.

Cell-mediated response:Cytotoxic cells defendagainst infection in body cells.

ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY(vertebrates only)

I. Innate Immunity of 

Invertebrates

A. Exoskeleton made of chitin

B. Lysozyme, protects digestive system, breaks down bacterial cell walls

C. Hemocytes circulate and carry out phagocytosis, ingestion and digestion of foreign substances

Pathogen

PHAGOCYTICCELL

VacuoleLysosomecontainingenzymes

A. Innate defenses include:

1. barrier defenses

2. phagocytosis

3. antimicrobial peptides

4. natural killer cells

5. interferons

6. inflammatory response

Which of these are unique to vertebrates?

• Include skin and mucous membranes of the respiratory, urinary, and reproductive tracts

o Mucus traps and allows for the removal of microbes

o Body fluids including saliva, mucus, and tears

o Low pH of skin and the digestive system

• Phagocytic cells recognize pathogens by TLRs, Toll‐like receptors

o Uses lysosome to destroy the microbe

o Types of phagocytic cells:

1. Neutrophils

2. Macrophages Dendritic cells

3. Eosinophils

• Natural killer cells also involved

EXTRACELLULARFLUID

PHAGOCYTICCELL

VESICLE

Lipopolysaccharide

Helperprotein

TLR4Flagellin

TLR5

CpG DNA

ds RNA

TLR9

TLR3 Innate immuneresponses

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• Peptides and proteins function by attacking pathogens or impeding their reproduction

o Interferon interfere with viruses and help to activate macrophages

o About 30 proteins make up the complement system

causes lysis of invading cells

helps trigger inflammation

• Inflammatory response, such as pain and swelling, is brought about by molecules released upon injury of infection

o Mast cells release histamine

• Activated macrophages and neutrophils release cytokines

How do cytokines help the immune response?

Pathogen Splinter

Mastcell

Macro-phage

Capillary

Redblood cells

Neutrophil

Signalingmolecules

Movementof fluid

Phagocytosis

1. Which of the following defense mechanisms is incorrectly paired with its function?

a) gastric juice– kills bacteria in the stomach

b) fever– may stimulate phagocytosis

c) lysozyme– attacks the cell wall of viruses

d) histamine– causes blood vessels to dilate

2. Which of the following statements best describes an insect’s immune system?

a) Insects rely on the barrier defense of an exoskeleton.

b) Hemocytes can carry out phagocytosis of bacteria and foreign substances.

c) Lysozyme and a chitin‐lined intestine with a low pH protect an insect’s digestive system. 

d) All of the above are part of an insect’s innate immunity. 

• The adaptive response relies on two types of lymphocytes

o T cellsmature in the thymus

o B cells mature in bone marrow

How are pathogens recognized by lymphocytes?

• Antigens are substances that can elicit a response from a B or T cell

o B and T cells have antigen receptors

Bind to part of the receptor called an epitope

Antigen receptors

Mature B cell Mature T cell

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A. Each B cell antigen receptor is a Y‐shaped molecule with two identical heavy chains and two identical light chains 

1. Constant regions of the chains vary little

2. Variable regions differ greatly providing antigen specificity

B. Binding of a B cell antigen receptor to an antigen is

1. an early step in B cell activation

2. gives rise to cells that secrete antibodies or immunoglobulins (Ig)

Cytoplasm of B cell

Antigen-binding site

B cellantigenreceptor

B cell

Lightchain

Disulfidebridge

Antigen-binding site

Variable regions

Constant regions

Transmembraneregion

Heavy chains

Plasmamembrane

C C

AntibodyAntigenreceptor

B cell

Antigen Epitope

Pathogen(a) B cell antigen receptors and antibodies

Antibody C

Antibody BAntibody A

Antigen

(b) Antigen receptor specificity

Cytoplasm of T cell

Plasmamembrane

chain chain

Disulfidebridge

Antigen-bindingsite

Variableregions

Constantregions

Transmembraneregion

V V

C C

A. T cell and B cell antigen receptors are functionally different

B. T cells bind to antigen fragments displayed/presented

1. antigen fragments are bound MHC molecules

T cellantigenreceptor

T cell

• MHC (major histocompatibility complex) molecules are host proteins that display the antigen fragments on the cell surface, a process called antigen presentation.

• A T cell can then bind both the antigen fragment and the MHC molecule.

This interaction is necessary for the T cell to participate in the adaptive immune response

A. The adaptive immune system has four major characteristics:

1. Diversity of lymphocytes and receptors

2. Self‐tolerance; lack of reactivity against an animal’s own molecules

3. B and T cells proliferate after activation, clonal selection

a. effector cells act immediately against the antigen

b. memory cells that can give rise to effector cells if the same antigen is encountered again

4. Immunological memory

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AntigenAntigenreceptor

Antibody

Plasma cellsMemory cells

B cells thatdiffer inantigenspecificity

Primary immune responseto antigen A producesantibodies to A.

Secondary immune response toantigen A produces antibodies to A;primary immune response to antigenB produces antibodies to B.

Exposureto antigen A

Exposure to antigens A and B

Time (days)

An

tib

od

y c

on

ce

ntr

ati

on

(arb

itra

ry u

nit

s)

104

103

102

101

100

0 7 14 21 28 35 42 49 56

Antibodiesto A

Antibodiesto B

3. Which of the following statements correctly describes the main difference between innate immunity and adaptive immunity?

a) Innate immunity responds only to free pathogens in a localized area; adaptive immunity responds only to pathogens that have entered body cells. 

b) Innate immunity involves only leukocytes, whereas adaptive immunity involves only lymphocytes.

c) Complement proteins participate in adaptive immunity but not in innate immunity.

d) Innate immunity recognizes molecules common to a set of pathogens, whereas adaptive immunity reacts to specific microbes on the basis of their unique antigens. 

4. What accounts for the huge diversity of antigens to which B cells can respond?a) The antibody genes have millions of alleles.b) The recombination of a light and a heavy chain gene during development 

results in millions of possible antigen receptors.c) B cells have thousands of copies of antibodies bound to their plasma 

membrane.d) The antigen‐binding sites at the arms of the molecule can assume a huge 

diversity of shapes in response to the specific antigen encountered. 

• Acquired immunity has two branches:

o Humoral immune response

o Cell‐mediated immune response

How do the two types of responses differ?

• In the humoral immune response antibodies help neutralize or eliminate toxins and pathogens in the blood and lymph

• In the cell‐mediated immune response specialized T cells destroy affected host cells

A. Helper T cells triggers both the humoral and cell‐mediated immune responses

B. To activate adaptive immunity: 

1. a foreign antigen must be present

2. the foreign antigen must be displayed on an antigen‐presenting cell using the class II MHC molecule

3. cytokines are released from both the antigen‐presenting cell and helper T cell

a. the helper T cell is activated and proliferates

b. cloned helper T cells activate:

i. B cells (humoral immunity)

ii. Cytotoxic T cells (cell‐mediated immunity)

Antigen-presentingcell

Pathogen

Antigen fragment

Class II MHC moleculeAccessory proteinAntigen receptor

Helper T cell

Cytokines

Humoralimmunity

Cell-mediatedimmunity

B cellCytotoxic T cell

3

2

1

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A. Cytotoxic T cells are the effector cells

1. recognize fragments of foreign proteins produced by infected cells

2. possess an accessory protein that binds to class I MHC molecules

3. activated cytotoxic T cell secretes proteins that

a. disrupt the membranes of target cells

b. trigger apoptosis

Cytotoxic T cell

31 2

Accessoryprotein

Class I MHCmolecule

Infectedcell

Antigenreceptor

Antigenfragment

Perforin

Pore

Gran-zymes

ReleasedcytotoxicT cell

Dyinginfected cell

A. The humoral response is characterized by secretion of antibodies by B cells

B. In response to cytokines from helper T cells and an antigen

1. B cells proliferate

a. differentiates into memory B cells

b. antibody secreting effector cells, plasma cells

Pathogen

31 2

Antigen-presentingcell Antigen

fragment

Class IIMHC

molecule

Antigenreceptor

Accessoryprotein

Helper T cell

B cell

Cytokines

Activatedhelper T cell

Memory B cells

Plasma cellsSecreted

antibodies

• Antibodies do not kill pathogens; they mark them for destruction

So what do antibodies do?!?

1. Neutralization ‐ antibodies bind to viruses/toxins preventing infection of a host cell

2. Opsonization ‐ antibodies bind to antigens on bacteria creating a target for macrophages/neutrophils, triggering phagocytosis

3. Activation of complement system ‐ antigen‐antibody complexes may bind to a complement protein triggers a membrane attack leading to lysis of the foreign cell

OpsonizationNeutralization

Antibody

VirusBacterium

Macrophage

Activation of complement system and poreformation

Complement proteins

Formation of membraneattack complex

Flow of waterand ions

Pore

AntigenForeigncell

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Humoral (antibody-mediated) immune response Cell-mediated immune response

Antigen (1st exposure)

Engulfed by

Antigen-presenting cell

Helper T cell

Memoryhelper T cells

Antigen (2nd exposure)

B cell

Plasma cells

Secretedantibodies

Defend against extracellularpathogens

Memory B cellsMemory

cytotoxic T cellsActive

cytotoxic T cells

Defend against intracellularpathogens and cancer

Cytotoxic T cell

Key

Stimulates

Gives rise to

A. Active immunity develops naturally and can also develop following immunization, called vaccination

B. Passive immunity provides immediate, short‐term protection. It is conferred when:

1. IgG crosses the placenta from mother to fetus

2. IgA passes from mother to infant in breast milk

3. artificially by injecting antibodies

• Monoclonal antibodies – used in medical diagnosis and treatment

• Immune rejection – antibodies are important part of blood, tissue and organ transplants

• Allergies – exaggerated response of the immune system

• Autoimmune disease – loss of self tolerance

• Immunodeficiency disease – lack of response by the immune system

• Cancer – can result when adaptive immunity is inactivated 

5. Clonal selection is responsible for the a) proliferation of effector cells and memory cells specific for an 

encountered antigen. b) rearrangement of antibody genes for the light and heavy 

chains.c) formation of cell cultures in the commercial production of 

monoclonal antibodies.d) recognition of class I MHC molecules by cytotoxic T cells. 

6. A transfusion of type B blood in a person who has type A blood would result in 

a) the introduced blood cells being destroyed by innate defense mechanisms.

b) no reaction; B is a universal donor blood type.c) the recipient's anti‐B antibodies reacting with the donated red 

blood cells.d) the recipient's B antigens reacting with the donated anti‐B 

antibodies.