Chapter 3 The Social Self. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.3 | 2 The Role of the “Self” Capacity for self-reflection is necessary

Chapter 3The Social Self

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 3 | 2

The Role of the “Self”

• Capacity for self-reflection is necessary for self-understanding

– Private, “inner” self

• Self is heavily influenced by social factors.– Public, “outer” self


The ABCs of the Self

• Affect: How do we evaluate ourselves, enhance our self-images, and defend against threats to our self-esteem?

• Behavior: How do we regulate our actions and present ourselves according to interpersonal demands?

• Cognition: How do we come to know ourselves, develop a self-concept, and maintain a stable sense of identity?


Humans are the only animals who recognize themselves in the mirror.

Answer: False… Let’s see why!

Putting Common Sense to the Test…


The Self-Concept

• Self is an important object of our attention.– Cocktail party effect.

• Self-Concept: The sum total of beliefs that people have about themselves.

• Self-concept is made up of self-schemas.– Self-Schema: Beliefs about oneself that guide

processing of self-relevant information.


Rudiments of the Self-Concept

• Except for human beings, only the great apes seem capable of self-recognition.

• Self-recognition is an important first step in the development of a self-concept.

• Social factors influence development of a self-concept.

– “Looking-glass self”– Self as relational


Where Does Our Self Concept Come From?


Source #1: Introspection

• Self-knowledge through looking inward at one’s own thoughts and feelings.

• But does introspection always lead to accurate self-knowledge?

– Wilson (2002): Introspection can sometimes impair self-knowledge!


Other Problems With Introspection

• We have difficulty in predicting responses to future emotional events.

– Affective Forecasting

• We tend to overestimate the strength and duration of our emotional reactions.

– “Durability bias”


Why a Durability Bias?

• For negative events, we do not fully appreciate our psychological coping mechanisms.

• We focus only on the emotional impact of a single event, overlooking the effects of other life experiences.


Smiling can make you happier.

Answer: True… Let’s see why!



Source #2: Perceptionsof Our Own Behavior

• Daryl Bem (1972): People can learn about themselves simply by watching their own behavior.

• Self-Perception Theory: When internal cues are difficult to interpret, people gain insight by observing their own behavior.

– But only in the absence of compelling situational pressures.


Self-Perceptions of Emotion

• Facial Feedback Hypothesis: Changes in facial expression can lead to changes in the subjective experience of emotions.

• Laird (1974): Facial expressions affect emotion through process of self-perception.

– Alternative explanation: Facial movements evoke physiological changes that produce an emotional experience.


Self-Perceptions of Motivation

• Intrinsic versus Extrinsic Motivation.– Intrinsic Motivation: Originates in factors within a

person– Extrinsic Motivation: Originates in factors outside the

person

• What happens to intrinsic motivation once a reward is no longer available?

– Overjustification effect


Figure 3.1: Paradoxical Effectsof Reward on Intrinsic Motivation

From M.R. Lepper, D. Greene, and K.E. Nisbett, "Undermining Children's Intrinisic Interest with Extrinsic Reward: A Test of the 'Overjustification' Hypothesis," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 28, 1973, pp. 129-137. Reprinted with permission.


Understanding the Paradox

• Should rewards NOT be offered?• What is important is how the reward is perceived

and by whom.• People differ in their motivational orientations

toward work.


Source #3: Influences of Other People

• People tend to describe themselves in waysthat set them apart from others in their immediate vicinity.

• The self is “relative.”– We define ourselves in part by using others as a

benchmark.


Social Comparison Theory

• Festinger (1954): When uncertain about our abilities or opinions, we evaluate self through comparisons with similar others.

• Key Questions:– When do we turn to others for comparative

information?– With whom do we choose to compare ourselves?


Two-Factor Theory of Emotion

• Can others help determine our emotions? – Schachter: Misery loves only miserable company.

• Two factors necessary to feel a specific emotion:– We must experience physiological arousal.– We must make a cognitive interpretation that

explains the source of the arousal.


Two-Factor Theory (cont.)

• For others to influence our emotions:– Our level of physiological arousal cannot be

too intense.– Other people must be present as a possible

explanation for arousal before its onset.


Source #4: Autobiographical Memories

• Essential for a coherent self-concept.• Typically report more events from the recent

than the distant past.• Exceptions to this recency rule:

– Reminiscence peak– Tendency to remember transitional “firsts”


Source #4: Autobiographical Memories (cont.)

• Flashbulb memories serve as prominent landmarks in our autobiographies.

• Autobiographical memory is a vital part of, and can be shaped by, our identity.

– Often motivated to distort the past in ways that are self-inflated.


Figure 3.2: Distortions in Memory of High School Grades

PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE, V7 (1996), p. 266. Copyright by the American Psychological Society. Reprinted by permission from Balckwell Publishers.

From Bahrick et al., 1996, Psychological Science, 1996 Vol. 7, pp. 266-271.Copyright 1996 Blackwell Publishing. Reprinted with permission.


Source #5: Cultural Influences on the Self-Concept

• Self-concept is also influenced by cultural factors.

• Contrasting cultural orientations:– Individualism: One’s culture values the virtues of

independence, autonomy, and self-reliance.– Collectivism: One’s culture values the virtues of

interdependence, cooperation, and social harmony.


Figure 3.3: Cultural Conceptions of Self

From H.R. Markus and S. Kitayama (1991) "Culture and the Self: Implications for Cognition, Emotion, and Motivation," Psychological Review, 98, 224-253. Copyright (c) 1991 by the American Psychological Association. Adapted with permission.


Influence of Cultural Orientation on Self

• Individualistic cultures: People strive for personal achievement.

• Collectivistic cultures: People derive more satisfaction from the status of the valued group.


Figure 3.4: What's Your Preferences: Similarity or Uniqueness?

From H. Kim and H.R. Marcus, “Deviance or Uniqueness, Harmony or Conformity? A Cultural Analysis,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 77, 1999, pp. 785-800 Reprinted with permission


Which Colored Pen Would You Like?

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Percentage

Choosing

Unique Colored

Pen

American East Asian Heritage


Self-Esteem

The Affective Component of the Self


Why Do We Havea Need for Self-Esteem?

• Leary & Baumeister (2000): People are inherently social animals.

– Need for self-esteem is driven by primitive need to connect with others and gain their approval.

• Greenberg, Solomon, & Pyszczynksi (1997): Terror Management Theory


The Need for Self-Esteem

• Satisfying this need is critical to our entire outlook on life.

• Those with a positive self-image tend to be happy, healthy, productive, and successful.

• Those with a negative self-image tend to be more depressed, pessimistic about the future, and prone to failure.


Are There Genderand Race Differences?

• Like individuals, social and cultural groups differ in their self-esteem.

• Gender differences? – Among adolescents and young adults, males

outscore females on various general measures of self-esteem.

– But this difference is very small, particularly among older adults.


Figure 3.5: Self-Esteemin U.S. Minorities

From J. M. Twenge and J. Crocker, “Race and Self-Esteem: Meta-Analysis Comparing Whites, Blacks, Hispanics, Asians, and American Indians,” Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 128, 2002, pp. 371-408. Reprinted with permission


Self-Discrepancy Theory

• Self-esteem is defined by the match — or mismatch — between how we see ourselves and how we want to see ourselves.

• One’s self-esteem and emotional well-being can be predicted by examining the discrepancy between one’s “actual self” and one’s “self-guides.”


Self-Discrepancy Theory (cont.)

• Self-esteem depends on a number of factors:– Amount of discrepancy between actual self and self-

guide.– The importance of the discrepancy to the self.– The extent to which one focuses on one’s self-

discrepancies.

• What makes us more or less focused on our personal shortcomings?


Self-Awareness Theory

• We are not usually self-focused; however, certain situations may cause us to become objects of our own attention.

• When we become more self-aware, we naturally begin to compare behavior with some standard. This comparison often results in a negative discrepancy and a temporary reduction in self-esteem.


Figure 3.6: The Causes and Effects of Self-Awareness


Beaman et al.’s Halloween Study

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

Percentage

who violated

one piece of

candy request

No Mirror Mirror Present


Self-Focusing Persons

• Certain individuals are characteristically more self-focused than others.

• Private vs. public self-consciousness– Private self-consciousness: Tendency to introspect

about inner thoughts and feelings– Public self-consciousness: Tendency to focus on

outer public image


Table 3.1: How Self-Conscious Are You?

Copyright © 1975 by the American Psychological Association. Reproduced with permission. From A. Fenigstein, M.F. Scheier, and A.H. Buss, "Public and Private Self-Consciousness: Assessment and Theory," Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 43, 522-527, 1975. No further

reproduction or distribution is permitted without written permission from the American Psychological Association.


Draw a Capital E on Your Forehead

05

1015202530354045

Percentage

Oriented "E"

for Outside

Observer

High Low

Level of Public Self-Consciousness


Figure 3.7: Revolving Images of Self

Snyder et al., 1983


Sometimes the harder you try to control a thought, feeling, or behavior, the less likely you are to succeed.




Self-Regulation

• Self-regulation is the process by which we seek to control or alter our thoughts, feelings, behaviors, and urges.

• Is self-control a limited resource that can temporarily be depleted by usage?


Figure 3.8: Self-Control as a Limited Inner Resource

Muraven & Baumeister, 1998..


Let’s Try Something...

For the next 30 seconds, think about ANYTHING, but DO NOT think about a white bear.

30 seconds are up! How did you do?


Ironic Processes

• Wegner (1994): Sometimes the harder we try to inhibit a thought, feeling, or behavior, the less likely we are to succeed.

• Observed in a wide range of behaviors


Figure 3.9: Ironic Effectsof Mental Control

Keep Steady

Keep Steady; Distracted

Prevent horizontal movement

Prevent horizontal movement; distracted


People tend to be overly optimistic about their futures.




Mechanisms of Self-Enhancement

• How does the average person cope with his or her faults, inadequacies, and uncertain future?

• We often exhibit implicit egotism, a tendency to hold ourselves in high regard.

• What methods do we use to rationalize or otherwise enhance our self-esteem?


Method #1: Self-Serving Cognitions

• People tend to take credit for success and distance themselves from failure.

• Most people are unrealistically optimistic.– Bolster rosy outlook by linking personal attributes to

desirable outcomes


People often sabotage their own performance in order to protect their self-esteem.




Method #2: Self-Handicapping

• Why do we make excuses?– Way of protecting self from seeing failure as due to a

lack of ability.

• Self-Handicapping: Behaviors designed to sabotage one’s own performance in order to provide a subsequent excuse for failure.


Individual Differencesin Self-Handicapping

• Gender differences in how we self-handicap.• Some set their goals too high, which sets up

failure — but not due to a lack of ability.• Some engage in “sandbagging.”

– Downplaying own ability, lowering expectations, or openly predicting failure


Why Self-Handicap?

• An ingenious strategy– Insulates the self from failure and enhances the self

by success.

• Self-handicapping does have its costs.


Method #3: Basking in the Glory of Others

• To raise our self-esteem we often bask in reflected glory (“BIRG”) by associating with others who are successful.

• To protect our self-esteem, we will “cut off reflected failure” (“CORF”) by distancing ourselves from others who fail or are of low status.


Would You Like a Team Badge?

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Percentage

Taking Badge

Home

Success None Failure

Type of Feedback


Method #4: Downward Social Comparison

• When self-esteem is at stake, we tend to make comparisons with others who are worse off.

• Will make temporal comparisons between past and present selves.

• If experiencing a tragic life event, we tend to:– Affiliate with others in same predicament who are adjusting well

(possible role models).– Compare ourselves with others who are worse off.


Are Positive Illusions Adaptive?

• Those with the most realistic view of themselves are those who are depressed or low in self-esteem.

• Positive illusions are “health-protective” psychological resources that help people cope with adversity.

• But, positive illusions can lead to chronic patterns of self-defeating behaviors.


Figure 3.10: The Dark Sideof High Self-Esteem

Heatherton & Vohs, 2000.


Self Presentation

The Behavioral Expression of Self


Strategic Self-Presentation

• The process by which we try to shape what others think of us and what we think of ourselves.

• Two types of self-presentation, each serving a different motive:

– Strategic self-presentation.– Self-verification.


Strategic Self-Presentation

• Our efforts to shape others’ impressions in specific ways to gain influence, power, sympathy, or approval.

• Common strategic self-presentation goals:– Ingratiation: Desire to “get along” with others and be

liked– Self-Promotion: Desire to “get ahead” and gain

respect for one’s competence


Table 3.2: Strategic Self-Presentation in the Employment InterviewTable 3.2: Strategic Self-Presentation in the Employment Interview


Self-Verification

• Desire to have others perceive us as we truly perceive ourselves.

• Do we self-verify negative self-concepts?– Desire for self-verification will sometimes overwhelm

the need for self-enhancement.


It’s more adaptive to alter one’s behavior than to stay consistent from one social situation to the next.

Answer: False… Let’s see why!



Individual Differences in Self-Monitoring

• Tendency to regulate one’s own behavior to meet the demands of the situation.

• High Self-Monitors: Sensitive to strategic self-presentation concerns.

• Low Self-Monitors: More concerned with self-verification.

• Is it better to be a high or low self-monitor?


Epilogue: The Multifaceted Self

• Historically, the self has been viewed as an enduring aspect of personality.

– Stable over time and slow to change

• But at least part of the self is malleable.– Molded by life experiences– Varies from one situation to the next

• Self is complex and multifaceted, not simple.

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Chapter 3 The Social Self. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.3 | 2 The Role of the “Self” Capacity for self-reflection is necessary