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Chapter 4:Explicit Reports
An Introduction to Scientific Research Methods in Geography
As Reviewed by:Michelle Guzdek
GEOG 4020
Prof. Sutton
2/1/2010
Learning Objectives & Discussion Questions What are general properties and specific types of
explicit reports? What are options for formatting explicit-report
items? What are options for administering explicit reports,
and what are some consequences of the different options?
What are some ways to design and generate explicit-report instruments?
What are characteristics fo the U.S. census and the data it produces?
What are basic limitations of explicit reports as a type of research data?
Explicit Reports
Explicit reports are one of the most flexible and popular types of data collection in human geography.
Includes surveys, interviews, and tests. Can request different types of beliefs:
Behaviors Knowledge Opinions Attitudes Expectations Intentions Experiences Demographic Characteristics.
Explicit Reports (cont.)
Request responses that cannot readily be judged as right or wrong
Responses are personal opinions or preferencesCan be characterized as common or
unusualCan be related to other variables such
as demographics
Major Types of Explicit Report Instruments Surveys, questionnaires Interviews Sociometric ratings Activity diaries, logs Contingent valuation Focus groups Protocol analysis Tests
Survey
Require respondents to answer questions about their opinions, attitudes and preferences
Interview
Collect the same types of information as surveys but are administered and responded to orally
Sociometric Ratings
Subtype of survey Opinions or beliefs expressed by
members of small groups, such as families or carpool groups, about each of the other members of the group
Particularly valuable for studying small-group structure and dynamics
Activity Diary or Log
Subtype of survey Requires
respondents to record what they do on a regular basis Transportation
survey Shopping survey
Contingent Valuation
Subtype of survey Requires people to rate or rank how
much they value something Commonly used in studies of how
people value particular landscapes or environmental actions
Ratings of values are expressed in dollars or units such as hours or miles
Focus Groups
Unstructured interviews carried out with a small group of respondents
Discuss a particular topic and led by a facilitator or moderator
Protocol Analysis
Open-ended interview in which people “think aloud” about the contents of their conscious mind while reasoning about some problem or issue
Tests
Require participants to respond to questions that can be assessed as right or wrong
Typically scored for accuracy, including number or size of errors, in order to generate the data
Format of Explicit Reports
All explicit reports ask people to respond to something
A specific survey, interview or test is called an instrument
The specific questions or statements that make it up are called items Closed-ended items – finite number of
answers Open-ended items – do not provide specific
response options for respondents
Major Types of Closed-Ended Items
Rating scales Forced-choice alternatives Ranking of alternatives Adjective or activity checklist Paired or triadic comparisons Sorting task
Rating Scales
Respondents provide a number or mark a line to indicate the amount or extent of something, including degree of belief they have in somethingGenericSemantic differentialLikert scalesPaired comparison ratings
Which Type to Use
Rating Scale Example
Image Source: http://gravitasfreezone.files.wordpress.com/2008/03/happy-sad-faces.jpg
Forced-Choice Alternatives Examples
Administration of Explicit Reports
Considerations for determining best way to administer explicit reportsCostNumber and nature of itemsResponse ratePotential for follow-upNature of respondentsPossible interviewer artifacts
Designing and Generating Explicit Instruments Avoid confusing, biased, and ambiguous
wording by using clear and unambiguous language, understood consistently by all respondents
Items need to be unidimensional – they need to only ask one thing
Avoid biased and emotionally charged wording
Avoid unnecessary questions Don’t make survey too long
U.S. Census
Image Source: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/8497275.stm
An Important Secondary Source of Explicit Report Data
A census is a count of the number of people in a country and an assessment of their characteristics
Carried out by national governments Provide an important source of
explicit-report data for geographers Answers to census questions vary
both spatially and temporally
U.S. Census Questions
Hierarchy of standard geographic units for dissemination 2006 Census of
Canada
Obtaining Census Data - ESRI
http://arcdata.esri.com/data/tiger2000/tiger_download.cfm
Limitations of Explicit Reports
To believe that all explicit report data are completely true and accurate would be naïve
Limits of memory are clearly importantPeople forget!
Language limitations
References
AlterNetRides (2010). http://alternetrides.com/Home_Rides.asp?width=1280&height=772
Ride Share Program where you can log your daily commute Statistics Canada (2010). Hierarchy of standard geographic units for
dissemination, 2006 Census http://geodepot.statcan.ca/2006/180506051805140305/03150707/1908151820_181905_05-eng.jsp;jsessionid=D747B9C5B71264376CF206316F497AB6?GEO_LEVEL=null&ABBRV=null&REFCODE=10&LANG=E&FILENAME=HierarchyFigure&TYPE=null
Survey Monkey (2010). http://www.surveymonkey.com/MySurveys.aspx U.S. Census Bureau 2010.
http://2010.census.gov/2010census/how/interactive-form.php
U.S. Census Bureau (2010). Census 2000 Geographic Definitions. http://www.census.gov/geo/www/geo_defn.html
Waddington, H. (2000). Types of survey questions. In B. Hoffman (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Educational Technology. Retrieved February 8, 2010, from
http://coe.sdsu.edu/eet/Articles/surveyquest/start.htm