Chapter 4 - Coastal

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CHAPTER 4: COASTAL AND MARINE

Introduction

The IGAD sub-region is endowed with a long and biodiversity-rich ocean shoreline with

extensive and diverse coastal and marine resources. In line with the UN Convention Law ofthe Sea the shorelines have exclusive access to a large Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) with

potential for marine fisheries, seaweed harvesting, tourism and oil exploration (see table 4.1and box 4.1). In view of the important potentials of EEZ the coastal hinterlands supportconsiderably large populations and a range of economic activities. Human populations livingwithin the coastal zone obtain the following primary resources and services from theterrestrial and marine environments: land for building, agriculture and infrastructure; fish andother marine organisms for food and other products; recreational benefits that support local,domestic and international tourism; protection from waves and erosion by coral reefs androcky coastlines. The marine environment is now also known to offer ecological services inregard to local and global climate regulation.

In view of the ecological sensitivity of the marine and coastal environments to humanpopulations and economic pressure, this chapter cites a critical need for a sustainabledevelopment framework to guide settlement and development of coastal and marineresources in general and in the eastern African sub-region in particular. These assets exist asan endowment from which future generations will need to derive their livelihoods.

Overview and state of resources

The coastline of the IGAD sub-region extends from the Red Sea bordering the coast of Sudanand Eritrea, through the Gulf of Aden by Djibouti, to the Indian Ocean off Somalia andKenya. Somalia boasts the longest coastline in Africa at 3 898 km (WRI 2003). The shorelineis generally characterised by extensive fringing coral reefs, several sheltered bays and creeks,

limestone cliffs, mangrove forests, sand dunes and beaches. The tidal amplitude is ratherlargeup to 4m near Mombasa, Kenya (UNEP-WCMC 2003). Globally 39 per cent of the

Box 4.1: Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ)

All countries with direct access to the sea have exclusive use of marine resources found along theircoastline up to 200 nautical miles out to sea. These resources are the waters, seabed, subsoil, living andnon-living things. The United Nations Law of the Sea Convention (UNCLOS), to which the coastalcountries of the region are signatories, empowers coastal states to control activities in the EEZ. Beyondthat limit, the resources fall under the worlds common heritage and can be utilized by other states

without permission, except where there are specific international laws demanding otherwise (such asthe ban on hunting for whale for consumption).

Underthe UNCLOS, states are required to prevent, reduce and control pollution of the marineenvironment from dumping. Coastal states may adopt laws and regulations for their EEZs that arecompatible with international rules and standards to combat pollution. The law also requires approval

by coastal states before dumping can take place in their territorial waters in the EEZ, and onto thecontinental shelf. Coastal states have a duty to make sure that activities in their EEZ do not harm themarine environment of other states. Under UNCLOS, land-locked and geographically disadvantagedStates have the right to participate on an equitable basis in exploitation of an appropriate part of thesurplus of the living resources of the EEZ's of coastal States of the same region or sub-region.

Source: WCED 1987; WRI 2003


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worlds populations live within 100 km ofa coastline, 21 per cent for sub-Saharan Africa(WRI 2003), and in eastern Africa, the proportions of national populations living in thecoastal zone ranges from 100 per cent in Djibouti to 3 per cent in Sudan (see table 4.1). Apartfrom a few coastal cities, population distribution is sparse. In 2000, Kenyas coastal

population was estimated to reach 2 million people, concentrated around the main port of

Mombasa (Obura et.al2000). This population increase and new ethnic compositions due tomigration and competition from external actors, are putting coastal and marine resourcesincreasingly under pressure. New livelihood opportunities have often not been adequatelydeveloped to cope with the changing scenario, and people have resorted to increasinglyenvironmentally damaging techniques to cater for their needs (Francis and Torell, 2004).

Table 4.1: Key coastal and marine indicators for the sub-region

Djibouti Eritrea Kenya Somalia Sudan

Coastline (km) 443 3446 1586 3898 2245

Claimed EEZ (km ) 2488 - 104056 - -

Number of Scleractina coral genera 55 56 54 50 56

Mangrove forests (km2) 10 0 530 910 0

Mangrove forests (species) 1 3 9 6 3

People living within 100 km of coast (%) 100 73 8 55 3

Per capita fish consumption (kg/year)* 3


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Mangroves protect coastlines from wave energy and protect offshore ecosystems fromterrestrial sediments flowing downstream. Throughout the tropics mangroves exist in inter-tidal areas and are utilized as habitat by thousands of animal species and as fuel, medicine,food and timber by human coastal populations (UNEP-WCMC 2003b). Mangroves colonizesome sheltered inlets on the Red Sea and in southern Somalia, and, in Kenya, are extensive aslush forests in Lamu district and as linings to tidal creeks further south with a total estimatedarea of 610 km2 (UNEP-WCMC 2003b).

The coastal zones are host to rich marine biodiversity with that of the Red Sea coasts ofEritrea and Sudan being globally significant. Five sea turtle species have been recorded in theWestern Indian Ocean and the Red sea; as well as the cetaceanDugong dugon which isthreatened with extinction due to loss of breeding and nursery grounds (UNEP 2002). Thereis a vast array of insects, birds and mammals found within the coastal zones of the sub-region. For example, the 30-acre Kaya Kinondo forest found on the south coast of Kenya has45 species of butterfly representing 5 per cent of Kenyas known species (WWF 2004). TheKiunga Marine National Reserve in northern Kenya, near the border of Somalia is alsoknown for having the worlds largest breeding populations of roseate terns, and is a key

feeding ground for many migrant species (Obura et.al. 2004). Sudanese waters containamong the highest diversity of fishes and corals in the Red Sea (Pilcher and Alsuhaibany2000).

Exploration for minerals in the form of oil and gas is on-going in Eritrea, Kenya and Somaliawhere they are through to occur. Other minerals that occur in the coastal zone includelimestone from Pleistocene reefs which currently supplies raw material for a cement factoryat Bamburi in Kenya. Similar limestones are quarried for aggregate and building stone in

parts of Somalia. Kenya has been found to have rich deposits of titanium-containing sands inbeach and inshore dunes (Obura et.al. 2000). Mining of these sands is likely to pose potentialrisks to marine habitats. Legally-required EIAs have been conducted and approval for mining

is now dependent on these EIAs and feasibility studies.

Box 4.2: State of coral reefs in Eritrea

During the war for independence, there were very low levels of human damage to the reefs in Eritrea. Thecoral reefs therefore generally remain in very good condition, despite a moderate growth in tourism, somecoastal development, and significant growth of commercial fisheries since independence. Coral cover rangesfrom 20-50 per cent at most sites in the west of the Dahlak Archipelago, the islands near the port cities of

Massawa in the north and Assab in the south. Cover approaches 100 per cent at some sites. The coral eatingmolluscDrupella usually occurs in high densities on many reefs; and COTS and coral diseases arecomparatively rare.

Development of commercial fisheries is now a high priority, including an aquarium fish trade that wasdiscontinued in the late 1990s. Artisanal fisheries target pearl oysters, Trochus, Strombus, finfish, marineturtles and sea cucumbers. The majority of the coastline is sparsely populated, with Massawa and Assab thetwo main population centres. Only 4 of the 350 offshore islands are inhabited, hence human stresses remainrelatively low. Land reclamation, sedimentation, and resort developments in Massawa and on nearby islandsmay have damaged the adjacent coral reefs. There are signs of anchor and diver damage on the few reefsvisited by tourists, but curio collection is minimal. Eritrea has ratified several international conventions,including the Jakarta Mandate, the Convention on Biological Diversity, and CITES, but this has not translatedinto legal protection for the coral reefs. National environmental legislation has been drafted, but is unlikely to

be implemented in the near future.

Source: Kotb et al., 2004


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Opportunities provided by coastal and marine resources

Coastal and marine environments provide a number of opportunities for sustainabledevelopment. Key opportunities for economic diversification are discussed below and includecoastal and marine biodiversity and products for food security and livelihood support;

tourism, energy and maritime transport development; and various ecological services. Thevalue of the sub-region's coastal and marine resources is not only monetary but also includesvalues such as ecosystems function and non-use values. Such non-use values as shown infigure below include intrinsic significance in terms of culture, aesthetic, heritage and bequest.Figure 4.1 shows a detailed breakdown of the values provided by marine ecosystems.

Figure 4.1: Benefits of coastal and marine ecosystems.

Source: Emerton 1999

Biodiversity for food security and livelihoodsBiological resources form the mainstay of the diets and livelihoods of many coastal peoples.As shown in table 4.1, the per capita fish consumption of the countries of the sub-region isquite low ranging from 5kg/yr in Kenya to less than 1kg/yr in Eritrea (WRI 2003). In somecountries of the Pacific island economies, per capita fish consumption is as high as 40 kg/yr(South and Skelton 2000). This despite the fact that coastal people, and in particular, fishing

communities and traditional cultures are strongly dependent on wild fish production forprotein. However there is considerable scope for expanding the diversity of marine speciesutilized as food, as well as for targeting offshore fish resources, the development ofenvironmentally sound mariculture, and substituting terrestrial products for food.

Coastal populations traditionally utilize inshore and reef-related fisheries.The Red Sea coastsof Sudan, Eritrea and Djibouti support extensive reef-based artisanal fisheries. There are also

productive offshore fisheries due to the seasonal upwelling in the Gulf of Aden. In some ofthe countries, artisanal and inshore fisheries are generally over-harvested while in others theyhave not yet reached the maximum sustainable yield. The Fisheries Administration of Sudansuggests that the maximum sustainable artisanal yield is around 10,000mt, with present

annual production of 1,200mt (Pilcher and Alsuhaibany 2000). Neither commercial norartisanal landings approach the estimated maximum sustainable yield in Sudan and prospects


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for increasing the fishery would have to consider expansion of refrigeration and transportfacilities (Pilcher and Alsuhaibany 2000).

Although most countries in the sub-region have not yet developed the capacity to fullyexploit or regulate their offshore fisheries, this is changing with some now prioritizing the

development of commercial fisheries. Eritrea aims to increase production three- to four-times, up to between 50 000 and 60 000 t/a (Kotb et.al. 2004). Of this, about 80-85 per cent isexpected to be generated by foreign industrial fleet, especially trawlers, but the contributionfrom artisanal fisheries may also be increased (FAO 2002). In Djibouti, the fisheries sector isalso targeted as a major sector for development for both domestic and export markets andgovernment support is focusing on the organisation of fishermen and marketing, and onimproving the gear and boats used (Emerton 1999). Priority should also be given to the

protection of resources in artisanal fisheries as this has livelihood implications for the coastalcommunities.

Mariculture and use of coastal wetlands for production provide an opportunity for economic

and livelihood diversification for the coastal communities. Proposals to develop mangroveand estuarine/deltaic areas for prawn mariculture have been attempted in Kenya along theTana River but are still in preliminary stages. A number of other small scale projects inKenya are investigating the potential for household and village-based mariculture thatemphasize the status of mangroves as the primary asset for mariculture, and hence theirconservation. Shrimp (Penaeus spp.) farming has been attempted at Ngomeni, north ofMalindi. Oysters and seaweeds (Euchema spp.) are cultured on a small scale, mainly withinthe reefs and creeks, using semi-intensive, inter-tidal technology (FAO 2005). Thedevelopment of aquaculture is increasing in the sub-region, and large shrimp farms are beingdeveloped in some countries like Sudan and Eritrea (Kotb et.al2004). The Kenyangovernment is currently looking into prospects of private/public partnerships in developingshrimp farms along the coast. A project concept by a private entrepreneur for over 800hectares is in the final designstages (FAO 2005).However it is essential toensure sustainable practices.Other countries in Asia andother parts of the world thathave pursued strongdevelopment policies inthese areas have faced severe

environmental and resourcedegradation from overuse,poor management and poorregulation. Misguided andhasty development throughlarge commercial projects inthese areas will underminethe sustainability of localecosystems and causehardship and increasing

poverty to adjacent poor

communities.

Experimental oyster culture at Gazi in Kwale district, Kenya using acombination of intertidal racks and raft suspension is producing

promising results

Source: UNEP undated


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There are other marine and coastal products, including non-food commodities, in the sub-region are under utilized and could have the potential for vast earnings for the countries. Forexample, a wide range of marine products in addition to fish are marketed locally andexported from Eritrea including turtle meat, sea cucumbers, sharks fin, shells and aquariumfish. Using the volumes of products collected and sold, and their market price, the total

annual value of these sales was estimated to be in excess of US$ 1.6 million (Emerton andAsrat 1998). The biotechnology potential of marine invertebrates is also very high, thoughthe sub-region is lagging behind the rest of the world in bio-prospecting and enacting

property rights to protect local and national property. For more information on biotechnology,see chapter 11.

Tourism developmentCoastlines provide beautiful scenery, unique assets and new opportunities for tourismdevelopment. To date, however, tourism development has tended to degrade the primaryasset, that is the physical beauty, ecological integrity and cultural history of coastal andmarine locations, for instance along the Diani/Bamburi beaches in Kenya. However there are

examples of high-end tourism development that do not degrade the natural asset and are thussustainable, such as in ecologically sensitive areas such as the Tana Delta in Kenya.Countries are starting to promote ecologicallyfriendly and sustainable tourismdevelopments, which include smaller, more exclusive hotels and resorts, diving andwilderness-oriented activities, as well as co-management of the reef resources betweencommunities, developers and government (Obura et.al. 2000). Community-orientedecotourism opportunities are being tried where community members co-manage, guide andare the primary operators of the resource, though these are still at early stages ofdevelopment. For example a community mangrove boardwalk was constructed in Watamu inKenya and bird hides rehabilitated for ecotourism to demonstrate sustainable mangrove usesand help generate funds for local schools (Obura et.al. 2004). Coastal tourism is starting todevelop in Djibouti and has shown a moderate growth in Eritrea (Kotb et.al. 2004). InSomalia, ecotourism is an opportunity that has potential, but is reliant on an effectivelygoverned and peaceful country for development (Coffen-Smout 1998).

Potential for mining and energy generation

Exploration for oil and gas is underway in some parts of the sub-region including Somalia(UNDP 2001), Kenya, Djibouti and Eritrea. Energy extraction may also be possible from thehigh tidal range experienced in Somalia and Kenya caused by the geometry of the IndianOcean. While these technologies are still experimental in parts of the developed world, longterm feasibility plans should be established for technology transfer, and regional research and

technology development, to utilize this resource. The tidal range in the Gulf of Aden andsouthern Red Sea is unlikely to be sufficient to generate energy, however current flowsthrough the narrow strait of Bab-el-Mandeb between the two water bodies may have a greater

potential for energy generation. Opportunities for the development of energy are alsodiscussed in chapter 2.

Potential for development of international maritime industry and coastal developmentThe coastal cultures of the region developed through maritime trade and linkages throughoutthe sub-region and the Middle East. Local and regional maritime trade has decreased inmodern times due to competition from western shipping models, and internally focusednational policies. Re-energizing a regional maritime trade based on local products, vessels

and markets will provide significant economic boost to populations along the coastlines,particularly those less touched by modernization and supplying products valuable in local


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markets. Infrastructural development in the small local harbours and ports must beundertaken to support this, necessitating decentralized policies within each country awayfrom the main international ports of Port Sudan, Mombasa, Mogadishu, Djibouti andMassawa.

In addition, the coastal zone can support human settlement and the development of towns,where the assets of freshwater supply, transport (including maritime) and accessibility arecombined. These would then provide unique opportunities for economic development andinvestment, such as in infrastructure, industry, ecotourism, urban development, and transport.The land/sea boundary also has the potential to provide additional space for developmentthrough conversion of shallow water ecosystems to land through reclamation, or throughmaximizing the use of the marine and water assets adjacent to land-based developments.

Marine ecosystem services

Marine ecosystem services, as well as generating economic benefits, help to avoid economiccostsfor example by minimising the impacts of storms and flooding or by protecting

shorelines. By absorbing carbon, coral reefs may help to mitigate the effects of globalwarming. Djiboutis coral reefs, with a surface area of at least 6.105 million m 2, are estimatedto have a net primary productivity in excess of 2,500 g carbon/m2/year (Emerton 1998). Withthe costs of damage arising from global warming estimated at an average of US$ 20/tonne,marine ecosystems in Djibouti may generate economic benefits of over US$ 0.3 million ayear in terms of global warming damage avoided (Emerton 1998).

The physical capacity of wetland habitats, particularly marshes, floodplains, estuaries, deltasand mangrove swamps to buffer and reticulate waste water flows into the open seas have

been neglected in the sub-region. Wetlands are increasingly being used to treat pollution, andthey provide natural buffers for floodwaters and siltation during extreme rains. Thesecontributions need to be quantified in two critical areas: local rivers, marshes and creekhabitats and their roles in pollution absorption; and major river and estuarine systems andtheir management of floodwaters and silt supplied to the marine environment. Otherecological services of coastal wetlands include the provision of breeding and feeding groundsfor fish and other marine resources, habitat for migratory birds, seasonal pasture for turtles,and more. For instance, the Daloh Forest Reserve and Maydh Island on the Gulf of Adencoast of Somalia is a seabird breeding site of international significance (Kotb et.al. 2004).

The devastating tsunami of 26 December 2004 showed conclusively in Sri Lanka, India,Indonesia and Thailand how natural vegetation in mangrove swamps, wetlands and areas

with trees, coral reefs, sand dunes and other coastal ecosystems absorbed much of thedestructive force of the tsunami waves (UNEP 2005). Northern Somalia suffered about 300deaths due to coastal flooding (UNEP 2005), while Kenya was spared the worst impacts. The

preservation of mangrove forest belts, forested estuaries and deltas, and forested sections ofcoastlines (particularly adjacent to beaches rather than on elevated rocky shores) must bemaintained as a high priority to mitigate potential future disasters of this nature. These willalso improve the resistance of coastal areas to the impacts of sea level rise, where freak stormwaves are predicted to cause damage to vulnerable coastlines.

Threats to achieving the potential

The main concerns are the loss of biodiversity and degradation of habitats through climatechange and the modification of ecosystems. Human-related pressures come from over-


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exploitation of resources, pollution, increasing urbanization and tourism development.Climate change issues include coral bleaching which has contributed to coral reefdegradation, and the impacts of sea-level rise, particularly with regard to the incidence ofcoastal erosion and inundation of coastal lowlands. Inadequate investment in coastal zonesleads to poor enforcement and management regimes ultimately affecting sustainable

utilization of the marine resources.

Impacts of climate changeThe impacts of climate change were seen when wide areas of this region were affected by the1997-98 El Nio Southern Oscillation event and warm waters swept across wide areas of theIndian Ocean, leading to bleaching and massive levels of coral mortality on reefs (UNEP-WCMC 2001). Some of the reefs near Berbera in Somalia were reported to have sufferedvery extensively from bleaching and mortality during the 1998 bleaching event (UNEP-WCMC 2001). In early 2001, there was renewed threat of coral bleaching predicted on the

basis of potential El Nio predictions and slightly elevated sea surface temperatures. Smalloutbreaks of the crown-of-thorns (COT) starfish have been recorded in Somalia and Kenya

(Obura et.al. 2000).

Coastal erosion is a common phenomenon along the coast (UNEP 2002). Natural and humanfactors are the main causes as well as beachfront developments and mining of sand, coral andlime (UNEP 2002; UNEP 2005). Coastal erosion impacts on infrastructure and theattractiveness of the coastal environment on which tourism largely depends. Shorelineaccretion can also be a problem resulting in shifting coastal features such as dunes, beaches,cliffs and shorelines. For example the Tana delta and Sabaki estuary in Kenya have accretedextensive coastal plains due to coastal drift and the high sediment loads carried by the Tanaand Sabaki rivers (UNEP 2002). Coastal erosion is likely to be compounded by sea level riseresulting from global climate change (UNEP 2002).

Habitat loss and degradationMarine biodiversity such as mangroves are under threat from land-based pollution,decreasing freshwater discharge from rivers and over-harvesting. In Kenya, there has beenover-harvesting to meet an increased demand from tourism developments for constructiontimber, also mangrove clearance from the expansion of agriculture and solar saltpans(UNEP/GPA and WIOMSA2004). In Somalia, somemangrove stands have beencompletely denuded and are now

salt marsh ecosystems betweenSaada Din Island and Saba Wanak,in the estuaries of threewatercourses which reach the seawest of Bosaso, and in the threeestuaries just north of the Kenyan

border (Hughes and Hughes,1992). These and other stands have

been seriously ravaged forfirewood and construction timber.Overall the regenerative capacity

of the mangrove ecosystems mayhave declined in recent decadesa

A degraded mangrove forest in Djibouti

Source: D ibouti National Focal Point for AEO-2


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state which will almost certainly affect the capacity of these areas to function as breeding andnursery sites for near and offshore fish, crustaceans and molluscs, but one which also nowaffords less protection to the coastline.

The worlds main transport route for hydrocarbons passes through the Gulf of Aden590

million tons of oil a year (UNEP 1987). This makes the threat of oil pollution very real. Somecountries in the sub-region lack the basic facilities for handling bilge in their ports and smalloil spills are common. For example, Somalia has no national capacity to deal with an oil

pollution incident (World Bank undated) which is of concern given the volume of traffic andecological importance of some marine and coastal ecosystems in the region. The closestavailable clean up equipment is located at the IMO Regional Response Centre in Djibouti forthe Gulf of Aden region (UNCTAD, 1998).The absence of surveillance means that tankersroutinely discharge oily ballast off the Somali coastline: annual discharges were onceestimated at 33,000 tonnes (UNEP 1982). Tar balls are also regularly found on certainsections of the Somali coastline, above all high-energy beaches in the western sector (WorldBank undated).

Coastal zones are used as dumping sites by textile, chemical, paper, sugar and oil industries(UNEP-WCMC 2003). In Kenya, agricultural and silvicultural effluents enter mangroveareas, while in Somalia the concentration is mainly on livestock industries (UNEP-WCMC2003). In Eritrea all domestic waste from the port Massawa ends up in the Red Sea (EAE1995). Although still small scale, industrial pollution could become a severe problem in thefuture. It has also been reported that Somali shores and coastal waters have been used asdumping grounds for hazardous wastes (UNEP 2005). To address these problems, IGAD is

planning to establish an environmental pollution control mechanism at national and sub-regional level.

Over-fishing and fishing-related damageOver-fishing and destructive fishing in poorly managed fisheries are among the main threatsand will continue unless regulations are strengthened and enforcement improved. The lack ofa management regime means that along the Somali coast, fishers from Somalia, Djibouti andother countries can operate without any constraints, fisheries management, or enforcement(Kotb et.al2004). Indeed uncontrolled fishing for shark, lobsters and more recently seacucumbers is a growing concern along the entire Somali coast. In certain areas of Djibouti,coral reefs and their component species are considered to be particularly threatened becauseof unsustainable collection of coral and shells, spear fishing, dredging, anchor damage fromfishing and tourist boats, explosions in the course of military activity, turbidity,

sedimentation, urban and shipping effluents such as wastewater, oils and industrial by-products (Djibril 1998).

There is also an influx of illegal fishing vessels seeking to meet the demands of an ever-growing international fish market. Industrial fishing within Somalis EEZ by local andforeign vessels in joint venture operations with Somali business people and faction leaders isleading to Somalias rich marine resources being over-fished (UNDP 2001). In 2000, Somaliaexported US $2.5 million worth of fish and fish products, a 464 per cent increased from 20years earlier (WRI 2003). It is expected that with the advent of peace, procedures for thesustainable management of coastal and marine resources will be developed.

Inadequate investment in coastal zones


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National processes for development and management of the coastal areas are inadequate. Thelack of sufficiently trained personnel, inadequate legal and institutional framework, andinadequacy of equipment and logistical support for the development and implementation ofeither Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) or an adequate marine protected areassystem needs to be addressed. Low levels of awareness of the issues, poor enforcement of the

legal framework, weak institutions and a lack of effective governance are some of the reasonscontributing to the severity of the above threats. For example, Somalia has limited ability toimplement legislation and meet national and international obligations due to a severe lack ofeffective institutions, funding and trained staff (Kotb et.al. 2004). This lack of institutions hasalso led to the threat of pollution from toxic waste dumping (UNEP 2005) and inadequate

preparation to address natural disasters including tsunamis.

Strategies for enhancing the coastal and marine resources

NEPAD priorities for coastal and marine environments include the support andimplementation of the Abidjan and Nairobi Conventions and the African Process for themanagement of Africas coastal and marine resources. These seek to: control pollution and

coastal erosion; promote sustainable use of living resources; promote sustainablemanagement of key habitats and ecosystems; promote sustainable economic development.

The Regional Seas Programmes of UNEP is promoting a regional approach to the control ofmarine pollution and for the management of marine and coastal resources through enhancingnational capacities. There are also a number of international and regional agreementsgoverning the management of coastal and marine environments. Those that may be ofrelevance to the sub-region are listed in box 4.3.

The countries have a history of sectoral policies and legislation such as land, fisheries,shipping, water resources, and others that all have implications for the management of coastaland marine resources. More recently, policy and legislation fostering environmental impactassessments and ICZM have attempted to bridge the gaps between the sectoral groups. Forexample the National Environment Management Coordination Act of Kenya promotes amulti-sectoral approach to coastal environment issues. The Eritrean National EnvironmentalManagement Plan and Framework Marine Conservation Strategy are also promotingconservation and sustainable use of the globally important biodiversity of Eritreas coastal,

marine and island ecosystems. Somalia lacks an efficient regulatory mechanism for themanagement of marine resources, an issue that requires urgent attention. The Red Sea andGulf of Aden Strategic Action Programme, supported by GEF has helped develop a series of

model integrated coastal zone management experiences for use at different scales includinga national coastal-scale version for Djibouti and Sudan.

Recent awareness of the ecological importance of some of the resources in the sub-region hasresulted in areas being protected based on environmental qualities such as Sanganeb atollmarine park which was established in Sudan in 1990. However, management levels are stilllow (Pilcher and Alsuhaibany 2000). Although, there are no declared marine protected areasin Eritrea, four areas have been proposed near Massawa and Asseb. (Pilcher and Alsuhaibany2000). Djibouti is developing several marine protected areas including Moucha, Maskali andSept Frres/Ras Siyyan and Godoria (Kotb et.al. 2004).

As indicated earlier, the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden form an important transport route betweenEurope and the Far East, particularly for the haulage of oil and commodities. Although


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approximately 11 per cent of the worlds seaborne oil is transported through the region, there

have been no major spills (>5,000 tonnes) resulting from shipping accidents (ITOPF 2003).However, in response to this threat, Somalia, Djibouti and Yemen have established a sub-regional centre to combat oil pollution in the Gulf of Aden. The oil spill response facilitiesare stored at Djibouti. With increasing levels of dredging, construction and industrial waste

associated with coastal development, as well as the existence of potentially hazardous areasfor navigation and other natural disasters, early warning and disaster preparedness needs to beaddressed more critically.

Conclusions

The coastal and marine environment of the IGAD sub-region contains a variety of habitatsmade up of unique ecosystems that support a rich biodiversity and valuable assortment ofnatural resources. This array of resources has supported an expansion of social and economicopportunities through enterprises such as fishing, agriculture, aquaculture, tourism, and

industry expansion. Owing to the abundant natural resources with which they are endowed,the coastal zone holds the key to the social and economic well-being of the coastal people andcountries. However, this holds true only if resources are exploited in a rational and prudentmanner that ensures economic gains while preserving the integrity of the environment.

The recent tsunami event underscored the interlinkages between individual resources withinan ecosystem. The natural vegetation and other coastal resources were instrumental inabsorbing much of the force of the waves. This highlights the relationships between theindividual resources and provides further justification for employing holistic approaches tomanaging the environment. ICZM methodologies are increasingly being adopted in the sub-region. Elements for consideration should include: coastal zone management activities;

investments that support national economic policy and regional integration; institutionalarrangements for sustainable programs, including revenue-generating mechanisms for

Box 4.3: International Agreements relevant for coastal and marine management

The Protocol for Regional Cooperation for Combating Pollution by Oil and other HarmfulSubstances in Cases of Emergency (1982);

The Convention for the Prevention of Pollution of the Sea by Oil (MARPOL); The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES); The African Agreement for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (Algiers 1988); The Bamako Convention on the Ban of the Import into Africa and the Control of Transboundary

Movement and Management of Hazardous Wastes within Africa (1993);

The Protocol Concerning Regional Cooperation in Combating Pollution by Oil and other HarmfulSubstances in Cases of Emergency (1984);

The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (1985); The Convention of the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping Wastes and other Matter

(London Convention) and its four annexes;

The Regional Convention for the Conservation of the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden Environment(Jeddah Convention);

The Convention for the Protection, Management and Development of the Marine and CoastalEnvironment of the Eastern African Region (1988);

The Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (1986); The Protocol Concerning Co-operation in Combating Marine Pollution in Cases of Emergency in the

Eastern African Region (1988);

The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD).


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services such as coastal erosion prevention and marine protected areas; incentives forfisheries conservation; and reinforcing interlinkages with other sectors. If communities andeconomies are to derive maximum benefit from these coastal and marine environments,sustained financing, effective institutions, human resources support and monitoring throughimproved scientific understanding of these ecosystems is required.

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Documents

Chapter 4 - Coastal