Chapter 3- Review of Literature - Information and …shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/21917/5/chap... · Web viewReview of literature is required for the basic purpose of

Chapter 3- Review of Literature

Chapter-IIIReview of Literature

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Destination Defined

3.3 Destination Planning

3.4 Destination Management

3.5 Destination Strategy

3.6 Destination Development

3.7 Emerging Scope and Areas of Destination Marketing

3.8 Conclusion

3.9 Reference

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3.1 Introductionhe primary objective of literature review of previous and current aspects is

to identify and understand the background of the research study. Review

of literature is required for the basic purpose of cataloguing information

and explaining as per the objectives of the research. it helps in entering into the deep

of the knowledge and brighten the scope for research study with certain objectives.

The existing body of knowledge helps to enlighten the problems at hand and giving

the valuable insight on how best the study can be conducted with some of the

constraints. The body of published literature serves as the theoretical and practical

foundation for learning, understanding and developing a strong and deeper

knowledge base. This literature review helps in the research design and the

implications of findings.

T

Destination development and strategies for tourism in Sikkim is a holistic concept and

as such the literature review is broadly divided into six categories, each one of which

is separately describing and supporting the literature concerned.

3.2 Destination Defined According to Pearce (1992), destination is a combination of products and services

available in one location that drew visitors from beyond its spatial confines. By

implication, it was essential to recognize the destination as an entity whose

component parts are interdependent whereby a change in one brought about

ramifications for all of the others. There were different studies that analyzed the

elements that influenced the performance of the destination. Smith (1994, p. 175)

defined a tourism region as ‘a contiguous area that was explicitly delineated by a

researcher, planner or public agency as having relevance for some aspect of tourism

planning, development or analysis’. So, a destination zone was considered one type of

regionalization based on an inventory of qualitative characteristics. To define a

destination zone was a matter of specifying the characteristics a region and then

identified the areas that met those criteria (Smith, 1995).

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Kaspar (1995) and moved forward and opined that the organizational structure or

administrative framework of the destination should have similarities to the firm and

the service providers of the destination or principals were viewed as profit centers

managed within a company because they came under the helm of a local destination

management organization ( LDMO). There was increasing competition between

tourism destinations, and Smith (1995: 199) adapted the work of Gunn (1979) to

develop a list of criteria to define tourist destination zones. These were a set of

cultural, physical and social characteristics that created a sense of regional/

destination identity, adequate tourism infrastructure, a set of attractions and potential

attractions, potentiality to support tourism planning agency and accessibility. Hu and

Ritchie (1993) conceptualized the term destination as “a package of tourism facilities

and services, which like any other consumer product, is composed of a number of

multi-dimensional attributes”. Davidson and Mailtland (1997) outlined the

characteristics of a tourist destination in the context of a single district, town, city or

clearly defined and contained coastal, rural or mountain area as having a total tourist

product based on a variety of resources, other economic activities either in conflict or

complementary to tourism, a host community, public authorities responsible for

planning the resources and a active private sector. Bieger (1998) claimed it to be the

tourist product itself that in certain markets competes with other products. Buhalis et.

el. (2000) defined the term destination as an amalgamation of tourism products

offering an integrated experience to consumers. Leiper, et.al., (2000) studied the

tourism destinations from the demand perspective and identifying it as a set of

products, services, natural and artificial attractions able to draw tourists to a specific

place, where the geographical location is simply one of the factors in tourism system.

Some studies specifically examined categories within the supply system while other

still highlight the critical role played by the actors that manage tourism destinations

(Kerr, Barron, Wood, 2001). The realization here, led to studies which analyzed the

subject of destination performance in terms of “the locality as a whole” (Lundtorp &

Wanhill, 2001; Kozak, 2002), while other studies specifically examined categories

within the supply system, such as small businesses in the case of Tinsley and Lynch

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(2001). Remaining other authors with a unified school of thoughts, still highlighted

the critical roles and responsibilities played by the actors that managed tourism

destinations (Kerr, Barron, & Wood, 2001). According to Franch and Martini ( 2002,

p.5) destination management should be the strategic, organizational and operative

decisions taken to manage the process of definition, promotion and

commercialization of the tourism product [originating from within the destination], to

generate manageable flows of incoming tourists that are balanced, sustainable and

sufficient to meet the economic needs of the local actors involved in the destination.

Howie (2003) proceeded by saying that destinations present complex challenges for

management and development in that they served a broad range of the tourists’ needs

and the tourism-related businesses as well as the local community, local businesses,

and industries. Howie (2003) further proceeded with the view that destination

management plays a key role in addressing the many and sometimes conflicting

issues that arise in contemporary tourism and ensures its managerial implications with

a different type of direction, control, planning and coordination. So the meaning of

destination presented complex challenges for management and development in that

those places essentially served a range of needs of tourists and tourism-related

businesses as well as the resident community, local businesses and industries.

So, it was important to clarify and emphasize the important distinctions that existed

between destination policy, planning and development (DPPD), destination

management organization (DMO), and destination audit (DA). Although modern

authors of tourism management sought to improve the competitiveness and

sustainability of the destination, they differ fundamentally in that DPPD is essentially

an intellectual process that uses information and judgment to make macro-level

decisions regarding the kind of destination that stakeholders want. In the awareness

that the potential competitiveness of a destination is influenced or limited by the

relationships between these three forces, it is a trend to focus on the main “functions”

that the last two forces – DMO and DA - play on the development of the destination.

While the above definitions suggested the key word destination to be defined more

broadly than one physical location, some definitions of destinations were artificially

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determined by political jurisdictions, which failed to take into consideration consumer

preferences or tourism industry functions. A more holistic conceptualization of

destination comprised all these various viewpoints in the definition of destination.

Under this conceptualization, a destination coincided with the notion of a locality

seen as a set of products/experiences/imagery, influenced in a critical way by the role

of companies’ attitudes and their willingness to co-operate. By implication, scholars

recognized that the destination was an entity whose component parts were

interdependent whereby a change in one brought about ramifications for all of the

others. Given those holistic definition, there was clearly a management issue in terms

of planning and coordinating actions among the individual entities. Ansoff (1968)

further stated that flexible strategic planning is essential to future development while

others viewed it as an oxymoron. Strategic planning calls for greater flexibility and in

future strategic planning and tactical planning should be bifurcated to an increasing

extent to uphold the efficiencies of top management owing to the intensifying

complexity and uncertainty confronting the organizations. In other words, strategy

represents a vision for future tourism development, defines the target markets,

business goals and development priorities. According to him, strategy also exhibited

action plan considering time and funding constraints, training and marketing action

plan considering time and funding constraints, training and marketing actions and

changes in organization structure.

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3.3 Destination Planning3.3.1 Destination Planning

In their book “The Tourism System: An Introductory Text”, Mill R.C., & Morrison

A.M. ( 1986) described that tourism planning process were designed to produce

goals, strategies, and objectives for the destination area related to tourism

development marketing, industry organization, and awareness, and to other support

services and activities while tourism development plan normally provided overall

guidelines for development, outlines broad development concepts, and identified

individual development opportunities worthy of in-depth analysis ( through feasibility

studies and/ or cost-benefit analyses). According to their opinion, while moving with

tourism development the destination area would first find it necessary to establish

overall development guidelines to ensure that when development occurred it

complied with the area’s economic, environmental, social and cultural policies and

goals. They also explained that the destination, going for development were needed to

draft more specific guidelines describing the basic characteristics of development that

it wishes to encourage. According to their interpretations of strategy and models for

strategy formulation in tourism most of those were prescriptive and there was a need

for further empirical research about patterns and processes that accompany tourism

strategies other than planning (Mintzberg 1994).

3.3.2 Destination Policy

The Tourism Policy 1997 exhibited a belief that the potential of the tourism would be

determined by the income levels of inhabitants and was basically a leisure industry

not requiring the attention of the planners and administrators. According to this

Policy, the belief was based on an information gap that systematically constrained the

development of tourism in India over the years. National Action Plan for Tourism

which was presented in the Parliament on 5th May 1992 proposed to achieve different

types of tourism products, continual growth of tourism infrastructure, effective

marketing and promotional efforts in the overseas markets and removal of all

impediments of tourism. The Action Plan could not specify the infrastructural

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requirements and the investments needed to meet the targets and the sources of

funding for the same. The Tourism Synergy Program consisting the activities and

infrastructural components to be provided by the various agencies including the

private sector and State Governments was thus prepared in 1993. It was further

modified and converted into a ‘National Strategy for the Development of Tourism’

during 1996. These documents were evident for realizing the importance of tourism

and ensuring a consensus on the developmental needs. It also contributed positively

to all the infrastructural departments in a coordinated manner and ensured higher plan

allocation and introduction of new innovative schemes for accelerated development

and growth of tourism.

3.3.3 Destination Planning

In their article ‘‘Wildlife Tourism: A Strategic Destination Analysis’’ Higginbottom

K. and Scott N. (2004), advocated the strategic planning and management of tourism

that involves formulating, implementing and evaluating cross functional decisions

and thereby enabling organizations to achieve their objectives. Considering his

opinion, strategic planning and management of tourism was integrative across

different parts of an organization/ destination and involved the development of a long

term vision as to what was to be achieved by these integrated planning, operations

and resulting decisions. Actually, developing a coordinated, integrated and synergistic

approach was required in strategic planning for diverse perspectives, joint issues and

sustainable orientation. They also proceeded with the view that destination strategic

planning was not only logical as to support the philosophy of tourism development,

but also necessary for destination planning in order to respond to increasing

competition between tourism destinations around the world. They found that the types

of tourism such as cultural tourism, major events tourism and nature-based or wildlife

tourism were increasingly used by planners or developers to create or enhance the

competitiveness of destinations.

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3.4 Destination Management3.4.1 Destination Management:

In their article, “Environmental Economics of the Khangchendzonga National Park in

the Sikkim Himalaya, India”, Maharana, I, Rai S.C., Sharma, E.( 2000, September),

explained the application and relevance of Contingent Valuation Method (CVM) to

measure Willing to Pay (WTP) important part of Polluter Pays Principles (PPP).

Using a random survey, the average WTP was 8.84 USD for foreign visitors per visit,

followed by 6.20 USD per household per year and 1.91 USD per domestic visitor.

The WTP was strongly influenced by age, education and income.

3.4.2 Destination Management

Simption, K. (2001) strongly recommended with some authors (e.g. Middleton &

Hawkins, 1998) that development of tourism in harmony with the social, cultural, and

physical environment of a destination can offer industry practitioners a substantial

competitive advantage, as tourism industry attention to the maintenance of a pristine

ecology and harmonious relations with the host community are clearly desirable from

a purely self-serving point of view. Simption, K (2001) has also said that the concept

of strategic planning is a cornerstone of conventional management theory, and has

been discussed at length in the management literature .Described as ‘a comprehensive

plan of action that sets a critical direction, and guides the allocation of resources to

achieve long-term objectives. According to the author, strategic planning embodied

with many advantages which are coincident with previously identified criteria for

sustainability – it implies a long-term perspective, requires consideration of multiple

situational influences, is clearly goal oriented, and can accommodate a wide range of

conflicting perspectives.


The article ‘‘The Effectiveness of Environmental Interpretation at Resource Sensitive

Tourism Destinations’’ was written by Kuo, I-L. (2002) mentioned that the

development and implementation of tourism legislation with respect to the visitor

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activity could contribute to the ultimate destination experience. Environmental

interpretation in a resource sensitive tourism destination was considered to be an

effective visitor management strategy that helped to encourage visitors to adopt more

appropriate behavior in order to sustain the development of tourism. Through this

paper, he aimed to examine the processes and purposes of visitor management and

environmental interpretation, including various definitions and functions. The

effectiveness of environmental factors in visitor management with a sustainable

orientation was also addressed in this paper.


The article, “Contention and contractions of tourism as development option: the case

of Kerala, India”, written by Sreekumar T.T. and Parayil G. stated that the

government of Kerala responded to the potentiality of tourism development with a

diffused strategy of looking for new avenues of income and employment generation

but tourism remains a rather inconsequential segment even today. They also

advocated the green accounting for resource analysis and the use of satellite accounts

which will reveal tourism as a composite product spanning different sectors.


According to Müristaja H (2003) the best destination development plans were worked

out in cooperation with private, public and non-profit sector. Following the opinion of

the author, one could win through cooperation and improvement and not through

inner competition and division (Godfrey, Clarke 2000). Organizing and coordinating

were the activities with the key meaning of development. An ideal variant would be

if someone took the whole responsibility for tourism development, but still a

better solution would be formation of a holding enterprise that would represent and

coordinate different local groups.

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Cambridge Tourism Strategy (2001-2006) exhibited that the strategy for a region

generally revolved around five key principles. These were partnership, quality,

sustainability, competitiveness, and accessibility. It exuberated that a strategy

document usually addressed broad themes (again, in contrast to a plan which was

more concerned with specifics) like the framework within which tourism could

flourish, development of the spreading quality and encouragement of the wise growth

of tourism. It also enunciated that tourism strategy created and evolved more

strategies e.g. Country Cultural Strategy, Community Strategy etc.


In their article, ‘‘Environmental Auditing : An Approach Towards Monitoring the

Environmental Impacts in Tourism Destinations, With Reference to the Case of

Molyvos’’, Diamentis D. and Westlake J.(1997) explained how environmental

auditing contributed to the development and maintenance of a destination and

forming the basis for an ongoing environmental management activity that was

following sustainable tourism practices of a destination. They recommended a

sustainable basis of tourism needs that was associated with the synthesis of three

values which are the values of existence of a resource, the option value (i.e. the

choice of considering the preserved area in the future) and the quest value ( i.e. the

satisfaction which derives from the minimum resource usage in the light of the

benefits of future generations. Here, the Environmental Auditing described the

environmental elements and assessed the destination’s components, provided major

outcomes, green policies, and environmental quality system. Also, this approach

considered the whole environment pressurizing the private sector to exercise auditing

and green approaches.

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3.4.8 Destination Management:

Another article, “Assessment of Natural Resources Use Pattern: A Case Study along a

Trekking Corridor of Sikkim”, authored by Chettri, N., & Sharma, E.( 2006, March)

claimed that the subsistence in the Himalaya were largely dependent upon resources

derived from natural forests due to the free and easy access to those resources and

simplicity in their use. Sikkim was distinct to have the 43% of its total geographical

area under forest cover, of which 34% is under dense forests. The burgeoning human

population and family fragmentations were exerting a tremendous pressure on the

natural resources to meet the requires of food, fuel, fodder, timber, and other human

needs. In recent years, tourism had increased manifolds in Sikkim, which caused one

of the major factors behind destruction of forests. Irrational use of natural resources

resulted in the lowering of forest quality and shortage of resources. As a result, people

started using less-valued species as firewood and fodder. This study dealt with bio-

resources use pattern by the community and tourism enterprises along a trekking

corridor in the Sikkim Himalaya, with special reference to firewood, fodder, and

timber.

3.5 Destination Strategy3.5.1 Destination Strategy

According to Diamond (1977, April), destination strategies can be of four types.

These were - turn around strategy, sustainable growth strategy, incremental growth

strategy and selective tourism strategy. Turn around strategic approach was resource

intensive, demanding a public sector lead and backing from both the industry and

residential population. Sustainable growth strategy was less dramatic than turn around

strategy and relied on gradual replenishment of declining markets by seeking out new

areas of market potential. However, the original market, though reducing was still

nurtured and maintained. This was more of a marketing-led approach with lower

levels of investment. Incremental growth strategy on the other hand sought a new

market and product development was phased over a number of years through test

marketing and development projects. Selective tourism strategy relied upon accurate

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indication of new growth markets. According to him the most appropriate strategy for

each resort/destination was dependent on a variety of factors. These were- estimating

market, stage in the product life cycle, competitive position of the resort, political and

community support, attitude of the tourism industry, available investment and public

funds.

3.5.2 Destination Strategy

According to Porter (1980), tourism strategy took the three forms. These were-(i)

lower costs where production efficiency led to value added to both consumer and

producer matching market prices with greater profitability or being able to offer lower

prices while maintaining average profits. (ii) Differentiation, where additional value

was created for the consumers through adding value that allowed a greater price to be

commended e.g. branding, product features or additional benefits or support. (iii)

Focus, relating to the breath of market, scope, focuses referring to targeting specific

niche markets or product ranges. Porter also opined that the essence of strategy

formulation was coping with competition where competition in an industry is rooted

in its underlying and competitive forces.

Porter (1980) also brought to light the competitive strategy of an

organization( destination) that was dependent on a detailed understanding of the

nature and strength of each of the five forces ( threats of new competitors; threat of

substitute products; the power of buyers: power of suppliers; rivalry among business

houses in the industry. According to Porter (1985), competitive advantage raised from

selection of the generic strategy which best fitted the organization’s competitive

environment and then organizing value adding activities to support the chosen

strategy. There were three main alternatives, which were (i) differentiation:- creating

a customer perception that product is superior to those of competitors so that

premium price can be charged. (ii) cost leadership:- being the lowest cost producer of

a product so that above average profits are earned even though the price charged is

not above average. (iii) focus:- utilizing either a differentiation or cost leadership

strategy in a narrow profile of market segment(s). Porter (1986a, 1990) argued that

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global competitive advantage was dependent upon two sets of decisions, these were-

(i) configuration of value adding activities: managers were the authority to decide in

which nations they would carry out each of the activities in the value chain of their

business. Configuration could be broad (involving many countries) or narrow (one or

few countries). (ii) coordination of value adding activities- managers must decide the

most effective way of coordinating value adding activities, which were carried out in

different parts of the world. For Porter, the ‘purest global strategy’ was when an

organization concentrated key activities in locations offering competitive advantages

and coordinated activities on a global basis. According to him, ‘organizations should

move towards purest global strategy in the long run.

3.5.3 Destination Strategy

Yip (1992) argued that successful global strategy even for tourism were based upon a

comprehensive analysis of globalization drivers as these were the means of industry

and market analysis to formulate the global strategy. Yip identified three stages in

developing a total global strategy. These were- (i) Developing a core strategy:- it

involved building core competences and generic or hybrid strategies which could

potentially give global competitive advantage. (ii) Internationalizing the core

strategy:- it included the choice of which markets the business would enter and the

means by which the organization would enter them. In this stage the core

competences and generic strategy were introduced to international markets and when

the organization began to locate its value adding activities in locations where

competitive advantages like low cost access to resources are available. (iii)

Globalizing the international strategy:- this stage was based upon coordinating and

integrating the core competences and strategy on a global basis. It would also include

deciding which elements of the strategy to be standardized and which were to be

locally accepted on the basis of the strength of the globalization drivers in the

industry and market.

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3.5.4 Strategic Planning Approach for Destination Development:

In his book “Tourism: How effective management makes the difference”, Doswell, R.

gave a framework for tourism strategy. This framework deals with the tourism

development policies, region’s macroeconomic perspectives with respect to the

contribution of tourism industry, contexts in which tourism growth and development

are expected, characteristics of demand and supply, marketing opportunities in

various segments, tourism development areas as administrative units, infrastructural

situations, description of the needed product development, indication of the expected

volume of tourists and receipts, regulatory framework, human resource development

program and public awareness program.

3.5.5 Strategic Planning Approach for Destination Development

Faulkner (1994) viewed an integrated plan of action with goals and objectives

focused on those actions and systems which monitored progress the strategy process

for corporate, strategic and marketing planning has also been said to consist of a

series of steps , these being formulation, implementation and evaluation (Varadarajan

& Jayachandran 1999)’. Cespedes (1991) argued that tourism strategy was accepted

to be interactive in nature.


Veal A. J.( 2002), described the terms strategic planning and strategic management

in tourism as an approach to planning and management that sought to ensure that

medium- to long-term goals were given prominence, and day-to-day management

was harnessed to the achievement of such goals rather than being distracted by ad

hoc, short-term objectives. This approach had its origins in the private sector but,

since the 1960s, public bodies increasingly felt the requirement to behave much like

private corporations, preparing strategic plans, which were rolled forward annually

and which integrated forward planning with budgeting, implementation strategies and

performance appraisal. The terms strategic planning and strategic management were

used interchangeably by some, but strategic planning was considered here as the

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initial process of preparing a direction and broad program of activity for the

organization or development corporations while strategic management, on the other

hand, was seen as those aspects of management which were concerned with ensuring

that the strategic plan was implemented and that the organization did not lose sight of

its strategic directions because of day-to-day activities. Veal A.J.(2002), introduced a

strategic planning process with chronological six steps viz. terms of reference,

environmental appraisal, mission/goals, development of options, evaluation of such

options and decide strategies.


In his book “Travel and Tourism Management” Singh S.P.(2006) discussed various

aspects of strategic managements keeping in view the present challenges and stiff

competition as managers needed to learn and implement these strategies successfully.

The present book discussed various strategies like competitive, generic, cost

leadership differentiation, focus, stability, retrenchment, total global, global generic,

core competence, development, evaluation, implementation and globalization. In this

endeavor, the book elucidated on many important topics like strategic direction,

mergers, acquisitions, joint development, strategic alliances, diversification and

globalization along with trends of strategic management.


Sikkim Strategic Plan (May, 2008), jointly prepared by the Government of Sikkim

and Building & Construction Authority (BCA) of Singapore, incorporated urban

planning master plan, master consult services, existing tourism facilities and services.

The commission, held responsible for the plan, also reviewed the visitor arrival

numbers and mixes, changing preferences, demand and supply of hotel rooms,

categories of hotels, range of facilities and services in such hotels. In doing so, the

major hindrance of the in-depth study was found to be the scarcity of data and other

relevant information. Though the report recognized the tremendous growth rate in

terms of arrivals and earnings, yet the same were found to be under-performing. The

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report also indicated that no Asian country was found to be keenly interested in

Sikkim except Japan. Due to the scarcity of data related to space, facilities, room-

nights etc. the commission did not get sufficient information to assess hotel sector in

the State.

3.6 Destination Development3.6.1 Destination Development:

In his article “ A review of development planning in Guatemala” Hoy, D.R.( 1970)

described how the development activities had been occurring by dividing the entire

issues into three phases and by considering the control aspects of the various

governments, rate of development, and constraints involved therein. According to

him, the positive approach to development were expected to continue but effective

development planning were dependent on political stability, internal government

organizational reforms, such as institution of a civil service system, consolidation of

some planning offices, and the coordination of development plans to budgetary

policies.

3.6.2 Destination Development:

Based on his study of hotel operation in the Caribbean region Lundberg (1972)

developed six stages of tourism development and highlighted the interrelationship

that existed between tourist development, and changing attitudes of all stakeholders

making decisions, and the host community. Cyclically, the phases of tourism

development were high expectations, short run success, reality, recession deeper

difficulty and reflection.


Miossec (1977) theorized that the development process took an evolutionary form

(although not using that term) and depicted the development of infrastructure and

facilities in destination areas, including the coalescing of canters and the expansion of

transportation networks. Lundgren (1973, 1983) evolved similar ideas exhibiting the

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patterns of tourist development in the Laurentian area of Canada and elsewhere,

although his emphasis was squarely on the transportation element. An evolutionary

approach was also implicit in Lundgren’s models and theories, where each spatial

expansion of development is based on the infrastructure and facilities existing at the

time, which are in turn superseded, and become either redundant or converted.


According to Pearce (1989), tourism development was an expression that

encompassed not only destinations, origins, motivations and impacts, but also the

complex linkages that existed between all the people and institutions of that

interlocking, global supply and demand system. He also noted that tourism

development was a hybrid term, that researched in the field consisting of two

essentially separate literatures and that there were few examples of good research that

managed to combine the two domains successfully. According to him, some other

authors like Butler (1997, p.121) claimed that the process of development of tourist

destinations received little attention in the literature, and conceptualization of the

process was very limited. There were a large number of case studies of the pattern of

development of destinations, but they were based on a shallow theoretical foundation.

3.6.5 Destination Development

Hettne (1995) divided the destination development theory into development ideology

(the ends) and development strategy (the means). Development strategy is the means

of implementing the development process guided by a specific ideology. Sachs (1996,

p.1) opined ‘development stands like a ruin in the intellectual landscape as problems

such as global poverty still exists’. If, however, tourism was to be an agent of

development, it was important to understand the theoretical concepts behind the term

development and what the ideology was behind the strategy driving tourism

development. The nature of development, the nature of the tourism industry, the

nature of tourists and the nature of the destination were four broader aspects of

tourism development on which destination strategies were based. However, the

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appropriateness of tourism development was considered within the parameters of

socioeconomic, geographic and political considerations in the destination.


The article ‘Development of Tourism in Goa’ written by Kamath U.D. ( 1996)

explained all round development approaches for Goa in which he evaluated attraction

features, seasonality, tourist arrivals, diversification of markets, infrastructure (mainly

transportation and accommodation), basic amenities and all the sincere efforts made

by the government and other government owned authorities.


Battacharyya B. (1996, 57-66) in his article “Tourism in the Himalaya in the context

of Darjeeling and Sikkim”, explained how the discovery and development of urban-

centric tourism resulted in a congestion and degradation in the quality of the natural

environment. So, he recommended decentralized tourism development and

introduction of types and forms of tourism keeping in view the sustainable use of its

natural and cultural resources. Effective land use planning, diversification of tourist

traffic, choice of types and forms of tourism and above all a trend to sustainable

practice was recommended.


In his book “Handbook of Effective Travel and Tourism” Sethi P. (1999) explained

that tourism development was considered to be a dynamic, continuous and ever

changing process with an emphasis on a balance between the development

opportunities and industrial capabilities, both of which were determined by the

external and internal environment respectively. He recommended a detailed

environmental study and consideration of significant environmental changes by the

policy makers and the need for adoption of a proactive approach in environmental

monitoring and management. In his book, Sethi exposed numerous factors affecting

the development of the tourism industry and numerous complex interactions between

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them. He advocated important issues in a systematic way and with a holistic

perspective. He emphasized on a system approach with the resolution of any complex

system into a number of simpler components and the identification of important

linkages between them.


In his book, Encyclopedia of Tourism Jafari, J. (2000, p.145) dealt with the

development of tourism into three main eras. Era of craftsmanship- characterized by

spontaneous development and by scarce skills and technological applications. Era of

Fordism-- characterized by search for profit through standardization and mass

production. New Tourism Era- primarily characterized by segmentation of demand,

flexibility of supply and diagonal integration. Jafari J. also explained how Tourism

product and tourist destination were confusing and contradictory. From the

perspective of the tourists, the term destination was simply a geographical unit within

which a number of differing products could be purchased and experienced whereas

the destination organization’s perspective was all inclusive in that it planed,

developed, promoted, the entire state/ destination region.


Russo (2000) addressed the concept of “vicious circle” of tourism development to

describe the self-feeding linkage between the emergence of a class of excursionists

among the visitors in the later stages of the tourism destination life-cycle and the

decline in the attractiveness of the city. According to this scheme, effective policies

for sustainable tourism attacked the critical points where the vicious circle fed. He

suggested to draw the adequate attention to maintain the quality and accessibility of

the primary and complementary tourism products.


Being a proactive and future oriented thinker, Dann (2002) elucidated that destination

development process considered acknowledgement of final restrictions (instead of

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continuous expansion and product promotion), growth of environmental awareness,

increase of capital expenses ( competition between competing sectors education and

health), rapid development of technology, continuation of globalization process

( growing need of being pro-active); growth of tension in tourism development

between a centre and periphery, continuation of diversification of tourism demand

(concurrent with the change of life-style).


According to Krippendorf J. (1999), development and progress of tourism should be

measured in terms of higher incomes, more satisfying jobs, social and cultural

facilities, better housing etc. and the aims should not be just a higher gross national

incomes and products but more gross national happiness’. He remarked, ‘though the

glorifications of statistical records are still widespread in tourism policy, yet it does

not mean a priori success in revitalizing the economy and greater prosperity’. So,

development policies therefore considered economic and socio-cultural benefits to the

host community, farming and forestry, handicrafts, small scale industry and a non-

tourist service were decided to be promoted and was given the same priority as tourist

development. The measures for development included a gradual cut-down of tourism

oriented construction industry and the redundant work force employed in the hotel

industry ; a combination of compatible trades and its promotion; an encouragement

activities protecting environment and ecology ; purchase of agricultural land by local

authorities and sell it to young farmers; generous compensation paid to farmers; use

of locally available produces ; transformation of non tourist services in the public and

private sectors from towns to their outskirts.


In his book “Aspect of Tourism Development”, Dixit, S.K. (2005) deeply engrossed

into the various aspects of development and strategic implications. In his book he

discussed the development of tourism with twelve chapters. He emphasized on the

macro-micro environmental analysis, SWOT Analysis, Strategic directions and

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methods of development, global strategies, present and future management trends and

implications of sustainability. According to him, the development strategies would be

useful to tour operator, manager, hotelier, developer, and planner.


In his article, “Modeling Tourism Development: Evolution, growth and decline”,

Butler R.( 2006) emphasized that description and explanation of development

process is more important than the forecasting of tourist numbers and a typical

tendency leading to a marketing orientation and predictive planning. Here evolution

of destinations implied an organic change over time, generally but not exclusively in

one direction, incorporating existing development, rather than a revolutionary pattern

of development whereby previous developments were removed or drastically changed

very suddenly. One of the earliest revolutionary approaches was that tourist

destinations evolved from discovery to popularity to decline (Christaller). According

to the author, a much more influential paper was introduced by Plog (1974) though it

was criticized for being over simplified and based on limited research and deductions.

Plog (1974) placed various destinations on a spectrum of types of tourists, suggesting

that the market for destinations would change over time, both in terms of the types of

tourists and in terms of potential numbers of visitors.


In her article ‘‘Managing Tourism Destinations’’, Sigala (2008) discussed the

determinants of travel choice, tourism planning and policy making, development

stages and factors affecting the evolution of destination, and impacts on society and

the environment. Here, the first issue the determinants of travel choice included

traveler characteristics, the market, sources of travel information and the destinations.

The second issue planning and policy making included a partnership and

collaboration mechanism for policy decision making, strategic planning and

implementation, quality and human resource management, crisis and disaster

management, tourism satellite accounts and technology. The third issue development

and evolution was a more concrete section, dealing with the development stages and

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factors responsible therein. The forth issue impacts on society and the environment

dealt with the socio-economic and environmental impacts of tourism.


The book, “Tourism Development Revisited: Concepts, Issues and Paradigms”,

edited by S. Babu, S, Mishra, S., Parida, B. B. (2008), exuberated a strong tourism

development literature considering development patterns and its interrelationship. S.

Babu S examined the continuous issues of disciplinary and industrial nature of

tourism with the view of researches choosing to come out of research funding trap to

consider critically engaged and reflexive enquiries. According to Miguela Mena,

tourism is already a recognized component of many developing economics but its

contribution largely depends on the initiatives to be taken for its development. The

strategy must include enlisting local participation, involving both control over

tourism and a fair share in the benefits of tourism. Lingyun Zhang and Xiaoiu Ma

examined tourism development (in China) from the perspective of new institution

economics to complement the travel trade that is experiencing tremendous changes.

After analyzing the operational structure and functioning of the tourism industry, they

argued that most integration exercises in China have failed due to the problems of

high guarantee fee, non-structured products, high entry barriers, high transaction and

suck cost, thereby limiting the capital flow and integration in the industry.

Mukhopadhayay D. traverses through a less traveled path in the subject of tourism by

establishing the relationship between tourism and economic development with

empirical studies and in Indian perspective.


In his book “ Atithi Devo Bhavah (Guest Mananagement)”, Singh R.K. (2009) said

that the broad objectives of future tourism development in India would be oriented to

an accorded status in the national agenda for action and its eco-friendly sustainable

development. The target of tourist arrivals to/in India revolved around its importance

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of creating awareness and people’s participation, improving the quality of services,

identifying the needs for a new thrust in image building, improving organizational

capabilities and looking for other areas of resource generation. Besides, making

travel a pleasurable experience, basic cleaning and hygiene facilities, care for heritage

properties, uniform standard for all facilities and services and setting a common

platform for all parties involved in the industry would certainly bring about a new

orientation for tourism development in India.


In their article, “Potential Tourist Destination Development in the Istrian

Countryside”, Vodeb K., & Rudež H.N. (2010) explored how the modern

comprehension of tourist behavior shown an urgent need to create a tourist

destination as a system. They emphasized on the supply side aspects of tourism and

its proper integration and coordination. The paper analyzed tourists’ attitudes in an

area appropriate for rural tourism towards sustainable tourist supply. An empirical

research was carried among the sample of 538 tourists in the tourist destinations. The

distinct characteristics and preferences were found and an immediate advocacy

oriented to marketing efforts was made to attract target markets of tourists.


In the article “Impact of firewood extraction on tree structure, regeneration and

woody biomass productivity in a trekking corridor of the Sikkim Himalaya” written

by Chettri, N., Sharma E., & Deb D.C., & Sundriyal R.C. ( 2002, May) explained

how tourism in Sikkim was a rapidly growing industry and recorded a roughly 10

fold increase in visitors during the past 2 decades. The authors mentioned in their

article that how the phenomenon resulted in encroachment on the forest for firewood

(Rai and Sundriyal 1997; Chettri 2000). They mentioned that although the

Government regulation in Sikkim forbade the use of firewood in remote trekking

areas yet the trekking support staff and travel agents were still continuing the use of

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firewood in remote trekking areas resulting in various environmental degradation

including deforestation, landslides, avalanche etc.

3.6.20 Accessibility to Destination

In the article “Interest based formulation of tourism policy for environmentally

sensitive destinations,” Ritchi J.R.B. (1999) discussed about the introduction of the

long distance aircrafts after the 2nd World War helped many destinations to achieve

success. Most of these destinations achieved success not by dint of their strategy and

management but was a matter of luck and chance. In effect, market affluence and lack

of competition combined with minimal concern for environmental protection, allowed

many well-endowed destinations the luxury of ignoring the need for professional

management of their tourism resources. Recently, found realities facing the tourism

sector had been changing radically.

3.6.21 Accessibility to Destination

In their article “Modeling Tourist Movements: A Local Destination Analysis”, Lew

A. & Mckercher B.(2006) explained that understanding the intra destination

movement of tourists contributed to the practical application for destination

management, product development and attraction marketing. Modeling tourist

movement within a destination was based upon urban transport modeling and tourist

behavior. Factors identified included a set of destination pattern characteristics and a

set of movement patterns in two ways, resulting in four types of territorial and three

linear path models.

3.6.22 Destination Competitiveness

Dwyer L and Kim C (2003) brought about three major views with regard to the

notion of destination competitiveness. These were: (a) Comparative advantage and/or

price competitiveness perspective. (b) A strategy and management perspective (c) A

historical and socio-cultural perspective. Economists placed emphasis on price and

the country-specific economic characteristics of competitiveness, the management

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and strategy researchers focused on the firm-specific characteristics, while the focus

of sociologists and political theorists has been on various social, political and cultural

characteristics underlying the notion of competitiveness. But all groups suggested

different indicators to measure competitiveness.

3.6.23 Destinations Competitiveness

In the conference proceedings, ‘‘Destinations Competitiveness in Modern Tourism’’,

Vlahovic S. (2010) sought tourism strategies balancing and coordinating with broader

economic, socio-cultural and environmental objectives, and typically oriented to the

destination itself and the participation and consultation of various stakeholders. This

paper had four objectives: to develop a model of destination competitiveness that

identifies key success factors in determining destination competitiveness; to develop

an appropriate set of indicators of destination competitiveness; to highlight the

advantages and limitations of the model; and to identify areas for further conceptual

and empirical research. The development of a model of destination competitiveness

and an associated set of indicators allowed identification of the relative strengths and

weaknesses of different tourism destinations, and could be used by industry and

governments to increase tourism numbers and expenditure, and enhance

socioeconomic prosperity. Furthermore, it aimed towards indicating key roles and

factors that would help destinations minimize weaknesses and threats and maximize

opportunities and strengths in order to implement their development strategies more

effective.

3.6.24 Destination Competitiveness

In their article, “Strategic Success in winter sports destinations: a sustainable value

creation perspective” Flagestad A., & Hope C.A. (2001), emphasized on the

management of environmentally sensitive mountainous areas and villages. They

opined that the survival and development of winter sports destinations are to a large

extent centered around strategies for creating competitive advantage and at the same

time meeting the criteria of sustainable tourism laid down by the UNWTO and

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thereby combining these two concepts to get strategic performance. Here they tried to

build the model to get the most suitable organizational structure of winter sports

destinations which will lead to superior performance in terms of strategic success.

3.6.25 Destination Development and Role of Government:

The article ‘‘The Impact of Environmental Policy on the Tourism Industry in

Taiwan’’ , written by Lin Y. and Hemmington N.(1993), investigated the influence of

government environmental policy on the tourism industry through in-depth interview

and addressed the controversy over government attitude towards tourism

development, the role of tourism in the lives of the local people, the mutual

agreement that there was no conflict between development of tourism and

environmental protection and more specifically pollution issues. They also addressed

the result of implementation of the environmental policy in the hotel sector by

considering different factors such as pollution control legislation, choice of location,

investment opportunities and fiscal control, size and ownership, market and

competitive environment.

3.6.26 Destination Development and Role of Government:

In his book, “The Beautiful India” (Sikkim) Rahman S.A (2006) stated that during

10th Economic Plan period the Government of Sikkim laid emphasis on the

promotion and development of various small scale industries and tourism. The

industrial policy of the State, which was extended in the year 2003, provided special

package for development of industries in the state on the line of North-East industries

policy. This policy also entailed granting of financial concessions to 12 identified

thrust areas in industries of where they are located in the state.

3.6.27 Destination Development through Community Participation

In the article “Tourism Planning, People and the Environment in Western Australia”

Dowling R.K.( 1993) discussed about a survey of 109 residents and 218 tourists of

Shark Bay, Western Australia in 1990 to 1991 to determine their attitudes to tourism

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and the environment. The results indicated that the residents placed more emphasis on

tourism development while the tourists gave greater weight to environmental

protection. Both groups indicated a preference for small-scale developments and

believe that tourism was needed to be integrated with the overall conservation and

land management of the region. A number of recreational and touristic activities

which were perceived to be environmentally harmful were noted, as well as others

which were viewed as being environmentally compatible and, therefore, acceptable.

The findings had direct management applications as the region was undergoing a

tourism boom and was proclaimed the first World Heritage Area in the state.

3.6.28 Destination Development through Community Participation:

In his book, ‘‘Tourism: A Community Approach’’, Murphy P. E. (2002) focused on

tourism in the industrial areas, with an investigating perspective based upon the

destination community. It was because industrial nations from the major tourist-

generating and receiving areas, with domestic tourism outstripping international

travel by a four to one margin. In an area of uncertainty and individual restraint such

a margin were magnified as people holiday closer to home. Destinations committed

themselves in tourism, or planning to embrace this activity, were logical bases from

which to assess the industry. They represented the industry’s shop floor, where visitor

and host meet, where impacts are felt most keenly, and where the hope of corporate

and government planning was expected to lie. Murphy, P.E. (2002, p.160) also

discussed that a master plan is a comprehensive detailing of guidelines for

development. It was the outcome of (i) defined goals and objectives, (ii) the

collection and analysis of market and resource data, (iii) the development of strategy

alternatives, and (iv) the political decision making process.


“Tourism in Destination Communities”, edited by Singh S., Timothy D.J., & Dowling R.K. (2003), was broadly divided into three parts viz. community tourism perspectives, community tourism dynamics,

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challenges and opportunities for destination communities. The first part ‘community tourism perspectives’, dealt with the interrelationship between tourism and local people, diverse structural nature of destination communities based on morphological traits, various efforts to place destination communities into a broad based typology of tourism-destination relationship. The anthropological and aboriginal issues relating to the identity heritage, economic and present socio-cultural issues, political issues, rights, responsibilities and ethical issues contributing to the proactive and sustainable practices were taken into account in the second part of the book. The third part was essentially addressing and entering into the deep aspects of tourism development and planning, considering the level or extent of involvement of locale people, attitudes of hosts, and inclusion or presentation of hosts in destination marketing.


Marcouiller, D. W., & Prey, J. (2004) mentioned that the supply of recreation and its

linkage to tourism ensured important regional development dimensions. He

proceeded with an idea that outdoor recreation and tourism appeal was a community

development strategy because of several relatively recent trends that included general

increases in leisure demand, changing rural economic patterns, perceptions of tourism

as a clean industry, relatively low capital requirements for business, and other

community development benefits (Frederick 1993; Power 1996; Marcouiller 1997).

He said, the empirical linkage between recreation sites and community development

indicators was complex, ill-defined, and often intractable (Dissart 2003).


In their book “Strategic Management for Tourism Communities: Bridging the Gaps”,

P.E. Murphy, & Murphy A.N.(2006) advocated a solid understanding of the business

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and community aspects of tourism as resources can be squandered on inappropriate

tourism developments that fail to meet the expectations of either the hosts or the

tourists. According to them, the entrance of the community in the global tourism

market resulted in two negative aspects. The first one was to misread the market and

the community’s true competitive position within that market and the second one was

when a community of a successful destination failed to appreciate changes that

tourism can bring.


In the article “Community Capacity Building: An Emerging Challenge for Tourism

Development” Moscardo G. (2008) considered tourism development and more

specifically community based tourism development with various avenues opened for

community development through tourism activities. He also said that community

development through tourism could bring about equality, justice and social dignity.

But to ensure a sustainable orientation in community development the need for

impact assessment was advocated. Community development through tourism and its

impacts were multidimensional and was subject to the problems and prospects related

to a particular destination. The article has identified and analyzed several barriers to

effective tourism development including a model for community capacity building for

tourism management. The challenge for this model was that there existed critical gaps

in our knowledge of how to achieve the goals embedded in the community capacity-

building approach to tourism development. An understanding of the processes dealing

with tourism impacts and an understanding of effective ways to enhance a

community’s collective tourism knowledge contributing to planning and evaluation

were considered in the model along with the mechanisms for improving community

participation.

3.6.33 Development through Community Participation:

In their article, “Community Based Tourism Development: A Case Study of Eco

Village Sari in Kedarnath Sanctuary Region”, Gupta S.K. and Bhatt. V.P. ( 2010)

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addressed philosophical changes in tourism development from conventional mass

tourism to the adoption of alternative tourism through many frameworks and

strategies. They analyzed and interpreted socio-economic impacts of tourism and

reviewed the opportunities and challenges for community based tourism through

SWOT analysis and opinion survey.

3.6.34 Sustainable Destination Development

Towards the approaches to sustainable tourism development Augustyn (1998)

strongly prescribed the need for environmental, social and economic sustainability or

two or more of its combination. She also discussed about a range varying from

different types of sustainability to its ways and means of integration that requires

strategic management of the overall development process. The author opined that the

chosen tourism and associated activities could contribute to a planned development.

A Strategic Tourism Unit (STU) was also suggested in order to implement the

strategy relation to each of these products. Identification of barriers e.g. legal,

financial, fiscal etc. was suggested as one of the important activities of STUs.

Establishment of a system of the Destination Tourism Brand Products, with brand

managers appointed in order to coordinate the actions associated with each of the

brand products, was also recommended by this Polish experience of tourism

development. Strategy for the development of tourism can be based upon SWOT

analysis prior to its formulation. Strategy formulation was also based upon analysis

and assessment of resources and identification of growth areas. According to this

experience, strategy represented a vision for future tourism development, defined the

target markets, business goals and development priorities. Strategy also exhibited

action plan considering time and funding constraints, training and marketing action

plan considering time and funding constraints, training and marketing actions and

changes in organization structure.

3.6.35 Destination Development and Integrated Tourism Planning:

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In his article “Problems and Issues of Integrating Tourism Development” Butler R.W.

(2005) highlighted different meanings and implications of the term integration in

tourism with the changing time and facets. Since the era of newly introduced mass

tourism to the modern complex supply side developmental aspects of destinations, the

term integration included and changed several meanings but the core point is the

success of tourism development depends largely on integration at destination level;

industry level or such other levels as may be required. To most planners, developers

and managers efficiency is a goal to be achieved, and steps and processes which need

the process of completion and acceptability of development are to be welcomed as a

mean to achieve sustainability. The policy issues in integration included priority,

control, scale, stage, and timing of development, community harmony and conflict.

3.6.36 HR Issues in Destination Development:

The book “HRM in Hotel and Tourism Industry: Existing Trends and Practices”,

written by Singh P.K. (2008) addressed a diagnostic checklist, employee education

and training with respect to the recent trends in the hospitality and tourism industry.

Steps in developing HRM strategy and diagnostic checklists were outlined based on

case studies and educational syllabi. This book further addressed the issue of human

resource training with reference to the union certification elections, trainers chart,

food service management, women chefs, associations.

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3.7 Emerging Scope and Areas of Destination Marketing Ritchi J.R.B. (1999) noticed that the general market affluence has been replaced by

highly specific market niches, each having very individualistic characteristics,

incomes and behaviors. Societal concerns for environmental protection placed new

constraints on both the development and operation of destination facilities. At the

same time, the emergence of many new highly attractive and/or complementary

destinations often having considerable cost advantages has dramatically altered the

intensity of competition in the marketplace. As a consequence, destinations that failed

to take a proactive management action have greater risk to follow stagnation and/or

decline.

The ‘Tourism Industry’ is a ‘market’ (tourist-needs), as opposed to ‘product’ (tourism

facilities) driven industry. Therefore the market needs and demands need to be

understood and taken into account prior to providing recommendations for product

development support (Kwazulu-Natal Tourism Authority, 2002).

In the book, “Trends in Tourism promotion; Emerging Issues”, Bagri S.C. ( 2003)

tried to emphasize the need and importance of setting up of a standing Himalayan

Tourism Advisory Board ( HIMTAB) for inter-state cooperation in the development

of hill tourism through joint marketing, publicity and promotion and initiating

innovative development plans in close interaction with the tourism industry.

Nicolau J.L., &. Más F.J. (2006) explained how the existence of strong heterogeneous

tourism demand was introducing a wide and diverse range of market segmentation for

the choice of a destination with an increasing emphasis on relationship marketing as

the analysis of tourist destination choice represented one of the most fruitful lines of

investigation in Tourism studies (Fesenmaier et al., 2002), and distinguished various

approaches to the definition of tourist destination. Alternatively, this study presented

the innovation of identifying decision processes individual by individual, tourist by

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tourist. To achieve this, the authors proposed a segmentation of the tourism market

based on revealed preferences towards a destination. These reveal preferences had the

twofold implication that allowed to form groups of tourists with similar preferences

or to treat them individually. The second section reviewed the analysis of choice in

tourism, in which the authors stated the importance of studying the choice behavior

of tourists, through revealed preferences and compared them with stated preference

with a viable literature survey of destination choice and related attributes. The third

section presented the research design, in which the detail of the methodology applied

and the sample and data used. The fourth section showed the results obtained, both

from the estimation of the utility function for each tourist and from the segmentation

analysis. In the fifth section, the implications for management and future lines of

research was discussed.

In their article “An Assessment of Service Quality in Vietnam: The Cross-Cultural

Perspectives of Chinese and American Tourists” , Truong and King ( 2006), have

discussed and analyzed the wide ranging destination market segments varying from

visitor demographics , travel characteristics to important supply led aspects of a

destination. The distinctive feature of the article was to the recognition and analysis

of Cross-Cultural issues between United States of America and Vietnam. They

addressed important origin-destination specific socio-cultural issues and how those

issues were contributing to the development of effective marketing mix including a

distinct Unique Selling Proportion.

In their article, “Cross Cultural Tourism Marketing” Chan P. and Pizam A. (2006)

differentiated cross cultural marketing from international marketing. International

marketing implied marketing across the globe and cross cultural borders but it did not

intend to cover marketing efforts domestically within multicultural nations. They

explained how nationality, ethnicity, culture and sub-culture influence destination

choice, tourist activities, expectation, perception and quality of services.

Traditionally, the elements of culture and its changes found significant implications

as the cultures throughout the world covered but retained their uniqueness. So they

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discussed strategies with respect to each element of marketing and how to gain brand

equity.

In his book “Tourism Product and Services: Development Strategy and Management

Options” Sharma J.K. (2007) emphasized on product development and its

improvement of quality related services. Contemporary tourism services, tourism

product development, sustainable tourism product development, quality management

in tourism, sustainable tourism certification and training, tourism product

development strategy, management and research.

In his article, “Marketing National Parks Using Ecotourism as a Catalyst”, Wearing,

S. (2008) addressed the confusion and controversies surrounding tourism practices in

the places/ national parks where eco tourism played the role of a catalyst. He

emphasized more on marketing that brought an alternative paradigm and made it

possible to increase the breadth and depth of understanding as to how these places/

parks were needed to shift their management approaches and to increase a ‘new

view’. Later he admitted that the low intensity, small scale ecotourism development

may be feasible only in the early phases and will bring contention and contradiction

with the passage of time as the intention of profit maximization increases. So, the

generic term destination has several meanings ranging from the geographical

perspective to a product to be consumed or an experience to be gained. It can be a

place to be visited repeatedly to a place of life time experience. Having been

extensively interrelated and interdependent with geography, sociology, environmental

science, economics, anthropology, commerce and trade etc., modern tourism has

always unified itself with a dominant role of marketing management. But the

marketing orientation of tourist destination has been changing with the relevance and

inclusion of many existing and new subjects as destination development literature

needs a solid support from other subjects with respect to a specific market orientation

i.e. the key factor of the demand-supply equilibrium in this open market economy of

the world. Prioritizing destination marketing and its ever changing aspects will

certainly contribute to the all stakeholders and as such will bring in an adoption of

green marketing approaches. But destination marketing is different in that here the

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product formulation and the product itself are multiple and jointly contributing to the

experience. Consumption of a place is also different from the residence of the

customers and the derived demand should not exceed the actual demand though both

of them need to be properly integrated. Many tourism products can target different

group of customers at a time or during different seasons e.g. Sikkim can target mass

and non mass tourists both or differentiate customer segments with the changes in

season. De-marketing strategy could also be seen in many places to maintain the

carrying capacity level (as the supply is lumpy) and quality of the product. The most

important feature of the destination marketing and management in respect of the

product quality is the specification of its parameters. Since such specification

describes the service and defines its features, it should be the most comprehensive

description of all product aspects needed to meet the consumer expectations in the

best possible way. Thus he emphasized on the strategy formulation for tourism

product development to get synergetic value from each component of tourism product

and thereby to ensure integrated quality management. The right strategy will help in

achieving a sustainable tourism development in the region and will increase the

quality of overall tourism products to the natural and anthropogenic features of the

destination.

In his article “ Demographic Profile of the Tourist: A Case Study of Tourist’s Purpose

of Visit to Jammu and Kashmir State”, Choudhury, U. ( 2010) enlightened on

demographic profile of tourists visiting Jammu and Kashmir and how the

characteristics are contributing to the purpose of visit or selection of a destination or a

set of destination found therein. He has also considered the destination Unique

Selling Proportion (USP) at the same time and its influences on demographic profile

ultimately contributing to the destination choice.

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3.8 ConclusionThe review of literature is broadly divided into six categories, covering the term (i)

destination (ii) its planning, (iii) management (iv) strategy (v) development and (vi)

emerging scope and areas of destination marketing. The multi-disciplinary issues of

the generic term ‘destination’, confusion and similar notions, narrow and holistic

concepts, managerial implications, planning, policy and formulation of strategy have

been addressed in the first and second phases. Considering the emerging issues and

changing aspects of ‘destination’ and its ‘management’, all possible areas of

destination- management and development through different means and ways have

been addressed in the third and forth phases. Through survey, it is found that the

development of any tourist destination from time to time need support from within

the destination called supply domain comprising all supply components and their

beneficiaries. To reach the maturity of tourism development in a destination,

innovation, importance or acceptability, involvement, investment and identity/image

are the most required five elements. Therefore, the fifth phase is addressing and

dealing with the initiatives and perceptions of the government and other private

bodies with regarded to those five elements contributing to the development of

tourism in Sikkim. The sixth phase is dealing with the emerging issues in destination

marketing and its changing aspects keeping in view its traditional dominant roles to

maintain either side of demand and supply in tourism industry. Instead of marketing

for goods or services, the literature survey directly advocated destination marketing

principles for tourism with distinct characteristics.

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3.9 References:

1. Ansoff, H.I. (1968). Corporate strategy. Mc Graw Hill, New York.

2. Aronsson L.( 2000). The development of sustainable tourism, ( pp.127-168).

London and New York: Continuum.

3. Athiyaman, A. (1995). The Interface of Tourism and Strategy Research: An

Analysis.Tourism Management, 16(6):447–53.

4. Bagri, S.C., (2003). Trends in tourism promotion (emerging issues). Himalayan

Eco Tourism Society. Sri Nagar, Garhwal: Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh

( 23-A Connaught Place, Dehradun).

5. Baker K. Kerala’s strategy for tourism growth: A southern approach to

development and poverty alleviation. In Burns P., & Novelli M. ( Ed.) (2008).

Tourism development: Growths, myths and inequalities , ( pp.192-216). UK:

CABI.

6. Battacharya, B. Tourism in the Himalaya in the context of Darjeeling and

Sikkim. In Singh, S., & Singh, T. ( Ed.). (1996). Profiles in Indian Tourism (pp.

57-66). New Delhi: A.P.H. Publishing Corporation.

7. Budowski, G. (1976) Tourism and conservation: Conflict, co-existence or

symbiosis? Environmental Conservation 3 (1), 27–31.

8. Buhalis, D. (1997). Information Technlogy as a Strategic Tool for Economic,

Social, Cultural and Environmental Benefits Enhancement of Tourism at

Destination Regions. Progress in Tourism and Hospitality Research, 3(1), 71-

93. John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

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9. Buhalis, D. (1999). Tourism on the Greek Islands: Issues of peripherality,

competitiveness and development. International Journal of Tourism Research,

1(1), 341-358. John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

10. Buhalis, D. (2000). Marketing the competitive destination of the future. Tourism

Management, 21(1), 97 -116.

11. Butler,R.W. (1980). The Concept of the tourist area cycle of evolution:

Implementations for management of resources. Canadian Geographer,24, 5-12.

12. Buhalis D.,& Costa C.(Eds.).( 2006).Tourism business frontiers: Consumers,

products and industry. London: Elsevier.

13. Buhalis D.,& Costa C. (Eds.).(2006).Tourism Management Dynamics: Trends,

management and tools. Oxford: Elsevier, Butterworth-Heinemann.

14. Burns, P., & Novelli, M. (Eds.). (2008). Tourism Development: Growths, Myths

and Inequalities. London: CABI.

15. Butler,R.W. (1980). The Concept of the tourist area cycle of evolution:

Implementations for management of resources. Canadian Geographer,24, 5-12.

16. Butler R. (2005). Modeling tourism development: Evolution, growth and

decline. In Wahab S. & Pigram J.J.( Ed.). Tourism development and growth:

The challenge of sustainability (pp.101-118). London & New York: Routledge.

9. Butler R.W. Problems and issues of integrating tourism development. In Pearce

D.G., & Butler R. (Ed.). (2005). Contemporary Issues in Tourism Development

(pp.65-79.) London: Routledge, Taylor and Francis e-Library.

17. Dixit S. K. (2005). Aspects of tourism development (Eds.). New Delhi: Mohit

Publications.

18. Doswell, R. ( 1997). Tourism: How Effective Management Makes the Difference

(Eds.). New Delhi: Butterworth Heinemann.

19. Dowling R. K. (Ed.). Ecotourism Policy and Planning ( pp. 205-233 ) .CABI

Publishing.

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Fennell D. A., & Dowling R. (2003). Ecotourism Policy and Planning:

Stakeholders, Management and Governance. In Fennell D. A. and Dowling R.

(Eds).Ecotourism Policy and Planning. CABI Publishing.

20. Hettne, B. (1995) Development Theory and the Three Worlds. New York: Longman.

21. Higginbottom K, & Scott N.(2004). Wildlife Tourism: A Strategic Destination

Analysis. In Karen Higginbottom , K. (Eds.). Wildlife tourism impacts,

management and planning (pp. 253-277). Australia : Common Ground

Publishing Pvt. Ltd.

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Chapter 3- Review of Literature - Information and …shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/21917/5/chap... · Web viewReview of literature is required for the basic purpose of