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3 CHAPTER 3:REVIEW OF LITERATURE

3.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter presents a review of relevant literature. It starts with providing an

overview of genesis and development of the concept of Emotional Intelligence (EI).

This is followed by the relationship between EI and effective leadership. It also

covers the salient features of Military Leadership. Review of literature brings out a

significant relationship of Emotional Intelligence with elements of Military

Leadership. Finally the Officer Like Qualities which forms the basis of selection for

military officers in India has been compared with the EI competency framework.

3.2 EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE

EI has its roots in the concept of "social intelligence," first identified by E.L.

Thorndike in 1920. Thorndike defined social intelligence as "the ability to understand

and manage men and women, boys and girls - to act wisely in human relations".

Howard Gardner, a psychologist at the Harvard School of Education who carried out

intensive research includes inter- and intrapersonal intelligences as ‘personal and

social intelligences’ in his theory of multiple intelligences (Gardener 1983).

The credit for first usage of the term ‘Emotional Intelligence’ goes to Wayne Leone

Payne. He used it in his doctoral thesis. ‘A study of emotion: developing emotional

intelligence; self-integration; relating to fear, pain and desire’ in 1985 (Payne 1985).

He presented evidence that the mass suppression of emotion throughout the

civilized world has stifled our growth emotionally, leading us down a path of

emotional ignorance. He brought out that many social problems are the direct result

of emotional ignorance, for example depression, addiction, illness, suicide etc..He

tried to develop a rigorous theoretical and philosophical framework about the

nature of emotion and the important function it serves in our lives.

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Reuven Bar-On (1988) developed perhaps the first instrument to assess EI in terms

of a measure of well being. In his doctoral dissertation he used the term ‘Emotional

Quotient’ (EQ). Later on he developed the ‘Emotional Quotient Inventory’ (EQ-I),

(Bar-On 1997). Nowadays EQ and EI are treated at par and practically mean the

same.

In 1990 Peter Salovey (Yale) and John Mayer (University of New Hampshire),

published the seminal article ‘Emotional Intelligence’(Salovey 1990). It is considered

the most influential statement of EI theory in its current form. They were trying to

develop a way of scientifically measuring the difference between people's ability in

the area of emotions. They found that some people were better than others at

things like identifying their own feelings, identifying the feelings of others, and

solving problems involving emotional issues. They developed tests which attempt to

measure our emotional intelligence.

However, the person most commonly associated with the term “Emotional

Intelligence” is actually a New York writer named Daniel Goleman. His book

‘Emotional Intelligence’ published in 1995, became an international best seller.

According to Goleman (1995), academic intelligence has little to do with emotional

life. The brightest among us can founder on the shoals of unbridled passions and

unruly impulses; people with high IQs can be stunningly poor pilots of their private

lives. One of psychology’s open secrets is the relative inability of grades, IQ, or SAT

scores, despite their popular mystique, to predict unerringly who will succeed in life.

There are widespread exceptions to the rule that IQ predicts success-many more

exceptions than cases that fit the rule. At best, IQ contributes about 20 percent to

the factors that determine life success, which leaves 80 percent to other forces.

Goleman goes on to state that his concern is with the key set of “other

characteristics,” emotional intelligence: abilities such as being able to motivate

oneself and persist in the face of frustrations; to control impulse and delay

gratification; to regulate one’s moods and keep distress from swamping the ability to

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think; to empathize and to hope. Unlike IQ, with its nearly one hundred year history

of research, emotional intelligence is a new concept. No one can yet say exactly how

much of the variability from person to person in life’s course it accounts for. But

what data exists suggest it can be as powerful, and at times more powerful, than IQ.

While there are some who argue that IQ cannot be changed much by experience or

education, crucial emotional competencies can indeed be learned and improved

upon if one focuses on them. While childhood is a critical time to develop these

qualities, it can be nurtured and strengthened throughout adulthood. Developing

these qualities would benefit to our work, relationships and health.

3.2.1 Intelligence Quotient (IQ) vs Emotional Intelligence (EI)

Dalip Singh (2001) states that, for long, it had been believed that success at the

workplace depends on your level of intelligence or intelligence quotient(IQ) as

reflected in your academic achievements, exams passed, marks obtained etc. In

other words, your intellectual credentials: doing well in school, holding an

engineering degree, or obtaining high scores on an IQ test. All these are instances of

intelligence of the academic variety. But how bright are you outside the classroom,

faced with life’s difficult moments? Here, you need a different kind of

resourcefulness, termed as emotional intelligence (EI), which is a different way of

being smart. He goes on to say that you may have wondered how seemingly ordinary

people build their way to success. He gives examples of college drop-out Bill Gates

(of Microsoft fame), M.S.Oberoi who rose from the position of a clerk to build a vast

empire of luxury hotels all over the world. He questions, “Have you ever paused to

think how a low-scoring classmate of yours managed to move higher than you in the

corporate ladder? Or what is the reason that the smartest people are not always the

wealthiest, and why are some people instantly liked upon introduction, while others

are distrusted? He states that emotional intelligence is what gives a person a

competitive edge.

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3.2.2 Models of Emotional Intelligence

Models of emotional intelligence have been developed on three aspects that is,

ability, traits and combination of ability and traits called as mixed model of

emotional intelligence. Ability model of emotional intelligence described emotional

intelligence as the “ability to monitor one’s own and others’ feelings and emotions,

to discriminate among them, and to use the information to guide one’s thinking and

actions. Traits model of emotional intelligence viewed emotional intelligence and

included non-cognitive competencies such as self-esteem, self-actualization, general

mood, and general well-being. As would be expected, measures based on trait

approaches to emotional intelligence do not correlate highly with measures of

intelligence. However, they strongly correlate with personality measures, leading

researchers to refer to this approach as emotional intelligence -as-personality. Mixed

Model of emotional intelligence is a combination of ability model and traits model of

emotional intelligence. The mixed model denotes the idea that emotional

intelligence assesses aspects of personality and cognitive intelligence in addition to

the emotional intelligence.

In the recent past a number of different conceptualizations of EI have appeared

which have been creating an interesting mixture of confusion, controversy and

opportunity regarding the best approach to defining and measuring this construct.

There are currently three major conceptual models which have gained worldwide

acceptance:

– The Mayer-Salovey model which defines this construct as the ability to

perceive, understand, manage and use emotions to facilitate thinking,

measured by an ability-based measure. Here EI is conceived within a model

of intelligence and is cognitive in focus. This is an ability model.

– The Bar-On model which describes a cross-section of interrelated emotional

and social competencies, skills and facilitators that impact intelligent

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behavior, measured by self-report. Here EI is explained on the basis of

personality theory. This is a mixed model.

– The Goleman model (2001) which views this construct as a wide array of

competencies and skills that drive managerial performance, measured by

multi-rater assessment. It is based on the theory of performance. This is a

mixed model.

3.2.2.1. Mayer-Salovey Model

Mayer-Salovey (1997) defined emotional intelligence as the ability to perceive

accurately, appraise, and express emotion; the ability to access and/or generate

feelings when they facilitate thought; the ability to understand emotion and

emotional knowledge; and the ability to regulate emotions to promote emotional

and intellectual growth. Four sets of mental abilities are proposed in this model. The

first set “Perception, Appraisal and Expression of Emotion” allows an individual to

identify and express emotions in self and others.

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Fig 3.1 : Mayer Salovey Model

The second set “Emotional Facilitation of Thinking” allows an individual to use

emotions to facilitate thinking and to recognize respective consequences of different

emotional responses. The third set “Employing Emotional Knowledge” concerns with

the ability to understand, label and acknowledge the emotions and to use emotional

knowledge. The fourth set “Reflective regulation of emotion” deals with the ability

to manage and adjust the emotional response to support the situational

requirements.

3.2.2.2. Bar – On Model

Darwin’s early work on the importance of emotional expression for survival and

adaptation has influenced the ongoing development of the Bar-On model, which

both stresses the importance of emotional expression and views the outcome of

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emotionally and socially intelligent behavior in Darwinian terms of effective

adaptation. Bar-On’s model of emotional intelligence (Bar-on 1997) is fundamentally

based on the personality characteristics. Five broad areas of emotional intelligence

are proposed in this model:

Fig 3.2: Bar-On Model

Intrapersonal Skills refers to self-awareness and self expression. Interpersonal Skills

refers to Social awareness and interpersonal relationship. Adaptability EQ refers to

change management. Stress Management refers to emotional management and

regulation. General Mood is the ability to be optimistic and positive as well as to

enjoy life. This contributes to emotional energy and self motivation.

3.2.2.3. Daniel Goleman Model

Goleman (2001) has examined EI through the exploration of “Emotional

Competence”. Emotional Competence describes the personal and social skills that

lead to superior performance in the world of work. Hence it is also called the Theory

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of Performance. He defines EI as the ability to recognize and regulate emotions in

ourselves and in others.

He summarizes the characteristics of the emotional competecies in the following

manner:

(a) Independent. Each makes a unique contribution to job performance.

(b) Interdependent. Each draws to some extent on certain others,

with many strong interactions.

(c) Hierarchical. The emotional intelligence capacities build upon one

another. For example, self-awareness is crucial for self-regulation and

empathy; self-regulation and self-awareness contribute to motivation; all the

first four are at work in social skills.

(d) Necessary, but Not Sufficient. Having underlying

emotional intelligence ability does not guarantee people will develop or

display the associated competencies, such as collaboration or leadership.

Factors such as the climate of an organization or a person’s interest in his or

her job will also determine whether the competence manifests itself.

(e) Generic. The general list is to some extent applicable to all jobs.

However, different jobs make different competence demands.

3.2.2.3.1 Amplification of Emotional Competencies

Goleman’s EI framework consists of Emotion in Self and Others further divided into

Recognition and Regulation of emotions. This results in four domains of cognitive

abilities. Twenty EI Competencies nest within these four domains (clusters of

competencies)

I Self – awareness. This quality is knowing one’s internal states,

preferences, resources, and intuitions, which is the vital foundation skill for the

following three emotional competencies:

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(a) Emotional Awareness. The recognition of how our emotions

affect our performance, and the ability to use our values to guide decision

making.

(b) Accurate Self-assessment. The ability to know one’s inner

resources, abilities and limits.

(c) Self – confidence. A strong sense of one’s self-worth and

capabilities.

Fig 3.3: Goleman’s Framework of EI

Self-Awareness

Emotional Self-awareness

Accurate Self-assessment

Self Confidence

Social-Awareness

Empathy

Service Orientation

Organizational awareness

Self-Management

Emotional Self-control

Trustworthiness

Conscientiousness

Adaptability

Achievement drive

Initiative

Relationship Management

Developing others

Influence

Communication

Conflict management

Visionary Leadership

Catalyzing change

Building bonds

Teamwork & Collaboration

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II Self-Management It refers to the ability of managing one’s internal states,

impulses and resources. This is managing impulse as well as distressing feelings. This

depends on the working of the emotional centres in tandem with the brain’s

executive centres in the prefrontal areas. These two primary skills, i.e. handling

impulse and dealing with upsets are at the core of the following six emotional

competencies:

(a) Emotional Self-Control Keeping disruptive emotions and

impulses in check

(b) Trustworthiness Maintaining standards of honesty and integrity.

(c) Conscientiousness Taking responsibility for personal performance.

(d) Adaptability Flexibility in handling change.

(e) Achievement Drive Striving to improve or meet a standard of

excellence.

(f) Initiative Readiness to act on opportunities. Those with initiative

act before being forced to by external events. This often means taking

anticipatory action to avoid problems before they happen, or taking

advantage of opportunities before they are visible to anyone else.

III Social Awareness It refers to awareness of the environment and flow of

emotions. This consists of three competencies:

(a) Empathy Awareness of other’s feelings, needs, and concerns is

empathy. Sensing what others feel without their saying so captures the

essence of empathy.

(b) Service Orientation Anticipating, recognizing and meeting other’s

needs.

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(c) Organizational Awareness Reading a group’s emotional currents

and power relationships. This is the ability to read social and political

currents.:

IV Relationship Management It refers to adeptness at inducing desirable

responses from others. This consists of eight competencies:

(a) Developing others Sensing others developmental needs and

bolstering their abilities.

(b) Influence Wielding effective tactics for persuasion.

(c) Communication Listening openly and sending convincing

messages. Listening well, the key to empathy is also crucial to competence in

communication. Listening skills – asking astute questions, being open-minded

and understanding, not interrupting, seeking suggestions - account for about

a third of people’s evaluations of whether someone they work with is an

effective communicator.

(d) Conflict Management Negotiating and resolving

disagreements. One talent of those skilled at conflict resolution is spotting

trouble as it is brewing and taking steps, with diplomacy and tact, to calm

those involved.

(e) Visionary Leadership Inspiring and guiding individuals and

groups.

(f) Catalyzing Change Initiating and/or managing change.

(g) Building Bonds Nurturing instrumental relationships or as some

refer to as ‘networking’ is an important competence. The benefits of such

relationships are tremendous.

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(h) Teamwork and Collaboration Creating group synergy in

pursuing collective goals, which is team work or team spirit is of utmost

importance. In the military, this task is vested upon the officers who by virtue

of their rank become leaders at various levels.

It is opined that Goleman’s Emotional Competence Framework given above and the

amplifications given in the paras thereafter is comprehensive and appropriate to this

study. Goleman’s findings are based on his own extensive research and the workings

of renowned Emotional Intelligence theorists such as Thorndike, Mayer, Salovey and

Gardner. Hence, Goleman’s Emotional Competence Framework will be taken as the

working framework for this research.

3.3 EI AND LEADERSHIP

A review of the literature on the relationship between emotional intelligence and

leadership behavior discloses a number of empirical studies have been conducted on

this relationship. Goleman,(1998a, 1998b) argued that it is competence in emotional

intelligence that distinguishes top performers in leadership. It is the level of a

leader’s understanding of the powerful role emotions play in the workplace that

separates the best leaders from the rest. The higher one goes in an organization,

technical skills and cognitive ability become less important while emotional

intelligence becomes increasingly so. Leaders that demonstrate more emotional

intelligence than their peers outperform and advance quicker in their careers.

George (2000) deems not only are feelings an integral part of leadership, it is the

multiplicity of mood and emotion that influences leadership effectiveness. Leaders

are obviously human beings with the full range of emotions potentially available to

them. He further proposed that emotional intelligence may contribute to leaders’

foresight in their organization by using their emotions to boost their thought process

regarding internal challenges and opportunities. Leaders will be better equipped to

use positive emotions to facilitate improvements and influence followers so that

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they are receptive to change and supportive of the leader. In addition, leaders high

in emotional intelligence will have the ability to manage their emotions and

followers so that followers are secure and optimistic about where they are going and

their personal contribution to the organization. Individuals with strong emotional

intelligence skills assert higher levels of transformational leadership proficiency,

consequently leading to higher performance.

Higgs (2003) studied possible linkages between emotional intelligence and

leadership by developing a framework to uncover a potential relationship between

the concepts of both. Leadership has been seen as an amalgamation of personal

characteristics and areas of competence. Regression analysis showed a relationship

with elements of emotional intelligence and leadership, specifically; cognitive

abilities and knowledge were related positively to strategic leadership, intellectual

leadership, and political leadership. Leaders lead through a combination of logical

decision-making and feeling. Depending upon the situation, it may require more

emotional intelligence and less logical decision-making or vice versa. Barbuto and

Barbuto & Burbach (2006) tested the relationship between emotional intelligence

and transformational leadership, and found evidence consistent with previous

studies that demonstrated positive considerable relationships between the two.

Based on a review of the literature, it has been argued that emotional intelligence is

necessary for measuring, selecting, and developing managers. It is assumed that the

rudiments of emotional intelligence are among the important attributes required for

effective leaders. It also is assumed that emotional intelligence is related to actual

leadership performance. Vrba (2007) rated 60 front line managers at a South African

insurance company, examining the relationship between emotional intelligence skills

and leadership behavior. Correlation analysis revealed a significant relationship

between emotional intelligence skills and all the outcomes of leadership.

Moods and emotions (feelings) are a fundamental factor in the leadership process.

The ability to recognize and deal with these feelings in oneself and others plays a

major part in successful leadership within an organization. Besides predicting an

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individual’s success in organization, EI impacts the overall performance of the

organization. Emotionally intelligent leadership is the key to creating a working

climate that nurtures employees and encourages them to give their best.

3.4 MILITARY LEADERSHIP

The principles of leadership are universal to all organisations. However, subtle

difference and changes do occur while leading military minds. This primarily is

related to the ability, attributes and attitudes of the military mind. Leadership is the

most important factor in the sustenance and progress of an organisation. It is not

only that military officers are required to lead men in battle, but also are required to

put tremendous effort in preparing men for battle. Over the years many definitions

have evolved towards military leadership. Field Marshal Montgomery said,

“Leadership is the capacity and will to rally men and women to a common purpose

and the character which inspires confidence.” The basic ingredients brought out here

is further clarified by the definition given by Field Marshal Slim, “Leadership is the

projection of personality. It is the combination of persuasion, compulsion and

example that makes other people do what you want them to do”. General

Eisenhower observed, “Leadership is the knack of getting somebody to do something

you want done because he wants to do”. It is clear in these definitions that

overriding importance is given to behaviour of the leader.

Based on these a comprehensive explanation of military Leadership can be taken as,

it is the art of influencing and directing men in such a way as to obtain their willing

obedience, confidence, respect, loyal cooperation in order to accomplish the desired

results.

Gen KV Krishna Rao(2000) has provided a good understanding of the tenets of Indian

Military Leadership. Based on his study and experience, he worked out a definition

which adequately embraces all aspects of military leadership. He posits that

leadership is the ability to direct and inspire people to give off their best willingly, to

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achieve a goal irrespective of the hazards, efforts and sacrifices involved. This can be

treated as the most significant Indian definition of military leadership.

3.5 APPLICATION OF EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE CONCEPT ON

MILITARY LEADERSHIP

Within a military context, strong leadership is essential from the top levels of the

hierarchy down through to lower level personnel. Effective leadership, in particular

transformational and charismatic leadership, is inherently an emotional process.

Leadership behaviors are sources of affective events for followers; leaders can cause

hassles, negative incidents, or uplifts, positive incidents for followers. The

effectiveness of these leadership styles stems from the ability of the leader to use his

or her emotional intelligence skills to manage the emotions of his or her followers.

By managing follower emotions, leaders are able to arouse positive or negative

emotions in followers, and they can also arouse a sense of calm where required. This

ability to manage follower emotions can thus mean the difference between success

and failure or between life and death.

3.5.1 US Military

It seems that the US military started its studies and application of EI quite early.

According to Cherniss(1999), in 1998 the USAF deicided to test the EI level of its

recruiters. The USAF realized that “by using emotional intelligence to select the

recruiters, they increased their ability to predict successful recruiters by three fold”,

and through the recognition that EI is important to the potential of new recruiters,

the Air Force was able to realize a cost saving of three million dollars annually. This

was so significant that the General Accounting Office (GAO), sent a report to

Congress requesting the Secretary of Defence to order all branches of the military to

adopt the procedure of testing for EI in an effort to improve military recruiting.

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Trabun (2002) carried out a study comparing the measured emotional intelligence

ability to the evaluated leadership performance of 104 select male and female U.S.

Naval Academy midshipmen. He found some significant relationships between the

EIQ scores and leadership performance. He recommended that United States Naval

Academy (USNA) should give further consideration to the role that emotional

intelligence plays in leadership, and that its predictive value in assessing, developing,

and evaluating naval leaders be further explored. Discussions of an emotional

intelligence construct are currently part of the USNA leadership curriculum. These

discussions introduce the student to a concept of EI as it may be important to a

leader in dealing with superiors, peers, or subordinates, but is based almost

exclusively on the trait-based models portrayed in popular literature. It was

recommended that the curriculum be developed to include a discussion of emotional

intelligence as both a trait and ability-based construct, and that students be

presented with information and exercises that may allow them to develop and

exercise these abilities.

Lieutenant Colonel Mark Michael McLeod (2004), carried out a Strategy Research

Project, at U.S. Army War College,titled, ‘Developing Intuitive Officers to

Revolutionize Transformation in the 21st Century Military’. He brought out that the

officer socialization process fails to develop sufficient numbers of strategic leaders

with the intuition and Emotional Intelligence (EI) necessary to head a changing 21st

Century force, jeopardizing future transformation. He proposed building a process to

grow intuitive leaders, those with the ability to synthesize elements of past

experience and apply them in novel situations, in an environment where social

controls foster shared values. It is in such a culture where EI leaders, those who can

manage their feelings and balance motives with ethical behavior, have the chance to

institutionalize transformation. The officer development system, including day-to-

day socialization, performance feedback, and promotion processes, largely ignores

strategic leadership skills like intuition and EI. As a result, effectiveness and efficiency

remain the primary success determinants for promotion. In order to achieve

revolutionary transformation in personnel, intuition and EI skills should be directly

incorporated into current socialization, training, and evaluation programs. The

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eventual goal is to change the military’s culture by creating a new on-the-job leader

development system which cultivates, develops, and promotes officers’ intuitive and

EI skills.

Major David S Abraham (2007)of the US Army says, “Applying emotional intelligence

theory to Army leader development and training is an idea whose time has come.

The costs of selecting and promoting leaders with poor emotional intelligence skills

are lost unit effectiveness and junior leader disenchantment.”

Lieutenant Colonel Gerald F Sewell (2009) compared the US Army leadership

requirements with the Goleman’s Emotional competencies model. The twelve Army

leader attributes align within Goleman’s domains with crossover into both personal

and social competence areas. Seven of the twelve attributes fit nicely into the

personal competence area as they deal specifically with the personal characteristics

of the individual leader and what a leader must be. The eight leader competencies fit

into both sides of the chart and each of the eight falls under the relationship

management domain as they involve establishing relationships and dealing with

others. The comparison demonstrates that the emotional aspects of leader

attributes and competencies correlate with the emotional intelligence competencies

of the Goleman model. Emotional intelligence is about understanding your own

emotions and those of others in order to be a more successful person. The leader

attributes and competencies assist leaders in becoming better leaders by

understanding themselves and others as well as their relationships to others as they

lead people and organizations. Sewell concluded that the US Army’s leader

development programs will do a great service to its leaders by placing increased

emphasis on the emotional intelligent aspects of leadership.

Mula (2013) brought out that an Army Research Institute study indicated that junior

leaders were leaving the U.S. Army at a high rate due to poor leadership, and senior

leaders had no method of identifying negative leaders. A correlational and

descriptive study was carried out to examine the relationship between emotional

intelligence and transformational leadership in U.S. Army National Guard leaders.

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Two theoretical bases framed this study: emotional intelligence and

transformational leadership. The U.S. Army National Guard leaders in the sample

were separated by age, gender, time in service, and pay grade. An online survey was

used to collect data using two validated instruments, one measuring emotional

intelligence and one measuring transformational leadership. The organization

chosen as the population for this study was a brigade-size element, selected for its

varied composition of units representing the combat and combat service support

functions of the U.S. Army. According to the study results, there was a strong

positive relationship between emotional intelligence and transformational

leadership. Identifying leadership styles that motivate subordinates without

unnecessarily inducing stress has benefitted the U.S. Army through the increasing

retention of junior leaders, improving operational readiness, and mitigating the

effect of toxic leaders.

3.5.2 Canadian Forces

The Canadian Forces Leadership Institute published a paper “Emotional Intelligence

and Military Leadership” in March 2002. The purpose of this paper was to present a

review of emotional intelligence models and measures, and to make a conceptual

link between components that fall under the concept of emotional intelligence and

effective leadership behaviours. Leaders who possess the ability to manage /

regulate their emotions may be more apt to engage in self-sacrifice. A leader who

displays self-discipline and self-control may be more likely to delay gratification and

be more committed to his / her morals and values. Emotionally intelligent individuals

tend to manage emotions in oneself and others by regulating the expression of

negative emotions and enhancing the expression of positive emotions Leaders who

can manage emotions in others may be successful at instilling motivation and

enthusiasm in followers

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3.5.3 Australian Defence Forces

Australian Defence Doctrine Publication (2007) recognizes Emotional Intelligence as

an essential ingradient of leadership. The doctrine has defined leadership as the

process of influencing others in order to gain their willing consent in the ethical

pursuit of missions. The influence referred to in the leadership process is an

emotional influence most closely related to referent power. Followers commit to do

what leaders require of them not necessarily because of formal authority but

because of trust and belief. Two people can have identical formal authority and

power and yet one is able to achieve so much more than the other. A leader’s

behaviour will be closely observed by his or her followers. Countless organisational

studies have indicated that a worker’s immediate supervisor has more influence on

that worker than any other person in that organisation’s hierarchy. Appropriate

leader behaviour will engender trust and credibility in the eyes of followers. This

perspective recognises that the foundation of leadership is based on individual

character and competence. Character, built on an individual’s values and attitudes,

includes such things as social capacity, interpersonal skills, personal integrity,

conscientiousness, self-assurance and trust-worthiness. Many of these ‘social

awareness’ character traits are combined in what is now being called Emotional

Intelligence.

3.5.4 Turkish Land Forces

A study was carried out in the Turkish Land Forces to determine whether the

difference between high-level strategic decision-making staff, that are major,

lieutenant colonel and colonel and lower-level manager in the Turkish Land Forces

according to age and educational background, factors in terms of levels of emotional

intelligence.(Onay,Dincer & Gursoy 2011) Emotional intelligence levels were

measured on 213 ranked officers. The survey indicated that, when the military rank

increases, the level of total EI also raises. Thus, a positive relationship between high-

level strategic decision making military personnel and total EI was strengthened.

Similarly, military origin is observed to have an impact on the level of emotional

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intelligence as well. Military academy graduates had lower levels of total emotional

intelligence compared to officers with other origins.

3.5.5 Indian Armed Forces

Colonel Rajeshwar Singh (2004) of Indian Army, has written about application of

emotional intelligence in army units and formations operating in counter insurgency

operations. He posited that the performance of a soldier who is engaged all 24 hours

fighting militancy for months together needs serious thought. The conventional

theories need to be supplemented with latest concepts. There are no magic

remedies to combat ‘stress’ but emotional intelligence is promising to be a new

propelling force to enhance performance by not only lowering down the stress levels

but drive them on the path of achievement.

Group Captain RM Tiwari (2005) conducted a study on emotional Intelligence and its

relevance to senior military leadership. He brought out that military profession

requires higher level of EI than other professions. He posited that EI is more relevant

to Senior Military Leadership as compared to the Junior Military Leaders, and there is

a need to impart formal training on EI to military officers at various stages in their

career as they grow in service.

Group Captain Avatar Singh (2005) posited that Emotional intelligence has a great

deal of applicability to the people in the defence services. By the nature of their job

the defence forces personnel are exposed to intense emotions. They must have

knowledge of regulating their emotions so that the emotions are unable to hijack

their rational thinking. They also must get opportunities to vent out their feelings so

that they do not get under an emotional stress. The knowledge of emotional

interaction within the brain can certainly help military men to retain their sense of

rationality even under situations of intense pressure. This can easily be achieved

through formal training on raising the emotional intelligence. The military leaders

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would not only gain personally by raising their EI but will also have a profound

influence on their subordinates. This would have a great impact on the group

performance, thereby making the defence organisations more effective.

Jagannathan (2006) discussed the relevance of EQ in the selection system for the

officers of all three arms of Indian Armed Forces. He brought out that emotional

intelligence is essential for a person to have the officer like qualities. But the

assessment method followed at services selection board does not have any direct

assessment for the emotional intelligence level of the candidates.

Col Kulbir Singh (2008) brought out the role of emotional Intelligence in the

relationship between superior and subordinates in the armed forces. He posits

Emotional intelligence is one of the most crucial factors in synergic superior -

subordinate relationship in any organization aiming to fight high attrition rates and

low job satisfaction for enhanced performance and improved work-life balance.

Leveraging of EI in interpersonal relationships of its workforce at all hierarchical

levels is the new mantra to become a successful organization whether in corporate

world or in defence forces.

Major General MCMP Samarasinghe (2009) of Sri Lankan Army, carried out a

comparison of Goleman’s emotional competence framework with the Emerging

competencies of next generation military leaders, while at National Defence College

New Delhi. He found convergence of sixty five percent. He thereby proved that

emotional intelligence is critical competency for military leadership.

Colonel Rajendra Sachdev (2009) carried out to carry out a study on EI with a view to

assess its usefulness in enhancing the effectiveness of human resource management

and decision making of Senior Leadership of the Armed Forces. He brought out that

EI as a tool for human resource management and decision making is a necessity for

senior leadership of the Armed Forces.

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Comdant IS Chouhan, (2010) studied the role of emotional intelligence in effective

decision making in Indian Coast Guard. He reported that the emotional self

awareness, emotional self expression, emotional resilience, emotional interpersonal

connectivity and emotional constructive discontent of more than 50% coast guard

officers are vulnerable and cautionary. This implies that more than 50% officers are

vulnerable to emotions and need to understand the role of emotions, not only in

their professional jobs but also in their personal lives. This also implies that a large

number of officers need to be educated about these concepts so that they can

enhance their decision making abilities. Overwhelmingly officers agreed that

emotional intelligence can enhance effective decision making in the coast guard and

there is a need to impart training in emotional intelligence.

Colonel Vikram Singh (2013) suggested that the Indian Army must get some of the

recent suicide cases and accidents evaluated from professionals, who can give an

insight into the EI aspect of the individuals concerned. It can give some valuable

inputs to army with regard to the selection process and also management of EI in the

armed forces. It can help in bringing down the suicide cases to a very large extent.

Group Captain Pradeep Kumar Nair (2014) attempted to study the relationship

between emotional intelligence and officers like qualities of cadets at Air Force

academy. He could not establish any significant positive correlation. He also brought

out that the officer like qualities being assessed at this stage are not the same as

during the selection procedure. He could not establish the reasons for lack of

correlation since the details of the attributes of officer like qualities being assessed

was not available to him.

During the literature survey the research scholar could not find any literature which

attempted to evaluate the level of Emotional Intelligence amongst the Indian

Military Officers.

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3.6 COMPARISON OF OFFICER LIKE QUALITIES WITH EMOTIONAL

INTELLIGENCE COMPETENCIES

A comparison has been carried out between the Officer Like Qualities (OLQs) which

form the basis of selection of the officers of Indian Armed Forces (discussed in

Chapter 2, Para 2.4.2, Table 2.1), with the Emotional Intelligence Competencies given

by Goleman’s Framework of EI Competencies (refer Para 3.2.2.3, Fig 3.3). The OLQs

consist of four primary factors namely Planning & Organization, Social Adjustment,

Social Effectiveness and Dynamic. These factors consist of a total of fifteen qualities,

which were identified as results of study of inter co-relations between qualities,

statistical procedures and opinion surveys. Goleman’s Framework of EI

Competencies consists of four dimensions which are identified based on the cluster

made by the twenty competencies. Factor II, Social Adjustment and Factor III Social

Effectiveness appear to have semblance with Social Awareness and Relationship

Management dimensions of EI framework. Comparing the specific OLQs with

competencies, it is seen that ten out of fifteen OLQs have a corresponding EI

competency. It can be said that two third or 66% of the OLQs are matching with EI

competency framework. Refer Table 3.1.

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Table 3.1: Comparison of Officer Like qualities with EI Competencies

Officer Like Qualities Corresponding EI Competency

FACTOR I

Planning & Organizing

Effective Intelligence

Reasoning Ability

Organizing Ability Team work & collaboration

Power of Expression Communication

FACTOR II

Social Adjustment

Social Awareness

Social Adaptability Adaptability

Cooperation Conflict management

Sense of Responsibility Conscientiousness

FACTOR III

Social Effectiveness

Relationship Management

Initiative Initiative

Self-Confidence Self-confidence

Decision Making

Ability to Influence Group Influence

Liveliness Catalyzing change

FACTOR IV

Dynamic

Determination Achievement drive

Stamina

Courage

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In view of the above, it can be said that EI competencies do play a significant role in

selection of Indian Military Officers, though no direct assessment of EI by experts is

carried out during the selection process.

3.7 CONCLUSION

Three main models of emotional intelligence have been widely accepted. The first

model by Peter Salovey and John Mayer perceives EI as a form of pure intelligence,

that is, emotional intelligence is a cognitive ability. A second model by Reuven Bar-

On regards EI as a mixed intelligence, consisting of cognitive ability and personality

aspects. This model emphasizes how cognitive and personality factors influence

general well-being. The third model, introduced by Daniel Goleman, also perceives EI

as a mixed intelligence involving cognitive ability and personality aspects. However,

unlike the model proposed by Reuven Bar-On, Goleman's model focuses on how

cognitive and personality factors determine workplace success. This is also referred

to as the Competency model.

Emotional Intelligence at the individual and group or organizational levels converges

in the exercise of leadership. The emotional intelligence of a group’s leader will have

a powerful impact on the group’s climate and effectiveness. Of course, groups also

have a powerful impact on their leaders, but the emotionally intelligent leader is

aware of those influences, recognizes when they become pernicious, and has the

capability to manage them in a way that minimizes harm. Emotionally intelligent

leaders understand group, intergroup, and organizational dynamics, particularly as

they affect emotional functioning, and they are skillful in working with those

dynamics for the benefit of individuals and their organizations.

Within the armed forces, leadership is considered a core competency. However,

applying emotional intelligence in a military context presents some significant

challenges given prevailing notions that military leadership induces more task-

related behavior than relationship-focused behavior. Because of the unique context

137

of the military environment and the challenging nature of many associated tasks,

there is perhaps greater applicability for EI skills in the daily functions of leaders.

Leaders who can establish mutual trust, respect, and a certain warmth and rapport

with members of their group will be more effective. Mutual trust and respect are the

foundation of military effectiveness, and are crucial to good order and discipline, as

well as the ability to function cohesively in situations that harbor the potential for

loss of life. Consideration, warmth, and rapport is found in the military context in the

form of justice, fairness, and the compassion exercised by military leaders at all

levels in the process of managing the welfare of subordinates. Many studies have

been conducted proving a strong the relationship of EI with military leadership.

In Indian Armed Forces no study has been carried out to directly evaluate the level of

EI of its personnel. However there is a significant relationship between the Officer

Like Qualities used for selection of officers for the Indian military and Goleman’s EI

competencies. Sixty seven percent of the OLQs match with EI competencies.

138

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