Chapter 4, Section 1 Social Structure - interrelated statuses and roles that guide human relationships Status - socially defined position in a group Statuses

Chapter 4, Section 1

Social Structure - interrelated statuses and roles

that guide human relationships

Status - socially defined position in a group

Statuses

Ascribed Status - inherited traits, or assigned

automatically when reach a certain age

Achieved Status - acquired on the basis of a

person’s direct effort (competition) (based on

knowledge, skills, ability)

Master Status - plays biggest role in person’s life

and determining your social identity

* Can be either Ascribed or Achieved


Roles

Role - Behavior, rights, obligations expected of the

person having that

status

Reciprocal Roles- corresponding roles that define the

patterns of interaction between related statuses

Role Expectation - socially determined behavior

expected of person to perform a role

Role Performance - actual behavior of person

performing a role

*actual behavior DOES NOT match society’s

expectations

Role Conflict - fulfilling one role interferes with

fulfilling another

Role Strain - difficulty of a person meeting an

expectation of a single status


Social Institutions - system of statuses, roles,

values, norms ORGANIZED to satisfy ONE or

MORE of BASIC NEEDS of society.

7 Major social institutions:

1. Family 5. Economy

2. Politics 6. Science

3. Religion 7. Sports

4. Education

Basic needs of society:

1. Physical and emotional support

2. Transmitting knowledge

3. Producing goods/services

4. Maintaining social control


Nature of Social Interaction - Takes many forms,

Some stabilize social structure, some promote

change

5 Types of Interaction

1. Exchange - occurs whenever people, groups,

societies interact in an effort to receive a reward

or return for your action.

Ex. Dating, friendship, worker

Reciprocity - is the root of EXCHANGE; idea if you

do something for someone then they owe you

Exchange Theory - people are motivated by self-

interest behavior that is rewarded tends to be

repeated

*if cost is greater than reward, behavior is likely

to stop



2. Competition - occurs when 2 or more persons or

groups oppose

each other to attain a goal that only one can achieve

-can be positive(if follow accepted rules of conduct); can be

negative (lead to psych stress, inequality, or conflict)

3. Conflict - emphasis is on defeating the opponent

-deliberate attempt to control by force, oppose, or

harm, or resist the will of another person. (Few rules of

conduct and sometimes ignored.)

George Simmel identified 4 sources of conflict:

1. Wars

2. 2. Disagreements

3. Legal disputes

4. Clashes over ideology (religion/politics)



Conflict can be positive:

1 - reinforces group boundaries

2 - strengthens group loyalty

3 - draws attention away from internal problems

4 - leads to social change by bringing up problems

and forcing opposing sides to seek solutions


4. Cooperation - occurs when 2 or more persons

or group work together to achieve a goal that

will benefit many people

5. Accommodation - state of balance between

cooperation and conflict; Most interactions fall in

this category

Many forms:

1.Compromise - both parties give up something

for a

mutual agreement

2. Truce - conflict halted until compromise is

made

3. Mediation - 3rd party acts as an advisor so an

agreement

can be reached

4. Arbitration - 3rd party provides binding

decision.


Types of Societies

Most common way to classify societies is their

SUBSISTENCE STRATEGIES

The way in which a society uses its technology to

provide for the needs of its members

Simple System

-Division of labor (specialization by individuals or

groups)

-(in performance of economic tasks) is mainly

involved in meeting the basic needs (particularly

food) of their society

-as subsistence strategies become more efficient

(more technology), it takes fewer people to

provide for basic needs therefore the division of

labor becomes more complex because there is

more time to pursue new occupations.


Pre-Industrial Society

- food production (human and animal labor)

- main economic function subdivided into:

Hunting and Gathering - (Pre-Industrial)

- main form of subsistence is the daily

collection of

plants and animals

- mobile to search for food

- no permanent villages

- limited number of members 40-100

- most decisions made by general

agreement

- family main social unit


Pastoral Societies - Pre-Industrial

-rely on domestic herd animals therefore

increased food

supply enables pastoral societies to support

more people

-food surplus gives rise to economic and political

institutions

creating inequalities in wealth and providing

goods to be traded

-transmission of wealth and power from one

generation to another forms typical form of

government = Hereditary Chieftainship


Horticultural Societies - Pre-Industrial

-vegetables main food source

-slash/burn technology

-food surplus = some don’t have to produce food

therefore new roles emerge (ex. traders,

shamans (religious leaders) craftsmen)

-have relatively permanent villages


Agricultural Societies - Pre-Industrial

-animals and plows used in tilling of fields

-higher crop yields more population

-also fewer needed in crop production

-also fewer needed in crop production therefore

people

began new roles, power concentrated in the

hands of a few.

-power transferred from one generation to next

-engage in warfare

-trade (barter) important in society

-status differences arise - landowners, peasants


Industrial Societies

-shift from production of food to production of

manufactured goods

-bulk of production carried out through use of

machinery

-Industrialization leads to urbanization

-education done outside home

-need for mass literacy

-religion loses ground as only source of morality due to

use

of values and beliefs stemming from science,

education,

government.

-individual has more control over their position in the

social

structure - not just inherited


Post-Industrial Society

-much of economy is involved in the production

of

information and provision of services

-result of transition from Industrial to Post

Industrial

-standard of living higher

-wages higher

-science/tech improved quality of life

-more career advancement


Why Societies Hold Together (contrasting

societies)

Pre-Industrial Societies held together by

Mechanical Solidarity

-close knit relationships that result when a small

group of

people share same values and perform same

tasks.

-As society becomes more complex: society is

held together by: Organic Solidarity

-impersonal social relationships that arise with

increased job

specialization

-individuals can no longer take care of their

needs –

therefore all become dependent on others for

aspects of

their survival


Final Way to Contrast a Society

-based on the structure of social relationships

and the

degree of shared values among members

-Gemeinschaft - community

-society where most members know each other

-activity centers on the family and community

-strong sense of group solidarity


Gesellschaft - society

-where most social relationships found or are

based on need

rather than emotion

-impersonal and temporary relationships

-traditional values weak

-individual goals more important than group

goals


Characteristics of Groups

1. Set of 2 or more people

2. Interaction

3. Must have shared expectations

4. Possess some degree of common identity

Groups can be LARGE/SMALL, FORMAL/INFORMAL

Types of Group Structures

Aggregate - people gather without organization

or pattern

of interaction

ex. Waiting in line to get a ticket - movie, plane,

concert

Social Category - groups of people who do NOT

interact at all yet are CLASSIFIED together due to

a SHARED TRAIT or COMMON STATUS

ex. Students, women, men, elderly, ethnic

groups


Groups differentiate on the basis of :

1. Time - how often the group meets

ex. Family-Off/On; different times but for the most of

your life

*regardless of group contact is NOT

continuous

2. Organization Structure - formal/informal

Formal group - structure, goals, activities of group

clearly defined

Informal group - no official structure or established

rule conduct

3. Size - varies greatly

Dyad = smallest group with 2 people; each member has

direct control over the groups existence because if one

leaves the group CEASES to EXIST

Triad = 3 person group

group is independent because NO ONE individual can

break the group therefore decision making is usually

easier; sm grp = up to 15


Types of Groups

Ways to classify: Degree of intimacy between members

Continuum between Primary/Secondary group

relationships

Family Friends School Clubs Classroom

Job

Primary

Secondary

Primary Group = small group who interact over a

relatively long period of time on both direct and

personal basis

Ex. communication is deep and intense, structure

informal, personal satisfaction of primary importance;

*family - usually most PRIMARY

Secondary Group = interaction is impersonal and

temporary in nature

Ex. involves reaction to part of person’s personality; person’s

importance in group involves their function in that group;

person who drops from group – replaceable; *important

because a secondary group usually organized around a goal;

* within a secondary group may development primary group


Reference Group - any group with whom

individuals identify and whose attitudes and

values they adopt

ex. Friendship groups, school clubs, occupation

*can either have a positive or negative effect on

behavior

All groups have boundaries or methods of telling who are

members and who is not

In Group - group that a person belongs to and identifies with

characteristics

1. Group members tend to separate themselves from other

groups through

use of symbols (name, clothes, etc)

2. Members view themselves in terms of positive images

(outgroups viewed negative)

3. Ingroups generally compete with outgroups (possible

conflict)

Out group - any group that the person does not belong to or

identify with


Social Network Characteristics

Direct relationships - interact with primary and

secondary groups

Indirect relationships - people we know or who

know us but have little interaction (friend of

friend)

No clear boundaries

No Common sense of identity

*they DO give us a sense of community and provide us

with careers and social advancement

We all belong to more than one group and interact

with more than one set of people therefore the

web of relationships that is formed by the whole

of our interactions with others is called SOCIAL

NETWORK


Group Functions

Leader - people who influence the attitudes and

opinions of

others

Instrumental Leaders - task oriented

Expressive Leaders - emotion oriented


Structure of Formal Organizations

Large complex secondary group that has been

established to achieve specific goals

Formal Organization - school, business,

government

Structure - bureaucracy = ranked authority

structure guided by specific rules

Max Weber’s Model of Bureaucracy

1. Division of Labor

2. Ranking Authority

3. Employment based on formal qualifications

4. Rules and Regulations

5. Specific lines of promotion - advancement


Advantages

1. Get things done with speed and efficiency

2. Large amount of production output

3. Create order by defining job tasks

4. Stable because people come and go but the organization

remains the same

Disadvantages

1. Individual goals within the organization get lost

2. People - job becomes a ritual and creativity is lost

3. Rules take the place of common sense

4. Employees are often promoted to higher jobs than they are

qualified to do

5. Red tape

6. Real power tends to end up in the hands of only a few

(oligarchies)

This tendency is called IRON LAW OF OLIGARCHY (Sociologist Robert

Michels)


PARKINSON’S LAW

Work expands to fill the time available for its completion

If person in this system is overworked he will want to

have subordinates to work under him. Instead of

lessening the work load, it increases because he now

must approve all they do.

Documents

Chapter 4, Section 1 Social Structure - interrelated statuses and roles that guide human relationships Status - socially defined position in a group Statuses