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CHAPTER 3
STUDY AREA AND DATA COLLECTION
3.1 GENERAL
United Nations Development Programme Report (2006) captures
the global water crisis in the following way: Unlike wars and natural
disasters, the global crisis in water does not make media headlines. Nor does
it galvanize concerted international action. Like hunger, deprivation in access
to water is a silent crisis experienced by the poor and tolerated by those with
the resources, the technology and the political power to end it. Yet, this is a
crisis that is holding back human progress, consigning large segments of
humanity to lives of poverty, vulnerability and insecurity.
Accounting for 60% of the world‘s population, Asia currently
experiences the acute pressure of inadequate regional water resources supplies
because it only possesses 36% of global water resources (UN-Water Policy,
2005). By 2025, nearly two billion people will be living in countries or
regions with absolute water scarcity and two-thirds of the world population
could be under what the UN terms - stress conditions (UN Water Policy,
2006). Coming to terms with this water crisis will be one of the greatest two
challenges faced by every nation on the earth during early 21st century
(UNDP, 2006).
About 97% water present on the earth is in the oceans and this is
not useful for irrigation. Of the total quantity of water, only 2.6% is fresh
49
water, which is in the form of ice caps, icebergs and glaciers and only small
fraction of water is present in the ground, rivers and atmosphere that can be
harvested for irrigation of crops.
The average rainfall of India is 1194 mm. When considered over
geographical area of 328 million hectares, this rainfall amounts to 392 million
hectare meters (M ha m). Out of this rainfall, 75% is received during South-
West Monsoon period (June to September) and rest in remaining months as
shown in Figure 3.1. A major portion of water (215 M ha m) soaks into the
soil, while 70 (M ha m) is lost through evapo-transpiration process.
Figure 3.1 Flow chart showing the water resources of India
3.2 ANDHRA PRADESH STATE WATER RESOURCES
Andhra Pradesh is the fifth largest State in India accounting for 9
and 8 per cent of the Country’s area and population, respectively. The State
has agriculturally prosperous area in the coastal districts (9 districts),
economically and socially backward area in Telangana (10 districts), drought
prone area in Rayalaseema (4 districts) and a fairly extended tribal belt, along
the Northern and North-Eastern regions. Andhra Pradesh has three major river
50
basins (Krishna, Godavari and Pennar) and five other smaller ones draining
into the Bay of Bengal. The State has 972 km long coastal line, generally
even, along its eastern border, abutting the Bay of Bengal. Rice is the
principal food crop cultivated throughout the State providing food for its
growing population, fodder to the cattle and employment to the rural masses.
Any decline in its hectarage and production will have a perceivable impact on
the State’s economy and food security. In Andhra Pradesh, rice is mostly
cultivated under irrigated eco-system under canals (52%), tube wells
(19.31%), tanks (16.2%), wells (8.8%) and other sources (3.7%).
3.2.1 Rainfall and its distribution pattern
Rainfall of Andhra Pradesh is influenced by both South West and
North-East monsoons. The average rainfall of the State is 925 mm, varying
from about 520 mm in Anantapur district to 1160 mm in Vizianagaram and
East Godavari districts. In some years, Srikakulam, Vizianagaram, East
Godavari, Adilabad and Khammam districts have recorded 1400 to 1500 mm
rainfall. The distribution of annual rainfall in the State as a whole is about
69% during South West monsoon, 22% during North-East monsoon and 9%
during winter and summer months.
3.2.2 Agro climatic zones
Andhra Pradesh State is divided into 9 agro-climatic zones based
on the amount and distribution of rainfall pattern.
North Coastal Zone consists of Srikakulam, Vizianagaram,
Visakhapatnam districts with Regional Agricultural Research Station
(RARS), Anakapalli as regional centre. This zone receives 1000-1100mm
rainfall and possesses 12.6% of rice area.
51
Godavari Zone comprises East and West Godavari districts with
RARS, Maruteru as regional centre. Annual rainfall varies from 800-1100
mm and has 46.5% of rice area.
Krishna Zone consists of Krishna, Guntur, Parts of Prakasham,
Krammam and Nalgonda with RARS, Lam as regional centre. Important soil
groups are deltaic alluvium, red soils with clay base, black cotton soils, red
loamy coastal sands and saline soils.
Northern Telangana Zone comprises Adilabad, Nizamabad and
Karimnagar with RARS, Jagtial as regional centre. Rainfall varies from 900-
1150 mm and rice occupies 16% of rice area.
Central Telangana Zone consists of Warangal, Medak and
Khammam with RARS, Warangal as regional centre.
Southern Telangana Zone comprises the districts of Hyderabad,
Rangareddy, Mahboobnagar, Nalgonda with RARS, Palem as regional centre.
This zone receives 700-900 mm rainfall and has 9.3% of rice area.
Southern Zone includes the districts of Nellore, Chittoor Cadapah
with RARS, Tirupathi as regional centre. Annual rainfall varies from 700-
1000 mm and has about 12.6% of rice area.
Scarce rainfall zone consists of the districts of Kurnool,
Anantapur, Prakasham parts of Cudapah and Mahboobnagar with RARS,
Nandyal as regional centre . This zone has 3.8% of rice area. The average
annual rainfall ranges from 500-700mm.
High Altitude and Tribal area zone covers areas lying along the
Srikakulam, Vizianagaram, Visakhapatnam, East Godavari and Khammam
52
district with RARS, Chintapalli as regional centre. This zone receives high
rainfall of over 1400 mm.
3.2.3 Water Resources
Andhra Pradesh is a riverine State with 40 major, medium and
minor rivers. Off these, 3 are major Inter-State Rivers. Godavari, Krishna and
Pennar flow through the heart of the State. Besides these, 5 Inter-State rivers
north of Godavari flow through Orissa and Andhra Pradesh and 4 rivers south
of Pennar flow through Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. Apart from the
above 12 rivers, 28 medium and minor rivers flow within Andhra Pradesh.
The dependable yield from all these rivers is 2769 TMC. This
breaks up into 1480 TMC from Godavari, 811 TMC from Krishna, 99 TMC
from Pennar and the rest from the other small rivers, as presented in Table
3.1. Water utilization so far is only 1933 TMC irrigating 61.66 lakh ha against
cultivable area of 157.78 lakh ha. About 70% of the population of Andhra
Pradesh depends upon agriculture.
Table 3.1 River Basins in Andhra Pradesh State
Sl.No.
Name of the basin Catchment Area(Lakh ha)
Availability ofwater (TMC)
1 Krishna River Basin 76.25 811.002 Godavari River Basin 73.20 1480.003 Pennar River Basin 47.11 98.654 Vamsadhara River Basin 1.93 52.505 Other River Basin 63.58 326.866 Andhra Pradesh 262.07 2769.01
Source: Irrigation and CAD Department Government of Andhra Pradesh
53
All the rivers are seasonal with bulk of the flow taking place during
the monsoon. The State’s share of dependable flow (75 % dependability) from
the river system is estimated at 7.78 M ha m, out of which about 4.96 M ha m
is being currently utilized. It is estimated that all these rivers together
annually carry 77.75 BCM of water into the State with 75% of dependability
with the present utilization level of 49.63 BCM. The total cultivable
command area has been estimated as 11.76 M ha. The potential utilized under
surface irrigation is about 5 M ha through 17 existing major irrigation projects
and 86 medium irrigation projects and while about.88 M ha is irrigated by
more than 75,000 minor irrigation tanks. The area irrigated through ground
water is about 2.9 M ha against the potential of about 3.9 M ha.
Pennar River splits Nellore district. The SPSR (Sri Potti Sri
Ramulu) Nellore district lies between 13o30’ N and 15o6’ N and 70o 5’ E and
80 o 15’ E, with total land area of 13,076 km2. It has an average Mean Sea
Level (MSL) of 19 m. It is bordered by the Bay of Bengal to the east, the
State of Tamil Nadu to the South, the districts of Cuddapah and Prakasam to
the north. The eastern side consists of low lying lands extending from the base
of the Eastern Ghats to the sea. The west side of the district is separated from
Cuddapah district by Veligonda hills. Half of the total area is cultivated and
the rest is wasteland because of rocky land, sandy coastline or covered with
scrub jungles. Pennar, Swarnamukhi and Gundlakamma are the main rivers
that flow through the district. They are not navigable and are mainly used for
irrigation purposes. Tributaries to Pennar like Kandaleru and Boggeru serve
the remaining area. This area is rich in quartzite out of which the prehistoric
man made his weapons and implements.
The Pennar river system (Figure 3.2) flows through Nellore district
over a length of 112 km across which Sangam and Nellore anicuts were built
more than a Century ago to irrigate the agricultural lands. Nellore anicut was
54
55
built 140 years ago by Sir Arthur Cotton during British period. It has two
main canals to the right side, namely, Sarvepalli canal and Jafar Sahab canal.
Sanagam anicut has four canals namely Duvvuru canal, Kanupur canal,
Nellore tank supply canal and Kanigiri reservoir supply canal. Kanigiri
reservoir is the second largest reservoir in the Andhra Pradesh State and was
designed with a storage capacity of 3.5 TMC (extent of submergence is 24
square miles) with 10.4 km earthen bund. It supplies irrigation water to an
extent of 1.4 lakh acre through Eastern Channel, Southern Channel, Malidevi
Drain, New Vavveru Channel , Yelamanchipadu Channel and Pyderu escape
Channel. The Allur Delta system which draws water from Pyderu escape
channel was developed as early as Krishna Devaraya’s period during
sixteenth century. Initially, it was started for 400 acres, but later on, it has
been extended to 1200 acres.
During the British period, the system was further augmented to
40,000 acres and stabilized by providing sluices and other structural elements.
Recently, during 1970s, in the upstream side of these anicuts, Somasila dam
with a storage capacity of 70 TMC, was constructed and it stabilizes the entire
Pennar delta canal system.
3.3 STUDY AREA
Kanigiri reservoir command, which is a part of Pennar basin is the
area selected for this study. The basin lies between 77º 04' E and 80º 10' E and
13º16' N and 15º52' N. It is bounded on the north by the Erramala range, on
the east by the Nallamala and Velikonda ranges of the Eastern Ghats, on the
south by the Nandidurg hills and on the west by the narrow ridge separating it
from the Vedavati valley of the Krishna basin. Index map of the study area is
presented in Figure 3.3.
56
Figure 3.3 Index map of the study area
57
The geology of the drainage basin is predominantly formed from
Archean rocks, principally granitic intrustives into metamorphic schists. The
Archeans in this region comprise biotite and hornblende granite-gneisses,
granodiorite, diorite, and pegmatite.
Important soil types found in the basin are red soil, black soil, sandy
soil and mixed soil. The cultivable area of the basin is about 3.54 M ha, which
is about 1.8% of the cultivable area of the country. Under major land uses in
the Pennar basin, forests account for 21% whereas nearly 12% falls under
barren land. Net sown area is 36% while total cultivable area is about 55%. In
the basin, double crops are taken over in 1.66 % area. The catchment receives
rainfall during both the south-west and north-east monsoons. The north-east
monsoon provides a little precipitation but the predominant rainfalls occur
during the south-west monsoon. Post monsoon cyclonic activity in the Bay of
Bengal during September and October produces an increased rainfall in the
coastal region.
The mean annual rainfall in the basin varies from about 550 mm
around Anantapur area to 900 mm around Nellore. From the temperature
records, it is seen that the mean maximum daily temperature varies from 40.3º
C observed at Cuddapah to 34.7° C observed at Arogyavaram and the mean
minimum daily temperature varies from 20° C observed at Nellore to 15.3° C
observed at Arogyavaram. In general, humidity is high during the monsoon
period and moderate during non-monsoon period. The relative humidity in the
catchment of Pennar ranges from 21-84 %. The surface water potential and
ground water potential of the basin are estimated to be 6320 Mm3 and
4930 Mm3 respectively.
58
3.3.1 Climate and Rainfall
The climate seasons in the study area are broadly classified into the
following four types:
Winter: January and February
Summer: March to May
South West Monsoons – June to September
North East Monsoons – October to December
The maximum temperature is 36-46º C during summer and the
minimum temperature is 23-25º C during winter. The rainfall ranges from
700–1000 mm through South West and North East Monsoons. Nellore is
subjected both to droughts and to floods in different seasons.
3.3.2 Agriculture
Nellore is also famous for quality rice production and aqua (prawn
and fish) culture. Nellore district is called the "Shrimp capital of India" due to
its high production of cultured shrimp. About 70 percent of the total work
force is dependent upon agriculture either as farmers or as agricultural labour.
The main crops are rice paddy and sugar cane. It is particularly famous for a
rice breed called "Molagolukulu". The generalized crop calendar for Nellore
district is presented in Figure 3.4.
3.4 DATA COLLECTION
The data utilized in this study comprises of both spatial and non-
spatial data. The data needed for assessing drought can be grouped into three
categories viz., meteorological, hydrological and agricultural. The data
collected from various departments are presented.
59
Sl.No.
Croppingpattern Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May
1Paddy-EarlyKharif
2 Paddy-Rabi
3 Paddy-Third Crop
4 Sugarcane
Figure 3.4 Generalised crop calendar for Nellore district
3.4.1 Topographic maps
The study area is resulted from the mosaic of 2 topographic maps
of Survey of India (SOI), viz., 57N/14 and 66B/2 at 1:50,000 scale. From
these maps, information such as the boundary of the study area, water bodies
etc., are extracted and used as input data for database creation. These maps
have also been used for geo-referencing of the remotely sensed data.
3.4.2 Meteorological Data
Monthly rainfall data for 5 raingauge stations were collected from
the Department of Economic and Statistics, for the period from 1984-2012.
Climatological data such as temperature, humidity, sun shine etc., were
collected from the Agricultural Research Centre, Nellore(ARS), Bureau of
Economics and Statistics, Nellore, Andhra Pradesh.
3.4.3 Remote sensing data
The remotely sensed dataset used in this study consists of Indian
Remote Sensing Satellite (IRS) 1C and 1D, Wide Image Field Sensor (WiFS)
60
data during January 2007 and January 2008 of Rabi season and June 2007 and
June 2008 of Kharif season. The datasets were procured from National
Remote Sensing Centre, Hyderabad and are used to demarcate the area falling
under crop land and fallow land in the study area for the various seasons.
Land use / land cover map of the study area was prepared from IRS-1C LISS
III images of June 2005. The land use map was digitized using Arc Map GIS
software for different thematic layers.
3.4.4 Water Users Associations
Basic details and activities of Water Users Associations (WUAs)
functioning along Pyderu canal has been collected through a questionnaire
survey. Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) technique was adopted to collect the
data. Two sets of questionnaire were developed. The first one was used
among the presidents of existing WUAs to provide the findings on the
existing functional activities of WUA’s of Pyderu canal. Second set of
questionnaire was used to identify the involvement level and awareness about
provisions in APFMIS (Andhra Pradesh Farmers Managed Irrigation Systems
Act, 1997) in the tail-end association of the study area namely, Allimadugu.
The questionnaire also addresses the issues of strengths and weaknesses of the
functioning of WUA.
3.5 PRELIMINARY ANALYSIS
The rainfall data and ground water data collected were analysed to
understand the general surface and groundwater hydrological conditions of
the study area. Data collected through the questionnaire survey have been
analysed to understand the strength and weaknesses of the WUAs in various
aspects.
61
3.5.1 Seasonal and Annual Rainfall Analysis
Rainfall data were collected from the available five raingauge
stations in and around the study area during 1989 to 2012. The data collected
were analysed for average monthly rainfall and listed out in the Table 3.2 with
the respective rain gauge stations. It has been observed from the data analysed
that all stations considered receive maximum rainfall from August to
December. Out of all the rain gauge stations, Allur receives the highest
rainfall in October because of its location near to the Bay of Bengal.
The entire study area receives maximum amount (58%) of rainfall
during the months of October (30%) and November (28%). There is a typical
rainfall of 8% of annual rainfall occurring in each of July, August, September
and December months. All rain gauge stations receive 5% of yearly rainfall
during May and June months.
Table 3.2 Mean Monthly Rainfall of the Study Area
Sl. No Month Allur Bogole Buchi Dagadarthi Kodavalur1 January 23.5 23.4 12.8 13.8 16.72 February 14.6 12.6 11.7 11 11.73 March 6.7 9.3 4.7 5.4 6.84 April 11.5 8.3 8.9 8 8.45 May 62.4 62.2 62.7 47.9 51.86 June 53.4 57.2 57.8 43.6 50.47 July 86.3 74.9 83.1 75.8 66.98 August 99 94.6 107.6 81 89.49 September 91.8 88.4 97.4 88 84.910 October 367 340.9 348.8 344.3 327.911 November 299.3 310.5 322 312.4 303.112 December 99.7 100.2 100.4 79.1 100.8
62
The average monsoon seasonal and annual values of rainfall for all
stations were analysed and presented in the Table 3.3 and also represented in
Figure 3.5. The study area receives maximum amount of rainfall during
North-East monsoon (64%).
Table 3.3 Average Annual and Seasonal Rainfall in the Study Area
Seasonal Rainfall (mm)Sl.No
Name of the
Station
AnnualRainfall
(mm) South-West North-East Winter Summer
1 Allur 1215.2 238.7 758.2 137.8 80.62 Bogole 1182.3 226.6 739.8 136.2 79.73 Buchi 1218.0 248.6 768.2 124.9 76.34 Dagadarthi 1110.3 200.4 744.7 103.8 61.35 Kodavalur 1118.7 206.7 715.9 129.2 66.9
Figure 3.5 Variation of Mansoon Seasonal Rainfall in the Study Area
Rainfall during North-East mansoon, the minimum and maximum
rainfall occurred as 715.9 mm and 768.2 mm at Kodavalur and Buchi stations
respectively. About 19% of annual rainfall is received during South-West
monsoon. Rainfall during South-West mansoon varies spatially from
200.4 mm at Dagadarthi to 248.6 mm at Buchi. In the Winter Season, a
63
significant rainfall of 11% occurs and ranges between 103.8 mm to 137.8 mm
at the stations Dagadarthi and Allur. During Summer period, only 6% of
rainfall occurs. Summer season has the lowest rainfall history in the area with
Dagadarthi receiving the lowest as 61.3 mm and Allur receives the maximum
rainfall as 80.6 mm.
3.5.2 Rainfall Analysis for Crop Seasons
Rabi (November-March) and Early Kharif (April-August) are the
two main crop seasons in the study area. The crop seasonal rainfall for all the
stations were analysed and presented in Table 3.4. The spatial variation of
rainfall in Rabi season is significantly low in comparison with that of the
Early Kharif season.
Table 3.4 Average Crop Seasonal Rainfall (mm) in the Study Area
Rainfall (mm)Sl.No.
Name of the Station Rabi
(Nov-March)Early Kharif(April-Aug)
1 Allur 443.8 312.62 Bogole 456.0 297.13 Buchi 451.6 320.24 Dagadarthi 421.6 256.35 Kodavalur 439.1 266.8
From the crop seasonal analysis of rainfall, it is evident that the
entire study area receives 37% of annual rainfall during Rabi season and 24%
of yearly rainfall in Early Kharif season. The high rainfall during Rabi season
is due to the fact that the study area receives maximum rainfall during North-
East monsoon. The average rainfall of the Rabi season is 442.4 mm and that
of the Early Kharif season is 290.6 mm. From the analysis of the Figure 3.6, it
is obvious that the average seasonal rainfall value is higher than the Early
Kharif value.
64
Figure 3.6 Variation of Crop Seasonal Rainfall in the Study Area
It is also observed from the Table that the variation in rainfall
quantity among the stations is not considerable amount during the Rabi
season. But in the Early Kharif season the maximum variation in the rainfall
is only about 60 mm between Dagadarthi and Buchi. In the overall view
Buchi receives highest rainfall both in the Rabi and the Early Kharif seasons.
Crop seasonal rainfall of five rain gauge stations were analysed for their
comparison with the long term average and categorizations of normal, excess
and deficit nature and presented in Tables 3.5 to 3.14. The categorizations of
normal, excess and deficit nature of crop seasonal rainfall from the long term
mean gives idea about the depth of rainfall available for crop production. If
the rainfall is in excess of normal, then the stress on irrigation system will be
less and vice versa.
65
Table 3.5 Crop Seasonal rainfall analysis for Early Kharif of Allurraingauge station
Sl. No. Year APR MAY JUN JULY AUG Total
1 1989 0 0 5.5 242.8 24.8 273.1 Normal
2 1990 20.0 421.6 31.4 59.2 181.0 713.2 Excess
3 1991 0.0 0.0 248.8 34.8 45.4 329 Normal
4 1992 0.0 14.6 38.6 90.2 150.4 293.8 Normal
5 1993 0.0 12.4 20.6 74.1 52.2 159.3 Deficit
6 1994 0.0 18.0 24.9 89.6 126.2 258.7 Normal
7 1995 0.0 475.2 39.8 207.8 140.9 863.7 Excess
8 1996 19.3 13.4 173.2 76.8 69.6 352.3 Normal
9 1997 114.0 3.0 7.0 126.2 33.0 283.2 Normal
10 1998 0.0 0.0 8.0 43.8 85.4 137.2 Deficit
11 1999 0.0 18.0 6.4 56.0 109.0 189.4 Deficit
12 2000 0.0 78.0 128.0 179.4 331.8 717.2 Excess
13 2001 56.8 0.0 49.0 25.0 57.0 187.8 Deficit
14 2002 0.0 0.0 13.0 30.0 60.8 103.8 Deficit
15 2003 0.0 0.0 13.4 223.8 80.8 318 Normal
16 2004 0.0 94.8 33.2 56.8 28.0 212.8 Deficit
17 2005 0.0 13.4 4.8 31.8 38.0 88 Deficit
18 2006 19.0 31.8 84.8 11.4 33.2 180.2 Deficit
19 2007 6.6 10.4 121.2 99.0 87.4 324.6 Normal
20 2008 0.0 0.4 0.8 64.6 58.2 124 Deficit
21 2009 0 45 49.4 11 132 237.4 Deficit
22 2010 0 114.6 71.4 58.8 175.2 420 Excess
23 2011 16.4 9.0 55 91 177.6 349 Normal
66
Table 3.6 Crop Seasonal rainfall analysis for Early Kharif of Bogoleraingauge station
Sl. No. YEAR APR MAY JUN JULY AUG Total
1 1989 0 0 13.4 174.4 46.6 234.4 Deficit
2 1990 28.0 301.3 42.2 73.8 151.9 597.2 Excess
3 1991 0.0 0.0 264.8 26.6 55.9 347.3 Excess
4 1992 0.0 2.0 10.0 62.4 315.8 390.2 Excess
5 1993 0.0 12.3 19.7 25.5 79.9 137.4 Deficit
6 1994 0.0 13.4 19.3 130.2 75.6 238.5 Deficit
7 1995 0.0 504.4 8.2 142.7 127.6 782.9 Excess
8 1996 0.0 29.8 164.2 49.5 74.1 317.6 Normal
9 1997 50.6 20.8 5.9 160.8 20.8 258.9 Normal
10 1998 0.0 0.0 25.0 41.7 65.0 131.7 Deficit
11 1999 0.0 15.4 5.8 54.8 89.6 165.6 Deficit
12 2000 0.0 83.2 162.2 153.0 294.8 693.2 Excess
13 2001 57.0 0.0 33.0 39.6 39.0 168.6 Deficit
14 2002 0.0 0.0 37.0 25.7 18.7 81.4 Deficit
15 2003 0.0 0.0 35.0 156.0 93.8 284.8 Normal
16 2004 0.0 129.9 59.9 66.2 11.6 267.6 Normal
17 2005 0.0 39.2 16.2 13.4 55.0 123.8 Deficit
18 2006 25.0 24.0 58.4 9.0 33.0 149.4 Deficit
19 2007 4.0 6.0 118.3 97.8 114.6 340.7 Normal
20 2008 0.0 0.0 9.0 90.0 79.8 178.8 Deficit
21 2009 0.0 61.2 66.4 6.0 110.2 243.8 Normal
22 2010 0.0 115.2 105.6 72.8 131.0 424.6 Excess
23 2011 17.4 10.0 35.4 51.2 90.4 204.4 Deficit
67
Table 3.7 Crop seasonal rainfall analysis for Early Kharif of Buchiraingauge station
S.No Year APR MAY JUN JULY AUG Total
1 1989 0 0 19.4 150.8 26.1 196.3 Deficit
2 1990 58.4 257.5 21.0 53.1 78.6 468.6 Excess
3 1991 0.0 7.5 361.4 27.3 140.2 536.4 Excess
4 1992 0.0 0.0 0.0 50.5 208.9 259.4 Deficit
5 1993 0.0 10.0 0.0 92.9 70.4 173.3 Deficit
6 1994 0.0 11.8 9.0 44.3 256.4 321.5 Normal
7 1995 0.0 388.8 45.9 188.4 69.3 692.4 Excess
8 1996 14.8 4.4 206.6 18.7 189.2 433.7 Excess
9 1997 7.0 7.0 6.6 102.8 36.3 159.7 Deficit
10 1998 0.0 0.0 14.0 41.0 95.6 150.6 Deficit
11 1999 0.0 78.0 32.4 71.0 63.8 245.2 Deficit
12 2000 2.5 81.1 123.2 142.1 177.8 526.7 Excess
13 2001 46.0 5.2 31.0 20.2 101.5 203.9 Deficit
14 2002 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.0 102.8 104.8 Deficit
15 2003 0.0 0.0 0.0 353.0 53.2 406.2 Excess
16 2004 0.0 269.3 59.7 166.6 24.2 519.8 Excess
17 2005 2.5 71.2 22.9 57.7 96.0 250.3 Deficit
18 2006 37.4 23.8 65.8 19.6 22.8 169.4 Deficit
19 2007 33.4 1.8 116.6 88.2 86.8 326.8 Normal
20 2008 0.0 0.0 7.4 36.4 130.4 174.2 Deficit
21 2009 0 0 30.2 5.2 210.2 245.6 Deficit
22 2010 0 162.7 79.2 137.0 153.0 531.9 Excess
23 2011 2 0.0 78.2 43.6 81.2 205 Deficit
68
Table 3.8 Crop seasonal rainfall analysis for Early Kharif ofDagadarthy raingauge station
Sl. No YEAR APR MAY JUN JULY AUG Total
1 1989 0 0 5.0 256.4 30.6 292 Normal
2 1990 0.0 249.2 0.0 39.8 77.4 366.4 Excess
3 1991 0.0 0.0 340.0 36.0 65.6 441.6 Excess
4 1992 0.0 3.0 5.2 36.4 121.8 166.4 Deficit
5 1993 0.0 0.0 24.0 27.6 31.8 83.4 Deficit
6 1994 0.0 24.4 18.4 167.0 154.0 363.8 Excess
7 1995 0.0 505.0 15.4 240.4 64.0 824.8 Excess
8 1996 17.8 19.4 114.6 92.0 148.4 392.2 Excess
9 1997 41.0 5.6 14.8 99.6 26.4 187.4 Deficit
10 1998 0.0 0.0 5.4 15.6 53.5 74.5 Deficit
11 1999 0.0 5.2 11.0 74.4 110.8 201.4 Deficit
12 2000 0.0 46.6 102.8 87.2 247.2 483.8 Excess
13 2001 52.2 0.0 40.8 18.0 37.6 148.6 Deficit
14 2002 0.0 0.0 8.4 12.8 18.1 39.3 Deficit
15 2003 0.0 0.0 2.4 155.2 58.4 216 Normal
16 2004 0.0 39.2 27.6 50.9 13.6 131.3 Deficit
17 2005 2.2 34.2 4.2 31.2 46.0 117.8 Deficit
18 2006 26.2 15.6 69.4 12.2 25.2 148.6 Deficit
19 2007 18.8 10.2 60.1 105.1 118.9 313.1 Excess
20 2008 0.0 0.0 0.0 35.4 52.1 87.5 Deficit
21 2009 0 26.7 38.0 9.2 126.3 200.2 Deficit
22 2010 0 88.8 58.6 64.8 139.8 352 Excess
23 2011 25.4 28.6 35.8 76.6 96.4 262.8 Normal
69
Table 3.9 Crop seasonal rainfall analysis for Early Kharif of Kodavaluraingauge station
S.No Year APR MAY JUN JULY AUG Total
1 1989 0 0 0.0 157.0 38.1 195.1 Deficit
2 1990 60.0 238.7 0.0 49.1 95.6 443.4 Excess
3 1991 0.0 0.0 222.8 31.2 103.8 357.8 Excess
4 1992 0.0 0.0 4.0 49.4 80.8 134.2 Deficit
5 1993 0.0 15.0 0.0 53.2 40.8 109 Deficit
6 1994 0.0 10.1 9.0 25.3 107.8 152.2 Deficit
7 1995 0.0 326.6 46.2 107.6 80.8 561.2 Excess
8 1996 20.0 19.0 182.6 33.0 102.2 356.8 Excess
9 1997 4.0 0.0 19.0 105.6 47.8 176.4 Deficit
10 1998 0.0 0.0 8.0 44.8 21.0 73.8 Deficit
11 1999 0.0 19.4 10.2 42.2 56.6 128.4 Deficit
12 2000 0.0 15.8 91.8 125.2 218.6 451.4 Excess
13 2001 44.2 0.0 122.2 17.8 60.7 244.9 Normal
14 2002 0.0 14.4 2.2 2.8 73.6 93 Deficit
15 2003 0.0 0.0 11.4 270.2 50.4 332 Excess
16 2004 1.3 152.7 17.7 103.0 15.8 290.5 Normal
17 2005 0.0 85.8 2.0 22.6 74.4 184.8 Deficit
18 2006 23.6 53.1 48.6 35.2 47.4 207.9 Deficit
19 2007 16.6 2.8 155.2 76.0 166.0 416.6 Excess
20 2008 0.0 0.0 5.2 29.8 117.2 152.2 Deficit
21 2009 0 18.2 33.4 14.2 165 230.8 Normal
22 2010 0 165.6 89.2 101.4 203 559.2 Excess
23 2011 14.6 1.6 77.8 42.6 89.0 225.6 Normal
70
Table 3.10 Crop Seasonal rainfall analysis for Rabi of Allur raingaugestation
Sl.No Year NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR Total
1 1989-90 268.2 135.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 404.0 Normal
2 1990-91 347.2 87.0 8.8 0.0 0.0 443.0 Normal
3 1991-92 533.9 22.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 556.1 Excess
4 1992-93 396.8 0.0 0.0 7.0 0.0 403.8 Normal
5 1993-94 264.0 229.4 0.0 34.7 0.0 528.1 Excess
6 1994-95 399.4 106.8 72.2 0.0 0.0 578.4 Excess
7 1995-96 137.6 0.0 9.0 0.0 0.0 146.6 Deficit
8 1996-97 162.8 287.2 82.0 0.0 0.0 532.0 Excess
9 1997-98 411.0 433.8 3.0 0.0 0.0 847.8 Excess
10 1998-99 221.4 18.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 239.4 Deficit
11 1999-00 131.6 4.2 0.0 183.0 0.0 318.8 Deficit
12 2000-01 400.0 161.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 561.0 Excess
13 2001-02 437.8 266.0 290.8 0.0 0.0 994.6 Excess
14 2002-03 222.6 23.0 0.0 0.0 84.0 329.6 Deficit
15 2003-04 63.0 160.2 38.8 0.0 0.0 262.0 Deficit
16 2004-05 356.8 2.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 359.4 Deficit
17 2005-06 293.8 52.0 0.0 0.0 30.0 375.8 Normal
18 2006-07 523.0 25.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 548.0 Excess
19 2007-08 26.0 34.4 0.0 80.2 40.0 180.6 Deficit
20 2008-09 311.8 6.6 0 0 0 318.4 Deficit
21 2009-10 440.4 122 0 0 0 562.4 Excess
22 2010-11 275.0 102.4 35.0 30.6 0 443.0 Normal
23 2011-12 260.8 13.8 0.00 0.00 0.0 274.6 Deficit
71
Table 3.11 Crop Seasonal rainfall analysis for Rabi of Bogole raingaugestation
Sl.No Year NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR Total
1 1989-90 317.0 150.9 0.0 0.0 8.4 476.3 Normal
2 1990-91 365.6 0.0 11.0 0.0 0.0 376.6 Normal
3 1991-92 540.0 93.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 633.0 Excess
4 1992-93 388.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 16.9 405.0 Normal
5 1993-94 180.6 271.1 0.0 58.5 0.0 510.2 Normal
6 1994-95 611.3 125.0 63.0 0.0 0.0 799.3 Excess
7 1995-96 110.6 12.2 6.2 0.0 0.0 129.0 Deficit
8 1996-97 149.7 231.7 74.2 0.0 0.0 455.6 Normal
9 1997-98 427.4 433.2 2.5 0.0 0.0 863.1 Excess
10 1998-99 209.6 15.6 2.2 0.0 0.0 227.4 Deficit
11 1999-00 113.8 2.8 0.0 164.6 0.0 281.2 Deficit
12 2000-01 147.2 70.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 217.2 Deficit
13 2001-02 382.5 182.7 263.2 0.0 0.0 828.4 Excess
14 2002-03 278.0 9.4 0.0 0.0 115.2 402.6 Normal
15 2003-04 63.7 143.4 110.0 0.0 19.6 336.7 Deficit
16 2004-05 356.8 0.0 0.0 12.4 0.0 369.2 Deficit
17 2005-06 225.6 47.2 0.0 0.0 12.0 284.8 Deficit
18 2006-07 500.4 28.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 528.8 Normal
19 2007-08 65.0 24.4 0.0 49.0 31.6 170.0 Deficit
20 2008-09 426.6 6.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 433.4 Normal
21 2009-10 558.6 75.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 634.2 Excess
22 2010-11 467.8 125.0 5.4 4.4 0.0 602.6 Excess
23 2011-12 256.7 256.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 513.4 Normal
72
Table 3.12 Crop seasonal rainfall analysis for Rabi of Buchi raingaugestation
Sl.No Year NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR Total
1 1989-90 198.5 199.7 0.0 0.0 25.2 423.4 Normal
2 1990-91 326.4 16.0 8.2 48.0 0.0 398.6 Normal
3 1991-92 579.6 4.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 584.1 Excess
4 1992-93 504.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 504.4 Normal
5 1993-94 400.8 208.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 609.3 Excess
6 1994-95 297.7 172.8 57.2 0.0 0.0 527.7 Normal
7 1995-96 125.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 125.3 Deficit
8 1996-97 202.2 420.2 40.8 0.0 0.0 663.2 Excess
9 1997-98 469.2 230.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 699.2 Excess
10 1998-99 311.6 27.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 338.6 Deficit
11 1999-00 221.4 4.8 0.0 171.0 0.0 397.2 Normal
12 2000-01 184.6 153.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 338.4 Deficit
13 2001-02 351.4 320.0 172.8 0.0 0.0 844.2 Excess
14 2002-03 353.5 2.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 356.0 Deficit
15 2003-04 100.4 88.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 189.3 Deficit
16 2004-05 389.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 389.4 Normal
17 2005-06 364.7 66.2 0.0 0.0 54.0 484.9 Normal
18 2006-07 357.2 64.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 421.2 Normal
19 2007-08 108.9 40.3 16.1 47.3 29.8 242.4 Deficit
20 2008-09 362.1 4 0 0 0 366.1 Deficit
21 2009-10 495.8 127.8 0 0 0 623.6 Excess
22 2010-11 391.6 130.0 0 2.4 0 524.0 Normal
23 2011-12 308.2 27.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 335.4 Deficit
73
Table 3.13 Crop seasonal rainfall analysis for Rabi of Dagadarthyraingauge station
Sl.No Year NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR Total
1 1989-90 252.2 60.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 312.4 Deficit
2 1990-91 373.0 10.6 75.2 0.0 0.0 458.8 Normal
3 1991-92 605.8 37.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 643.6 Excess
4 1992-93 571.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 571.0 Excess
5 1993-94 285.2 164.8 5.0 12.6 0.0 467.6 Normal
6 1994-95 437.8 199.2 27.8 0.0 0.0 664.8 Excess
7 1995-96 111.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 111.0 Deficit
8 1996-97 184.0 236.0 40.6 0.0 0.0 460.6 Normal
9 1997-98 382.6 238.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 621.4 Excess
10 1998-99 314.0 18.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 332.2 Deficit
11 1999-00 148.6 0.0 0.0 191.6 0.0 340.2 Deficit
12 2000-01 309.0 106.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 415.2 Normal
13 2001-02 277.4 169.0 137.4 0.0 0.0 583.8 Excess
14 2002-03 303.2 13.4 0.0 0.0 45.0 361.6 Normal
15 2003-04 62.6 170.6 6.2 0.0 20.4 259.8 Deficit
16 2004-05 293.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 293.6 Deficit
17 2005-06 197.9 39.3 0.0 0.0 28.2 265.4 Deficit
18 2006-07 396.2 45.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 441.4 Normal
19 2007-08 62.5 15.2 0.0 39.6 31.0 148.3 Deficit
20 2008-09 336.0 3.6 0 0 0 339.6 Deficit
21 2009-10 561.9 136.9 0 0 0 698.8 Excess
22 2010-11 392.5 87.5 24.6 8.8 0 513.4 Excess
23 2011-12 326.7 66.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 393.3 Normal
74
Table 3.14 Crop seasonal rainfall analysis for Rabi of Kodavaluraingauge station
Sl.No Year NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR Total
1 1989-90 206.8 162.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 368.8 Normal
2 1990-91 219.0 49.8 39.0 0.0 0.0 307.8 Deficit
3 1991-92 700.8 36.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 736.8 Excess
4 1992-93 368.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 368.3 Normal
5 1993-94 357.2 184.0 0.0 9.0 0.0 550.2 Excess
6 1994-95 372.5 250.6 65.8 0.0 0.0 688.9 Excess
7 1995-96 186.8 4.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 190.8 Deficit
8 1996-97 101.4 295.7 72.8 0.0 0.0 469.9 Normal
9 1997-98 457.5 326.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 783.5 Excess
10 1998-99 231.6 38.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 269.6 Deficit
11 1999-00 230.8 11.2 0.0 181.4 0.0 423.4 Normal
12 2000-01 183.8 155.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 339.4 Deficit
13 2001-02 296.7 173.2 170.4 0.0 0.0 640.3 Excess
14 2002-03 232.8 19.4 0.0 0.0 79.0 331.2 Deficit
15 2003-04 67.6 181.6 13.6 0.0 0.0 262.8 Deficit
16 2004-05 276.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 276.6 Deficit
17 2005-06 380.0 49.4 0.0 0.0 35.7 465.1 Normal
18 2006-07 431.8 11.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 442.8 Normal
19 2007-08 60.4 37.2 0 60.2 41.2 199.0 Deficit
20 2008-09 193.7 40.4 0 0 0 234.1 Deficit
21 2009-10 653 143.4 6.4 0 0 802.8 Excess
22 2010-11 428.3 104.2 16 18.6 0 567.1 Excess
23 2011-12 333.4 46.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 379.4 Normal
75
The overall categorization for both seasons are presented in Table
3.15 and Figures 3.7 & 3.8 respectively.
Table 3.15 Categorization of Crop Seasonal Rainfall
Early Kharif RabiSl.No. Station Excess
(%)Normal
(%)Deficit
(%)Excess
(%)Normal
(%)Deficit
(%)1 Allur 17 39 43 39 22 39
2 Bogole 26 26 48 26 39 35
3 Buchi 35 9 57 26 39 35
4 Dagadarthi 35 13 52 30 30 39
5 Kodavalur 35 17 48 30 30 39
Figure 3.7 Categorization of Early Kharif Seasonal Rainfall
76
Figure 3.8 Categorization of Rabi Seasonal Rainfall
During Early Kharif season the categorization had significant
variation among the five stations. The Allur rain gauge station receives a
balanced normal (39 %) and deficit (43.5%) rainfall periods with less excess
(17.5 %) rainfall period. The normal and excess rainfall periods of the
Bogole rain gauge station are 26% with 48 % period falls on deficit period.
The Dagadharthy rain gauge station is highly influenced by deficit rainfall
period of 52 % and moderate excess rainfall period of 35 %. The Buchi
station receives a maximum deficit period of 57 % and followed by a
moderate excess rainfall period of 35%. The excess, normal and deficit
rainfall periods of Kodavalur rain gauge station are 35%, 17% and 48%
respectively.
The variation in categorization of Rabi seasonal rainfall is
comparatively lesser than the Early Kharif seasonal rainfall of all five rain
gauge stations. The Allur station had maximum excess rainfall period of
39% followed by Kodavalur and Dagadharthy stations of 30% and 26% for
77
Bogole and Buchi stations. The Kodavalur and Dagadharthy stations and
Bogole and Buchi stations shows a similar normal and deficit rainfall periods.
A 39% normal rainfall period occurs in Bogole and Buchired stations and
30% for Kodavalur and Dagadharthy rainfall stations. Similarly, maximum
deficit rainfall period of 39% occurs in Allur, Kodavalur and Dagadharthy
stations. The Bogole and Buchi stations receive 35% of deficit rainfall
period.
3.5.3 Temporal Analysis of Groundwater (GW)
The variation of groundwater in the study area for last 13 years is
analyzed for the four observation wells. Using the monthly groundwater level
data, temporal analysis is carried out by drawing GW hydrograph for four
observation wells separately in and around the study area. To analyze the GW
trend continuously during the entire period, GW hydrograph with moving
average curves are plotted for all four observation wells. Figure 3.9 to 3.12
show the GW hydrographs with moving average curves for coastal, near-
head-reach, head-reach and middle-reach areas respectively.
Figure 3.9 GW hydrograph of Allur
78
Figure 3.10 GW hydrograph of Buchi
Figure 3.11 GW hydrograph of Dagadarthi
79
Figure 3.12 GW hydrograph of Thalamanchi
The moving average curves are drawn to represent 12 months
moving average values. As the moving average is taken for larger number of
months, the curve smoothens to give a better overall picture of the temporal
variation.
The trend analysis shows the well located at Allur station had a
very high increase in groundwater potential over the years. The average water
level has gone down from 2.12 mbgl (metre below ground level) to 4.76 mbgl
(-2.64 m) during the period 2000 to 2004 and had gone up from 4.76 mbgl to
0.2 mbgl (+4.56 m) during the period 2004 to 2011. There is a very good rise
of groundwater level in the year 2004. After that a steady increase of
groundwater taking place in this area. In the well located at Buchi station, the
average water level has gone down from 2.11 mbgl to 9.10 mbgl (-6.99 m)
during the period 2000 to 2002 and had gone up from 5.5 mbgl to 3.5 mbgl
(+2.00 m) during the period 2002 to 2011. Even though, the trend analysis
identifies a positive trend in groundwater level in Buchi station, the increase
80
in groundwater level is comparatively less than the Allur station. More
particularly after the year 2004, the increase in groundwater level is less.
In the well located at Dagadathi station, the average water level
has gone down from 5.00 mbgl to 7.10 mbgl (-2.10 m) during the period
2000 to 2004 and had gone up from 7.10 mbgl to 4.55 mbgl (+2.55 m)
during the period 2004 to 2011. In the well located at Thalamanchi station,
the average water level has gone down from 4.40 mbgl to 6.10 mbgl (-1.70
m) during the period 2000 to 2004 and had gone up from 6.10 mbgl to 5.50
mbgl (+0.60 m) during the period 2004 to 2011. Both Dagadathi &
Thalamanchi groundwater wells show similar increasing trend in
groundwater level. The rise in groundwater level is lesser than the other
areas. The variation in groundwater level is minimum in both Dagadathi &
Thalamanchi groundwater wells.
An analysis was carried out on the ground water depth fluctuations in
the study areas and the results are presented in the Table 3.16. It is observed
from the table that the ground water level fluctuations are more in Allur
station during the entire study period 2000-2011.
Table 3.16 Annual groundwater level fluctuation in the study area
Sl.No.
Name of the Well LocationAnnual GWL Fluctuation
(m/year)
1 Allur +0.33
2 Buchi +0.13
3 Dagadarthi +0.10
4 Thalamanchi +0.10
81
3.5.4 Results of Questionnaire
The present study is based on descriptive method using a
questionnaire survey among the WUA Presidents. The Presidents of WUA’s
were considered for conducting survey to obtain their perception on the
functioning of WUA. The study provides the findings on the existing
functional activities of WUA’s of Pyderu canal, in respect of issues such as
Interaction among the Farmers through General Body Meeting, Management
committee meetings, Approval of maintenance works, Maintenance of records
including assessment, Water management and regulation, Assessment of
irrigation area and water cess demand, Mobilisation of financial resources,
Financial audit and Farmer’s participation in Irrigation Management. Salient
results of this are discussed in the subsequent sections.
Interaction among the Farmers through GBM
For the GBM, all Pattadars using water and who are members of
the association should participate. A minimum of 2GBM’s are to be
conducted before kharif and rabi seasons to discuss about the system
maintenance and management. Agenda and venue is to be informed to all
members seven days in advance. The following order is to be followed:
President’s welcome address, Important points to be discussed, Sanctioning
the minutes of last meeting, Discussion on important issues, Working plan
formation, decision making and Conclusion. There are around 100 to 200
members in each WUA.
Table 3.17 presents the details of General Body Meetings (GBM)
held in each WUA. The details in the table elucidates that there were enough
number of interaction among the water users through GBM, but effectiveness
of the meeting transactions are questionable in resolving the issues. This
observation is made based on non availability of the minutes of the meetings.
Among these, 65.67 percent of Associations had conducted less than 50% of
82
the proposed GBMs. The same details are also represented in Figures 3.13
and 3.14.
Table 3.17 Details of General Body Meetings (GBM)
Sl.No.
Frequency ofGBM
No. of meetingsorganized by WUA
Percentage(%)
1 0 0 0.002 2 3 25.003 4 5 41.674 6 4 33.335 8 0 0.00
Total 12 100.00
Figure 3.13 Details of General Body Meetings
Figure 3.14 Pie Chart showing details of GBM
83
Management committee meetings
The management committee in respect of a farmer organization
shall comprise of the president and the territorial constituency members inrespect of a WUA as defined under section 4 of the act: the president and
members are elected among the committee in respect of a distributorycommittee as defined under section 6 of the act: the chairman and the
members are elected to a management committee in respect of a projectcommittee as defined under section 8 of the act: (GOMS No. 541 irrigation
and command area development (CAD IV), 27th December 1997). The mainfunction of the committee is to prepare and implement the operation plan for
each season in its area of operation which includes planning andimplementation of Kharif and Rabi for various crops to be grown in this area.
The data collected in respect of the Management Committeemeetings is presented in Table 3.18 and Figure 3.15. From the data collected,
it is evident that there were sufficient numbers of meetings held and decidedto execute the plans. But, the ground level work execution is found to be
lacking. Conducting meetings are mandatory as per the APFMIS act 1997.The above data shows that meetings are conducting regularly as per the
provisions of the act. Even though the management committee meetings areconducted, the outcome of the meetings was not recorded properly.
Table 3.18 Details of Management committee meetings
Sl.No. Frequency of meetings No. of meetings
organized by WUA1 0 12 4 33 6 04 8 45 10 06 12 47 14 0
8 16 0
84
Figure 3.15 Details of Management committee meetings
Approval of maintenance works
The approval of maintenance works is required from the general
body on yearly basis. Out of the 12 WUA’s, the approval for the
maintenance works was obtained in advance by 10 WUA’s and not
obtained due to various reasons by the remaining 2 WUA’s.
As per APFMIS act 1997, the constitution and functioning of
subcommittee is well defined. Each WUA can formulate 4 sub committees
for works, finance, water regulation and maintenance aspects. All those sub
committees have a specific role to play in effective utilization of water
resources available in that area. It is evident from the survey that 3 WUAs
had not formed the sub- committees and 9 WUAs had formed the same.
Wherever sub committees were not formed, the effectiveness of execution
of works and the functioning of WUA was in poor quality. It clearly proved
that the act has provided the scope for subcommittees to function in an
effective way by defining the functional activities and authority. The details
are presented in Table 3.19 and Figure 3.16. From the analysis, it is found that
there is high positive correlation (0.77) e xist between the number of
meetings and formation of sub-committee. Seventy-five percent of the WUA
where subcommittees were formed are functioning.
85
Table 3.19 Execution of maintenance work
Sl. No. No. of meetings Formation of sub committee
1 0 Most ineffective
2 2 Not effective
3 4 Effective
4 6 More effective
Figure 3.16 Execution of works
Maintenance of records including assessment:
From the survey, it is found that there is poor maintenance of
records such as map of command area, list of farmers (Voters), list of Non
voters and also maintenance of records with respect to minutes register,
accounts/ financial transaction, details of property, income from assets in that
area and details of the maintenance work carried out annually are not
available. It is found that there is lack of understanding of the maintenance
of records. This may be due to the poor or lack of infrastructure to
maintain records at a specific office space. The details are presented in
Table 3.20 and Figure 3.17.
86
Table 3.20 Maintenance of records
OpinionSl.No.
Type of recordYes No
1 Map of command area 0 12
2 List of Voters 12 0
3 List of Non voters 3 9
4 Minutes register 12 0
5 Accounts and financial transaction 9 3
6 Details of property 0 12
7 Income from asset 2 10
8 Details of maintenance work 8 4
Figure 3.17 Maintenance of Records
87
Water Management and Regulation
From the study, it is found that 58.33% of WUAs are not aware of
the quantum of water that each WUA should get, and the remaining 41.67%
are aware of the water needs and the right to get water for irrigation. This
shows that water distribution and allocation methods are not clearly explained
to the users, due to lack of operational plan for distribution of water which is
the main cause of concern. Measuring devices at the points of distribution are
not available. Because of this, tail end areas are not getting the required
quantity of water. For effective management systems, daily gauging of inflow
is very much necessary. From the survey, it is found that in all WUA’s, daily
gauge readings are not recorded. There is a high level of correlation (0.93)
among the opinions expressed by the president of WUA on effective water
management in the study area.
Assessment of Irrigation Area and Water Cess Demand
From the study, it is found that 91.66 % WUA’s were not
associated in assessing the irrigation area which was normally done by State
Revenue Department. This shows participatory management, what it is
emphasized in the act, was not fully followed. 66.66 % of the respondents
expressed that after the formation of WUA’s, there is an increase in the
irrigated area and 33.33% were felt that there is no increase in the assessment
of the irrigation area, which may be due to 100% irrigation before the
formation of WUA’s. 75% of the responded felt that demand of water cess
was made as per their self assessment. Remaining 25 % felt the other way.
Farmer’s participation in Irrigation Management
In respect of Participatory Irrigation Management, 88 % of the farmers
expressed that farmer participation in irrigation management helps to get the
88
works done faster. Similarly same percentage (88) of the farmers opinioned
that farmers participation in irrigation management is not wastage of time, in
fact it helps them in solving problems through discussions. 74 % of the
formers felt that investment of capital for participation in irrigation
management is an unprofitable investment. This opinion is mainly because
farmers felt that they are not getting enough support price and yield from
agriculture. The details are presented in Table 3.21.
Table 3.21 Farmers’ participation in irrigation management
Sl.No. Statement
1
Farmers participation inirrigation management (IM)helps to get the works donefaster
1 2 3 14 30
2 Farmers participation in IMwastes farmers time
30 14 3 2 1
3Investment of capital forparticipation in IM is anunprofitable investment
6 7 10 14 13
4Farmers participation in IMleads to benefiting fromthose already experienced
1 2 3 14 30
5Farmers participation in IMinfluences farmers to savewater
2 3 5 14 26
6
Farmers participation in IMincreases farmers feeling ofresponsibility and decreasingthe demolition of irrigationinfrastructure
3 3 6 16 22
89
3.6 SUMMARY
In the recent years, with the increased technological advancement
and globalization, many research and multi-lateral organizations are pressing
the need to heed for the world water crisis that will hound us in near future. In
that context, the present study propose to focus on agricultural drought
estimation in an irrigated area (part of Pennar River System) in Andhra
Pradesh State of India. The water resources potential, landuse pattern and
agricultural practices in the Pennar system were collected and presented.
Topographic maps, meteorological data, remote sensing data were collected
to assess the agricultural drought.
The rainfall and ground water level data were collected and analysed to
understand the distribution of rainfall and fluctuation in groundwater level
prevailing in the study area. Seasonal and annual rainfall analyses were
carried out for five available raingauge stations. Rainfall analysis for crop
seasons, Rabi and Early kharif, was done in and around the study area.
The study area receives maximum amount of rainfall during
October and November months since the rainfall during North-East monsoon
is very high. Less rainfall occurs during the months of July, August,
September and December. Crop seasonal analysis shows that the study area
gets about 1.5 times higher rainfall during Rabi season compared to Early
Kharif season.
The effective rainfall available for crop production can be obtained
from the categorizations of normal, excess and deficit nature of crop seasonal
rainfall from the long term mean. There is a significant variation in
categorization of Early Kharif season rainfall whereas the Rabi season shows
an evenly poised categorization.
90
Temporal Analysis of ground water and their hydrographs were
plotted to understand the ground water fluctuations from observation wells.
Moving average curves are plotted to analyse the trend in groundwater level.
The groundwater well located in Allur had a higher increase in groundwater
level over the study period compared to the other groundwater wells.
To evaluate the functioning of the WUAs, a questionnaire survey
was conducted in the study area. Most of the farmers expressed that PIM
solves problems arising in the agriculture activity and helps to get the works
done at a faster rate. At the same time, their opinion about capital investment
is unprofitable since they are not getting enough support price and yield from
agriculture. To conclude, a preliminary analysis of the data collected was
carried out in this chapter.