Chapter 3

Ground Water Resources of Bangladesh

Chapter 3

Ground Water Resources of Bangladesh

Ground water is a renewable natural resource and has the remarkable distinction of being highly

dependable, safe and ubiquitous. These attributes in conjunction with rapid strides in mral .

electrification and easy financing through institutional sources have been instrumental in spectacular

expansion in the exploitation of ground water in the last few decades, world wide.1

The Ganga-Meghna delta in Bangladesh is a vast alluvial tract having about7.5m ha of

cropland.The land surface of the delta hardly ever rises 20m above sealevel. In the

coastal/Sunderbans area shallow aquifers are invariably encountered. By 1985 none of the ground

water boreholes had drilled to the entire depth span of the plio-pliestocene fresh water aquifer

system.2 Fig 3-1

So far ground water development in Bangladesh has been carried out in the northern,

northwestern and southeastern regions down to the upper part of the regional aquifers. Ground

water withdrawals are effected by overlOO,OOO shallow tubewells, 20,000 deep tubewells and a

large number of dugwells. Expansion of irrigation facilities through shallow tube wells has

largely contributed to agricultural production in the recent years.

Paul Jones an American expert, attempted a sub surface geological cross-section across

Bangladesh, in a NW _ SE direction making use of electric and gamma ray logs. These indicate the

presence of six deep fresh water artesian aquifers. Except for the first aquifer which is regionally

extensive from Rajshahi to the Chittagong hill tracts, the other five aquifers appear to be

separated by regionally extensive clay aquitards. However, there is a strand of saline water with a

significant dip in the central region.3

The regionally extensive top one (first aquifer), referred to as the main aquifer in Bangladesh·

gets sizeable recharge from inundation. It appears that this aquifer and the streams in the deltaic

plains are in hydraullic continuity, a factor which would mutually affect withdrawals from either.

The artesian aquifers underlying the Bangladesh plains, according to Paul Jones, are

hydraulically unconnected with either Aquifer Nol or any river or streams. These fresh water deep

1 Ahmed, Q.K., Ahmed Nilufer, Rasheed K.B., "Resources Environment and Development in Bangladesh (with particular reference to the GBM basin)", Academic Publisher 1994. 2 Verghese, and lyer R.R. (eds.), "Harnessing the Eastern Himalayan Rivers: Regional Cooperation in South Asia", Konarak Publishers. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 1993. B. G.,

3 Palmer Jones, R.W., "Ground Water Management in Bangladeesh: Review, Issues and Implications for the Poor", paper presented at the Workshop of Ground Water Management, IRMA, Anand, 1989.

87

_.Location of geological section

' ,. I

{~ Gabargaon

Bahadulabad Sirajganj Nagarbari

Faridpur Sibaloya ----------- -----. ~-- -----------------------------.-:.-. -\.o. _.------------ _________________ ------:-:-:-:-:-:-:-: - -------------.,;.-... --~-----· .o.............. .. . . . . . ........ ---- ---------------

~-. -·-·· -·-··-.: ... · :. .......... -------- -----------

Khulna Mongla

. -~~-·-~:~· ~-:. ~.: -=~·:::-: ·:::·:::;~~~! ~~:~!:~::~-:~:-: ~:-:~::~:~~~!~:~::~:..~;:~:-:~:-:·:.-·-.-·-.-_____ ., ___ --

0 50 km

.-- .-=- . ..:. .:. ..:.. .:.. ,:_. :_. :..: • . . . . ----

(28320+1750) -1440

.. . . . . ------ --------------------.. ~ ...... -.-~----. ............ .

.................... . . ' .................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . " . . . . . . . .. .......... • ............ . . . . .. . . . . . - ...... .

§ clay D . 0 - silt § .

~ sandy silt, silty sand miiiii

Figure 3-1 Cross-section of deposits in Bengal delta. Source: Umitsu (1987).

- - _ ... ;_ ... _ -----. 7". :-' ,....--.-----+--

sand

·sand and gravel

hard clay

aquifers underlie around half the delta area. He estimates they constitute a great water resource

potential capable of large scale development through naturally flowing deep artesian well fields~

Rural electrification coupled with assured power supply is the backbone of ground water

development in so far as it provides the most economical and efficient means of lifting water.

Diesel pumping and animal operated appliances are cumbersome and more expensive.

The factors which merit consideration for any ground water development program are its

occurrence and availability, method of exploitation, sound management policies and effective

conservation. Ground water reservoirs are yet to be used for storing flood flows for subsequent

use in dry periods as also for flood moderation.

Optimum ground water development is achieved m most cases by balancing average

replenishment with average discharge. An important aspect of scientific management lies in

providing for better natural and artificial recharge. This can be obtained by comprehensive

knowledge of the hydro-geology of ground water reservoirs. In most ground water reservoirs,

particularly those formed by thick and regionally extensive unconsolidated to semi consolidated

sediments, the quantity of storage is many times the annual recharge. In any one year by judicious

extraction with-drawls can exceed recharge without causing permanent depletion. However on a

long- term basis, while dry and wet years tend to balance out, with-drawls must result in an

overdraft, if mean recharge is consistently exceeded.

In the GBM basin, the ground water structure by and large falls under 3 categories, namely dug­

wells, private-tube-wells, and public tube-wells. The alluvial plains support a large number of such

structures, which constitute the main source of water supply for domestic consumption, farmlands

and certain industries. In the plains dugwells generally tap the pheratic aquifer usually found within

20 meters of the surface. In hard rock terrains, dug-cum- bored wells and bored wells are becoming

popular. Private tubewells on the other hand tap the semi confined aquifers occuring at 50-70 m

depth and obtain copious supplies. Both types of wells are con structed, owned, maintained and

operated by farmers. Public tubewells constructed by the government generally tap relatively deeper

aquifers in the alluvial areas mostly in the range 200 to 300 meters and are designed to irrigate 60 to

100 hectares.5

In Bangladesh, ground water levels are highest from August through October and lowest in

April and May. A sharp rise in water level generally begins in May and continues until July. The

4 Jones Paul, H., "Deep Aquifer Exploration Project in the Ganges and Bengal basin in India," Report for the World Bank, June1987

5 Verghese and Iyer R.R. (eds.), "Harnessing the Eastern Himalayan Rivers: Regional Cooperation in South Asia", 1993, opcit.

88

range of fluctuation is from three to six meters in most areas. After July, the rate of rise decreases and

in may areas ground water levels remain almost stationary from August to October, indicating

rejection of recharge because the aquifer is filled to capacity. The rejected recharge varies form place

to place and depends upon several factors, including permeability of surface materials, rainfall

amount and intensity, and the time factor. Highest potential recharge occurs in Dinajpur, Mymensing,

Sylhet, Noakhali, and Chittagong, and the lowest potential recharge occurs in Western Bangladesh in

Rajshahi, Kushtia, and Pabna.6

The high microbiological quality of ground water, the stability of chemical quality and

temperature and the absence of suspended solids, are attractive attributes for all uses, particularly

public drinking supply. Reserves available in aquifers are normally many hundreds of times

greater than annual replenishment, so reliability is also high. The combination of high reliability

and minimal treatment costs, make ground water highly desirable from an operational and an

economic view point Thus besides surface water, ground water is the other major supplier of

water in Bangladesh, for agricultural, drinking, municipal, and industrial use. The dry season in

Bangladesh, which normally lasts from November to April, is characterized by a drastic reduction

in the discharge of major rivers, drying of water channels, falling water tables, and salinity

encroachment, particularly in the southwest. This is the season of greatest demand for

groundwater, which is used for irrigation and has powered the expansion of cereal production

over the last decadeBut nowadays; the water quality has started deteriorating. There is an increase

in salinity in shallow aquifers in the coastal areas due to decreased outflow?

Estimates of available Ground Water

Estimates of available groundwater for development, determined by the Master Planning

Organization in 1989-90, were based on four distinct models that yielded a range of available

groundwater values within respective confidence bands. (table 1-1)8 Maximum-usable remaining

groundwater was determined by subtracting existing irrigation, domestic, and industrial use from

6 Geology and Ground Water Resources ofBangladesh,Prepared for World Bank,November 1985

7 Bhatia, R. and Falkenmark, "Water Resources Policy and the Urban Poor: innovative approaches and policy imperatives". Working group on 'Water and Sustainable Urban Development", International Conference on water and Environment: Development issues for the 21.1992. 8 Namely the recharge model, the depth storage model, the multicell model, and the resource assessment model. The recharge model computed usable recharge (a conservative version of potential recharge). The resource potential model estimated groundwater development potential for various pump technologies in each area. The multicell model estimated groundwater recharge.

89

maximum-usable groundwater "by technology."7 Phase 2 of the National Water Plan in 1991

suggested that the available recharged groundwater in the five regions was 21,008 million cubic

meters, and that the agricultural industry used 8,406 million cubic meters (table 3-1 ). It estimated

the groundwater-resource potential for agricultural use beyond 1991 at 9,447 million cubic

meters, of which about 8,501 million cubic meters was likely to be exploited by 2010.

Table 3-1. The Groundwater Balance Derived by National Water Plan Phase 2, 199110

(million cubic meters) Resource potential NW NE SE sc sw Total

-AvaiTable rechargea -----------···· 9,786 6,594 1,498 1,249 1961 21,088

-Present agricultural use0 3,943 2,831 630 165 1287 8,406

Domestic and industrial reserve 5,54 12,76 638 257 466 3,191 up to 2010 Surplus to agriculturec 1,026 - - - - 1,026

Future agriculture development 4,313 2,853 626 977 678 9,447 potentiald

-Net surplus 0 366 396 150 470 1,382

Future agricultural use up to 2010e

---· Deep-set shallow tubewells 2,160 0 0 0 270 2,430

Deep tubewells 1,575 2,757 373 965 401 6,070

Total 3,725 2,757 373 965 671 8,501

Balance beyond 2010 588 96 253 12 7 946

a. Includmg all planmng areas except the active floodplam and the Sunderbans.

b. Based on existing cropping patterns and 40 percent recycling of irrigation water losses.

c. Surplus to agriculture is the difference between available groundwater and the maximum crop

demand for water and land resources available under present cropping patterns.

d. Future development potential does not balance by the volume given because for some

planning areas present use is associated with domestic and industrial reserves greater than the

available recharge.

9 The potential, however, is limited by the difficulty of extraction, as in some areas, the usable recharge could never be wholly recovered with existing technologies owing to physical constraints. Most important are the poor water-bearing characteristics of estuarine sediments and som<! tertiary strata of the eastern hills, the high groundwater salinity in the south, groundwater losses to evaporation, and evapotranspiration.

10 Source: MPO 1991 b.

90

e. Based on recommended plan.

f. Excluding surplus to agriculture of 1 ,026 millions of cubic meters.

The balance of 946 million cubic meters was not economically exploitable by available

technology but remained a potential for the future. Also according to Phase 2 of the plan, most

future groundwater for agricultural use has to come from deep tubewells. 11

Shortcomings of the Water Balance Estimate

From today's perspective, there are two maJor problems with the Master Planning

Organization's estimate of the water balance in the National Water Plan of 1991: first, the

absence of certain critical components, and second, the use of outdated techniques for estimating

groundwater supply.

After the water accord, between Bangladesh and India in 1996, riverine flows and their impact on

the groundwater regime has changed, altering estimates of water availability. Bangladesh

received more than its share of the Ganges waters during this lean period, the latest quantum

being 33,892 cusec at Hardinge Bridge March 21-31 against 29,688 cusec stipulated in the

Ganges Water Sharing Treaty, This was stated by the Joint River Commission in a press release

issued in the city in the wake of allegations that Bangladesh was not getting its due share and that

it is one of the causes of rivers drying up in the country.12 As per the treaty, the release said,

"Bangladesh shall receive guaranteed 35,000 cusec water during March 11-20, April 1-10 and

April21-30."

On the other hand, India shall receive guaranteed 35,000 cusec during March 21-31, April 11-20

and May 1-10 period.

Furthermore, the National Water Plan prepared a development scheme primarily for

crop agriculture. The needs of this sector were estimated, according to the projected volume of

water available from ground and surface sources for irrigation, after excluding the needs of other

sectors. Apparently, net availability of water for irrigation was pre-determined. Although

11 In 1996 the National Minor Irrigation Development Project (NMIDP) presented a different picture of groundwater availability. It estimated that the net groundwater abstraction from aquifers for irrigation in 1994-95 was 15,000 to 17,000 million cubic meters, much higher than the Master Planning Organization's projected use. The NMIDP calculated that in 1994-95 a total of 2.1 million hectares was irrigated by groundwater, using both shallow and deep tubewell technology. An additional83,000 hectares was irrigated with groundwater using hand-tubewells, treadle pumps, and power pumps. The NMIDP's projections indicate that about 0.5 million incremental hectares is possible with groundwater using shallow­well tube technology, about 1.6 million incremental hectares through forced-mode tubewells, and about 3.8 million hectares through forced-mode tubewells and deep-tubewells. Thus NMIDP sources indicate a much more optimistic picture of groundwater availability. In fact, a more recent NMIDP report (1997) says that almost 5 million hectares more can be irrigated from the groundwater sources 12 The Daily Star 09 I 041 1999.

91

consumption of water for drinking and power generation was explicitly included in the estimate

of balance, the demands of fisheries, navigation, and the environment were, as noted, a rough

estimate of the percentage of total water supply available. This probably led to over or under

allocation to these sectors. Also, investment planning for non-crop agricultural water uses was

based on assumptions rather than on well-examined alternatives.

Figures indicating the availability of usable groundwater were fairly ad hoc, and the plan

cautioned that they should be treated as general targets only. Lack of accurate data, particularly

for groundwater levels and recharge, is still a major problem.

To date, water quality issue, has been inadequately addressed in all assessment exercises.

Phase 2 of the plan certified that the overall mineral properties of water were good in all parts of

Bangladesh except the South. No quantitative evidence, however, was presented. The report

mentioned that there might be problems relating to minor chemical constituents of groundwater.

Again, details are lacking. Most important of all, the National Water Plan did not gtve any

indication of the problem with groundwater arsenic, which has since become ominous.

Thus it is seen that the groundwater resource studies tend to differ in their objectives and

methodologies.

In 1972 International Bank of Reconstruction and Development issued a study assessing

groundwater potential, and in 1982 the United Nations Development Program issued another.

These studies did not make recharge estimates for the whole country; rather, they were limited

mostly to identifying suitable areas for groundwater development. Some studies have projected

future groundwater demand and estimated the resource potential of small regions. Not until 1984

were the groundwater resources of the whole country assessed by the Bangladesh Water

Development Board. That study estimated the total volume of annual recharge at 32,211 million

cubic meters. 13

In 1991 the Master Planning Organization made the most systematic assessment of

groundwater volume available for development. Mindful of the shortcomings of earlier studies,

the authors developed an integrated water balance (multicell, multilayer) model to estimate

recharge. As mentioned earlier, the Master Planning Organization made three estimates: potential

recharge (72, 100 million cubic meters), usable recharge (54, 1 00), and available recharge

(21, 1 00). Potential recharge was defined as the annual volume of surface water that could reach

the aquifer. Usable recharge was defined as 75 percent of the potential recharge. Taking into

13 BWDB 1990.

92

account geographic and physical constraints, the authors further reduced usable recharge to arrive

at an estimate of available recharge.14

The most recent study, the National Minor-Irrigation Development Project of 1996, took

a different approach to estimating groundwater resource potential. It established the present rate

of watertable lowering using different types of tubewells, then projected how much more

groundwater could be extracted with each technology.15

The amount of water that can be extracted is limited by cost. In fact economics of

irrigation will dictate what source of water (groundwater Vs surface water), how much of

groundwater and which method of extraction will be used for irrigation. Physically, however,

one can estimate how much water can be extracted without permanently lowering the water table

(groundwater mining).

As noted, in its 1986 report the Master Planning Organization suggested that "the area

irrigated from tubewells can be increased by 2.3 million hectares above the then level of 0.77

million hectares by using deep-tubewell and deep-set shallow tubewell" technology. Its 1991

report further suggested that there is sufficient underdeveloped groundwater to nearly double the

then irrigated area of 1.4 million hectares to 2.8 million hectares! 6

Estimates from the National Minor-Irrigation Development Project study show much

higher potential. It calculated that in the 1994---95 irrigation year a total of 2.2 million hectares

was irrigated by groundwater and that there is enough to irrigate an incremental 5 million

hectares.17 Although it would help to reconcile different estimates and take a fresh look at

groundwater availability, current evidence suggests that Bangladesh agriculture can largely

depend on groundwater irrigation for growth. Thus, in the absence of water sharing agreements

with Indi_a till 1996, Bangladesh paid no serious attentjon to harnessing surface water. It based 90

percent of irrigation coverage on the utilization of ground water.18

Water Demand in the Dry Season

From December through March when rainfall is low, Bangladesh has to depend on other

sources of water. Streams are the major source of water, but during the dry months their flows are

limited. Drought exacerbates the shortage. Fig3-2, Fig 3-3Many people in Bangladesh as well as the

.!± MPO, Government of Bangladesh, 1991. ~National Minor-Irrigation Development Project Report, 1996, 16 MPO, Government of Bangladesh, 1986 .

.!2BWDB, National Minor-Irrigation Development Project Report 1996 18 Crow, Ben, and Lindquist, Alan, "Development of the River Ganga and Brahmaputra: The Difficulty of Negotiating a new Development Policy and Practice Research Group" The Open University, Faculty of Technology Milton Keyes, U.K., Feb 90Rashid Faruqee, Bangladesh Agriculture in the 21 '1 century, Dhaka, University Press Limited, 1995.

93

Figure 3-2

~ Less than 50 mm

~51 mmto100mm

Bay o\

Bangladesh 0 10 20 30 40 50 ,,,, .. _,

Areas of drouMt indicated bv low November rainfall levels. Source: BWDB, Master Plan Organiz.ation, 1985.

' .. '

Figure 3-3

~ Between 36 and 70 mm ~ 71 and ·120 mm

~ 121 and 170 mm

~ 171 and 220 mm

{TT] 221 and 470 mm

0 20 40 60 80 Km • l .. ' 5

·Scale

Areas of drought indicated by April rainfall levels. Source: BWDB, MPO, 1985.

government perceive floods and cyclones as recurrent environmental hazards in the country. They

also view that these two hazards are the main contributors to crop loss in the country. But in reality,

droughts afflict the country at least as frequently as do major floods and cyclones, averaging about

once in 2.5 years.19 In some years droughts not only can cause a greater damage to crops than a flood

or cyclone, but they generally also affect more farmers across a wider area. For example, drought

was the lone environmental factor to cause severe crop damage in Bangladesh in 1994. The

northwestern region of the country, popularly known as North Bengal, experienced one of the most

severe droughts of the century, which started in October 1994 and was broken in July 1995 with the

onset of monsoon rain.20

The continued drought in the northwestern districts of Bangladesh led to a shortfall of

rice production of 3.5 million tons.Z1These districts are considered the granary of Bangladesh and

produce surplus rice- the main staple of the country. However, by early 1995, the government

food level stock fell the lowest in the last five years.

The principal use of groundwater in Bangladesh is for irrigation, which has increased

significantly since the mid-1970s. But, presently, Irrigation and cultivation are seriously affected

due to rapid fall in water level in the rivers. Let us examine the case of River Dakatia:

The river Dakatia flows from the Rovonanda hills of Tripura state of India and falls to the mighty

river Meghna through Comilla and Chandpur districts. The river connects several important

commercial centers including Baghmara, Laksham, Monohurganj, Chitoshi, Haziganj, Chandpur,

Raipur and Laxmipur.

So the river plays an important role in the economic development in the area, but it is now on the

wane. Due to heavy siltation during the last flood( 1998) the water level in the river has fallen

down sharply. Hence, irrigation on agricultural land can not be properly operated. and the cargo

vessels can not reach Puran bazaar ghat during the dry season. So the businessmen sustain heavy

loss in loading and unloading goods. Chandpur W Rahman Jute Mills and Star Alkaid Jute Mills

and other jute godowns situated on the bank ofDakatia are also affected due to siltation.

According to Agriculture Extension Office sources, irrigation pumps can not be operated for want

19 Adnan, S .. "Living without floods: lessons from drought of 1992".Dhaka Research and Advisory Services. 1993 Erickson,N.J., Ahrnad,Q.K.and Choudhury,A.R. "Socioeconomic implications of climate change for Bangladesh".Dhaka: Bangladesh Unnayan Parishad. 1993. Hossain,M., "Natural Calamities, Instability in Production and Food policy in Bangladesh". The Bangladesh Development Studies.l8(1 ):33-54 .. 1990. 20 Rahaman,M.H. 1995.Responding to Drought in Bangladesh.The Daily Star,May 15-8 . .1990.

21 Rahaman,A.and Biswas,P.R., Devours Resources.Dhaka courier 11(42):7-8 1995.

94

of sufficient water in the dry season in the rivcr.22

Due to fall in water many shoals have appeared in many places in the river. During the dry season

water level goes down to 90 feet from 190 feet of the rainy season. About 10 to 15 feet layer of

siltation have appeared in the riverbeds ofDakatia.

Due to abnormal fall in water level the movement of launch and steamer is hampered. The

BIWTA terminal and the rocket-steamer ghats are situated on the bank of the Dakatia. The river

has become almost dead due to construction of Chandpur irrigation project in the river Dakatia.

People in the Com ill a district are also suffering from acute paucity of water and it is feared that a

major portion of the current crop will be lost with the advent of dry season.

Four months of drought brought down the level of groundwater alarmingly and consequently

most of the tubewells are now unfit to lift any water. The 1994---95 droughts adversely affected the

command areas of shallow-tubewells, low lift pumps, and traditional irrigation systems. This year,

unprecedented drought has posed a severe threat to IRRI-Boro cultivation in Pabna, Natore and

Sirajganj.

Again the daily demand for water is about 40 lakh gallons, but only 27 lakh gallons can be

supplied at present since the pumps cannot lift sufficient quantity of water. The situation outside

the municipality is even worse. 23

According to Public Health Engineering Department (PHED), there are about 41,339 tubewells in

the 12 thanas of the district. About 2,307 tubewells are now out of order and more than 5,000

tubewells can no longer lift water due to abnormal fall in the groundwater level. Of the 3,493

Tara tubewells only 87 are now in operation.

According to official sources there are 6,60,959 families in the district. If only the tubewells in

operation are taken into consideration, there is only one tubewell to serve as many as 17 families,

which is far below the requirement.

The authorities, in a bid to cope with the situation, took up a program of sinking Tara tubewells,

but the step did not yield the desired result. Again, underground water level falls much, rendering

thousands of Tara pumps and hand-driven tubewells choked up. As a result an acute scarcity of

drinking water prevails According to Deputy Project Director of Irrigation of PANAS!, Paksey in

Ishurdi thana, the water level in April 1999,has gone down to 35 feet, in Pabna sadar thana to 33

feet and in Faridpur thana also the level has gone down to 33 feet. Similar fall has been reported

from all other thanas of Pabna district. In these areas, most of the shallow tubewells have gone

out of service. About 21 per cent of the shallow tubewells have gone out of order, seven per cent

22 World Bank report on Water Resource Management in Bangladesh: Steps towards a New National Water plan, March 15, 1998. Report no 17663.

95

in Ullapara thana of Sirajganj district and six per cent of the STWs in Pabna district have already

gone out of order. Thus the alarming fall in underground water-level has posed a threat to the

entire irrigation network. A total area of 32,678 acres of land had been brought under irrigation

through shallow tubewells in Pabna district, 1,26,316 acres in Natore district and 56,895 acres in

Sirajganj district. Production of fish has also been affected due to drying up of rivers, canals and

beels. Acute scarcity of fish is now prevailing everywhere?4

Normal life has also been affected badly due to ongoing drought.25 In Panchagar, hot winds are

parching the people and covering the fields with dust. Even the grass has withered due to heat.

Small rives, swamps, ponds and canals have dried up and there is virtually no source of surface

water. According to the local people, the problem has been aggravated by the Farakka Barrage as

many tributaries of the Padma have dried up. IRRI-Boro crops are being affected and fields have

turned brown at places. Similarly, this is high time for sowing jute seeds. But fields are bone-dry

and cracked, unfit for cultivation. Price spiral of diesel and lack of maintenance of deep and

shallow tubewells across the region are causing the main problems.

According to official sources, cultivation of the targeted 1.75 lakh acres of land in the region is

being hampered seriously as a large number of deep and shallow tubewells went out of order due

to fall in ground water level and continued load-shedding and erratic power supply in the district.

About 1,344 deep and 6,089 shallow tubewells remained out of order hampering irrigation in the

croplands.

District-wise break-up of disordered deep and shallow tubewells is as follows:

Dinajpur-193 deep and 341 shallow tubewells, Panchagarh 23 deep and 73 shallow, Thakurgaon

53 and 171, Nilphamari 104 and 87, Rangpur 208 and 655, Gaibandha 115 and 26, Kurigram 33

and 140, Lalmonirhat 56 and 174, Bogra 114 and 910, Joypurhat 77 and 113, Natore 66 and

2,058, Pabna 54 and 897, Sirajganj 107 and 43, Rajshahi 70 and 197, Chapainawabganj 13 and

187, Naogaon 58 and 517.

The authorities were now thinking of installing Super Tara tubewells.

The NGO Forum Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation came in a big way to provide people in

Village Nayapara with Ring Wells. Ring Well is nothing unique in real sense rather, a

combination of tube-well and traditional well devised in a way to suit the water-scarcity-prone

hill districts. In Nayapara, tube-well is set on a ring-cover of 29 feet diameter and hole is dug

some 43 feet down under. Every night five feet water is deposited and people can have access to

23 The Daily Star 02/04/ 1999. 24 The Daily Star 4/2/ 1999. 25 The Daily Star 05/ 4/ 1999

96

water pumping the handle of the tube. Depth and width of Ring Well vary from hill to hill, plain

to plain, depending on layer of water under the earth?6

Most of the shallow tubewells cannot draw up sufficient quantities of water for irrigation. As a

result, some enterprising farmers have dug deep holes and installed pumps at the bottom so that

the groundwater level can be reached. The expense for such an undertaking, however, is beyond

that of the average farmers.

Hundreds of farmers of Chandpur Irrigation Project (CIP) area have expressed concern over short

supply of water during the current peak season ofiRRI-Boro cultivation.

The farmers have laid siege to the Water Development Board offices at Fairdganj, Raipur and

Ramganj over the past few days demanding adequate supply of water for irrigation.

The project covers 15,000 hectares of land in Chandpur, Haimchar, Faridganj, Raipur, Luxmipur

Sadar and Ramganj thana?7

Again, supply of dependable drinking water for a growing population must also be ensured. But, safe

groundwater sources of drinking water have been contaminated with arsenic in recent years. Effort is

under way to find a solution.

The government of Bangladesh, with the help of donors spearheaded by the World Bank, has

launched a rapid investigative program to obtain a more quantitative description of the problem and

to investigate possible solutions.

Arsenic Contamination in Groundwater

About 95 percent of drinking water in Bangladesh are derived from groundwater. Arsenic

contamination of this source was first detected in 1993 and subsequently in 1995, when relatively

high levels were found in shallow- and deep-tubewells around the country. At first it was believed to

be confined to the southwest, but recent (February 1997) well-water analysis has confirmed the

presence of arsenic in the central and northeastern regions as wel1.28

Arsenic may be organic or inorganic element with metalloid properties. A white, semi metallic

powder found in nature. It occurs naturally in all environmental media and is usually present in

the form of compounds with sulfur and with many metals like iron, copper, cobalt, lead, zinc etc.

Symptom of Arsenic Poisoning: Some of its compounds - arsenite and arsenate - are highly

toxic and can cause skin cancer, kidney and liver failure, respiratory problems and in extreme

cases, death. Other ailments include dark brown spots on the body, thickening of the palms and

26 The Daily Star 26/02/ 1999. 27 The Daily Star, 09/ 03/ 99. 28 World Bank report on Water Resource Management in Bangladesh: Steps towards a New National Water plan, opcit

97

feet and warts on hands and legs. At high concentrations, arsenic could be lethal. At lower

concentration the affected develops fatigue, nausea, severe leg and stomach cramps, wart-like

lesions on palms and soles of feet, skin and organ cancers and nerve disorders. Clinical

investigation into the cause of arsenic poisoning revealed that the poor, already suffering from

malnutrition, are the worst affected. At the early stage, an arsenic poisoned person is affected by a

variety of diseases including melanosis, keratitis, conjunctivitis, bronchitis and gastroenteritis.

Peripheral neuropathies and hepatopathy are the next stages of this poisoning. At the final stage

gangrene in the limbs and malignancy in neoplasm may lead the poisoned person to death.

Presence of Arsenic: Arsenic occurs in natural water bodies as a result of geologic interaction of

water with soil or as a result of human activities. Arsenic is widely distributed throughout the

earth's crust. Higher arsenic contamination is generally associated with the following

environments:

Basin full of alluvial deposits, particularly m sem1 arid areas, volcanic deposits, geothermal

system, uranium and gold mining areas.

In the mining industry, some mine water and tailing water from mineral processing plants,

particularly from nonferrous metal mines, usually contain arsenic. The discharge of the

wastewater containing arsenic to an aquatic system poses a potential threat to the environment,

i.e., a deleterious effect on human health, animal, and plant life.

Propagation of Arsenic: In the West Bengal-Bangladesh arsenic contaminated belt, ground

water occurs in both confined and unconfined aquifers. The aquifers are recharged mainly

through rainwater infiltration and seepage of irrigation water. Broadly the aquifers are classified

in three groups: shallow aquifers - less than 50mbg; intermediate aquifers - between 50 and

150mbgl; deep aquifers - more than 150mbgl.

The experiences gained in West Bengal shows, in general, that the arsenic is detected in the

shallow and intermediate aquifers. As a rule, the arsenic content decreases with increasing depth.

Excessive withdrawal of groundwater during summer when the recharge is low, and the seasonal

groundwater drawdown, is speculated to facilitate exposure of underground formations, which

may contain arsenic immobilized as arsenopyrite, to atmospheric oxygen. Such an oxidation

would lead to mobilization of the underground arsenic to the ground water~')

At a village level, however, the occurrence of arsenic is highly scattered, even when the wells are

draining the same shallow aquifer. Thus much can be achieved through proper monitoring, even

at decentralized level, for the avoidance of arsenic contaminated water.

29 Central Ground Water Board, Ground Water Development in India, Ministry of water Resources New Delhi, 1986.

98

Present Status in Bangladesh: The study in West Bengal on arsenic contamination m

groundwater resulted in a doubt about the existence of arsenic in the bordering districts of

Bangladesh. More than 90 per cent of the people of Bangladesh get their drinking water from the

million plus tube-wells that were installed for the anti-diarrhoea campaign to reduce water-borne

diseases. Now several are dispensing arsenic laced water with the result that many people are

showing signs of arsenic related diseases. This situation has accelerated in the past two years to

such a degree that currently 44 of the 64 districts in Bangladesh are affected by arsenic, and

220,000 people, as of June 1998, are supposedly at risk. But things are changing day by day.~

The problem was also detected in West Bengal (India) in 1978. A number of studies were

conducted there in the 1980s by universities in Calcutta, and a broader hydrogeological

investigation into the origins of the arsenic was undertaken by the state government. The

magnitude of the problem in Bangladesh is similar to that in West Bengal, and remedial action

taken in West Bengal should have a lesson for Bangladesh?1 However, the program there has

been beset by problems. The Public Health Engineering Department takes an overly technological

approach, proposing comparatively expensive and possibly unsustainable surface water supply as

an alternative to more local community-based solutions, such as rainwater harvesting. It would

probably be beneficial to stimulate dialogue on this issue between Bangladesh and West Bengal,

though the present top-down approach applied in West Bengal may not be applicable in

Bangladesh.

The World Bank will soon appraise a project that would finance mitigation measures and

further study the problem.32

Again, saltwater is a problem that tends to increase as flow diminishes, especially in the

southwest region of Bangladesh. With the drastic fall in surface water flow (during the dry season),in

the coastal areas of Bangladesh, shallow fresh groundwater aquifers have high salinity. Relatively

large water-supply wells must penetrate 250 meters or more to find water of acceptable quality.33

Irrigation and Water Management

The development of irrigated agriculture accompanied by the introduction of HYV crops and

emphasis on the use of fertilizers from the 1960s revolutionized crop agriculture, and eventually

leading to self-sufficiency in rice in 1993. This was primarily due to the development of minor

~ Engr M M Taimur Khan, The Daily Star 09/04/ 1999.

;!..!. World Bank, report on Water Resource Management in Bangladesh: Steps towards a New National Water plan, opcit. ;g World Bank, Arsenic Mitigation Mission, 1997 33 MPO. National Water Plan, 1985-2005, Ministry of Irrigation, Water Development and Flood Control in cooperation with UNDP and World Bank, Dhaka, December 1986.

99

irrigation facilities. In the early days of irrigated agriculture, surface water sources were targeted

by farmers and planners. Increased water use and the horizontal expansion of irrigated areas,

compacted into a single season, led to shortages of surface water. Consequently, the use of

underground water by shallow and deep tubewells developed. Governmental support further

promoted minor irrigation development by subsidizing the sale and rental of equipment, and

privatizing of the equipment trade.

Spread of Minor Irrigation, 1960- 1995.

There is much agreement that recent agricultural growth in Bangladesh has been associated with

the spread of minor irrigation?4Growth of cereal production has depended mainly on irrigated

crops-bora and wheat. The spread of HYV s and of fertilizer use have largely followed the spread

of irrigation although there has been some adoption of HYV 's with fertilizer use also in the case

of aman. It is for this reason that irrigation has been termed the leading input(lshikawa

Boyce,l987,Hossain).35 Minor irrigation development was initiated in the 1960's through public

sector institutions( Especially the Bangladesh Agricultural Development Corporation -BADC)

which selected technologies, imported standardized equipment and regulated its location in the

fields. LLP were rented out seasonally to farmers groups: DTW were installed in response to

demands by farmers groups after site inspection by BADC, and rented on an annual basis to the

group(the BADC rental program); and STW were sold on subsidized credit from nationalized

banks subject to controls on their installation at a site sanctioned by BADC. In the 1970s attempts

to replicate through integrated rural development Projects (IRDP) and the Bangladesh Rural

Development board the successes of the two tired Camilla farmers cooperatives(KSS/ UCCA)

system developed in the 1960s were built around, access to a DTW as a basis for inducting people

to form a KSS co-operative.

In the late 1970s disillusionment with the sales and rental programs for minor irrigation of

BADC, gave rise to a pressure to privatize the supply of STW and LLP and the Ownership of

DTW(WorldBank,1981). 36Considerable success with the privatization of STW and LLP was

achieved in the early 1980s but there was a distinct slowdown in Sales frcm1982/83 Figure 3-4.

Some DTW were sold to private individuals between 1980 and 1984, but because of the

perception that capacity utilisation of DTW(and LLP and STW)was low and fears of water

34 Md Ali, Radosevich, ed., "Water Resources Policy for Asia", Dhaka, 1994. 35Boyce, J.K., "Agrarian impasse in Bangladesh", Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1987. Hossain, "Irrigation and Agricultural performance in Bangladesh: Some further results", BDS,14 (4): 37-56.1986 Ishikawa, S., "Economic Development Asian Perspective", Kinokuniya, Tokyo.1967. 36 World Bank, "Bangladesh Medium Term Food grain Production Plan", Volume 1, The Plan , Dhaka. 1981

100

' 50000

20000

10000

D Private Sector DBROBRD2 D IDA 1147 DBKB 0 BADCP/set iiBAOCSTW

74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 8& 87 88 89

lordism, DTW sales were restricted to KSS co-operatives through out the rest of the 1980s(World

Bank, 1982). Sale of STW and LLP were still expected to be through the private sector and

approved diesel engines for STW and LLP could be imported free of duty, provided they were an

approved model. In response to concern in government and academic circles, about the possible

unplanned negative aspects of over rapid and unplanned irrigation expansion under private

auspices .... (and) ... reports of draw doen externalities, of wells going dry, of water lordism and

of unethical practices of private traders,37 a panic engulfed official circles and resulted in the

introduction of Ground Water Management Ordinance and Ground Water Management Rules in

1985 and1987 respectively, to bolster the regulation of siting of tube wells. Standardization of

equipment that could be used for irrigation was maintained. Sales of STW,LLP and DTW also

proved sluggish in the mid 1980s and repayments of loans for the purchases of DTW were well

behind schedule.38The growth of agricultural Production apparently slowed. Some observers even

concluded that these problems were the result of promoting inappropriate minor irrigation

technologies and institutions39, and prompted wide ranging studies of the agricultural sector~0

Not withstanding the rapid growth that had occurred in the early 1980s, the apparent

failure of the long term trend to significantly exceed the population growth rate or to accelerate in

the wake of the Green Revolution, together with the findings of village studies , caused many

observers to conclude that there were major obstacles to economic development in this region

.There was much agreement , in the World Bank, that these obstacles lay predominantly in the

malign influence of the agrarian structure and of the rural elite's in particular.

The agrarian structure is characterized by small and highly fragmented farms. Moreover

there is a high degree of inequality in the farm size and much landlessness. These characteristics

were interpreted as posing an obstacle to irrigation led agricultural growth using modem ground

water extraction technologies.

In its simplest form , this model lead to the conclusion that tubewells and pumps would

not lead to increased rates of growth once the few larger farmers had adopted them, because

under the conditions of the agrarian structure, water markets were not likely to emerge.

Co-operatives or other forms of group action to manage the irrigation equipment were widely

supported, but here evidence suggested that they were dominated by local elite's who exploited

37 Task Force, Report of the Task Forces on Bangladesh Development Strategies for the 1990, vol2, University Press ,Dhaka.p-120 ~World Bank, Bangladesh, Deep Tubewells 11(Credit 1287 BD), Project Completion Report, Washington, 1991. . 39 Boyce, J.K., "Agrarian impasse in Bangladesh", Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1987 LMG, Rural Poverty in Bangladesh: A Report of the Like Minded Group, University Press, Dhaka. 1990. !!! ASR, "Bangladesh Agriculture: performance and Policies", UNDP, Dhaka.1989.

101

their monopoly position to restrict the use of DTW to their relatives and clients causing much

under utilisation capacity. Nevertheless for DTW there seemed to be no viable alternative to co­

operatives at that time, and experience with experimental programs in farmer training such as the

DTICP project of CARE and the IMP program of BRDB, suggested that KSS could become

efficient managers ofDTW.41

Drawing to some extent on limited studies of the water market m

Bangladesh(BAU,1985,86) the ASR argued in favour of deregulation of STW outside coastal

areas and the removal of subsidies on DTW to ensure that in appropriate installation of DTW in

STW areas would be avoided. Starting in 1987, the government of Bangladesh deregulated the

standardization of minor irrigation equipment and lifted for the mean time import duties and sales

taxes on small diesel engines for irrigation; it also committed itself to reducing subsidies ofDTW.

Sales of STW picked up rapidly and private sector imports of mainly Chinese small diesel

engines boomed. A number of DTW projects pushed ahead particularly in the north western

region, without clear understanding of how they would be managed. At the end of the 1980s, it

was estimated that there were some 235 thousand STW operating, 40 thousand LLP of more than

one cusec capacity, 10 thousand LLP with less than one cusec and just over 23 thousand

DTW(33,000 by January).

The conclusion of the ASR were largely supported by the Task Forces which concluded:

These policies (deregulation) were to some extent imposed by donors on a reluctant government.

The Ministry of Agriculture was particularly unhappy about them atleast up to 1988.This was

unfortunaty, because these were on the whole sensible, indeed necessary policies(Task Force,

vol2: 120).42

By 1992, Farmers had a far wider and greater range of irrigation equipment's to choose from and

there were many entrants to the business of supplying this equipment.

Ground Water Management

The reliance on the public sector to manage ground water resources is pervasive in South Asia

and elsewhere. In the context of Scarps in Pakistan ,Johnson provides the following summary of

reasons in terms of the problems of private tube wells(private development):

•!• Would be inequitable and therefore not benefit most farmers.

World Bank," Selected issues in Agricultural Development, Mimeo, Dhaka. 1989. 41 Johnson, S.H., "Social; and Economic Impacts oflnvestments in Ground Water: Lessons from Pakistan and Bangladesh" in K.C. Nobe and R.K. Sampath(eds), "Irrigation Management in Developing countries: current issues and approaches", West view, Boulder Colarado.1986 42 Task Force," Report of the Task Forces on Bangladesh Development Strategies for the 1990, vol2, University Press ,Dhaka.p-120

102

•:• Would be haphazard and probably not accomplish the desired drainage function.

•:• Could deteriorate ground water aquifer through uncontrolled pumping. Could not be

expected to proceed at the rapid rate desired.43•

However in Bangladesh as the above account has hopefully established that the growth of Ground

Water has predominantly been in the private sector and this growth has been fast, good for

poverty But, on the other hand, Public Action cannot also claim to have been very successful in

the management of ground water in many ways( although the public sector support did play a

positive role in stimulating and spreading the private sector growth). Initially inappropriate

technology was supported in the form of larger capacity DTW; later efforts were made to support

MOSTis. Control was in theory, exercised over the siting of STW, and Standardization of STW

equipment delayed the adoption of more appropriate scales and makes of diesel engine. Various

institutional innovations were employed in the attempt to overcome the problem of poor capacity

utilisation of DTW, but to date no satisfactory solution has been arrived at. To date there do not

appear to have been serious draw down externality problems in Bangladesh. This is partly

because suction mode technology is somewhat self limiting- the cost of abstraction rise very

sharply as the pumping water level falls to the suction limit. Also suction mode technology is

widely available and in view of its comparative divisibility, is relatively affordable, and hence is

widely and more equitably available. But the spread of DTW technology certainly raises the

possibility of more serious draw down extemalities.44

Public Action towards ground Water management has been mainly in the form of choice

technology for pumping , institutions for the management of ground water irrigation equipment

and ground water itself, and policies towards pricing of agricultural inputs and outputs.

Though the success of ground water development in Bangladesh can largely be attributed to the

Private Sector, but it is doubtful that similar success will be forthcoming in the future, because

when viewed at a microlevel, the growth has been disastrous for the environment in some

pockets or areas, and has unleashed a number of socioeconomic and management problems~5

Problems associated with the harnessing of ground water resources

1. The unplanned process of expanding irrigation coverage, through the involvement of private

sector, unleashed a number of socio-economic and management problems:

43 Johnson, S.H., "Large Scale irrigation and Drainage Schemes in Pakistan and GTO", Mara (ed), Efficiency in Irrigation: The conjunctive use of surface and Ground Water Resources, World Bank Washington, 1988. 44Palmer Jones," Ground Water Management in Bangladesh: Review, Issues and Implications for the p

5oor". Paper presented at the workshop in Ground Water Management, IRt\1A, Anand, January 1989. Shawkat Ali, A.M.M., Ground Water Policies, Options and laws in Bangladesh. Regional Symposium on

Water Resources Policy in Agro-Socio Economic Development, Dhyaka August1985.

103

2. The mismatch of tube wells, mainly in the North West is in clear violation of spacing and

sitting criteria, thus creating more number of dry wells, than would otherwise have been the

case.46

3. Sale and installation of equipment proceeded at a much faster rate than the building of

institutional framework for management of ground water resources. The rapid but unplanned

expansion of tube well irrigation has led to adverse hydrological consequence.

4. Problem of after sale service for the irrigation equipment sold.

5. The growth of what is generally known as Water Lord in the Rural Areas.

6. Weakened institutional framework for irrigation management, thus creating a problem of a

co-ordinated and planned approach to the irrigation expansion program.

7. Participatory banks which provided easy and fast credit but appear to have lagged behind in

recovery of loans advanced.47

8. Growth of a class of Rural Brokers, whose job is to expedite loan sanction on payment of

charges by the farmer.48

9. In case the farmers are unable to pay the charges, these brokers acting on behalf of the private

turnkey contractors usually paid the down payment, as a means of luring the farmers. In

reality, they recovered more than the amount of down payment made by providing less

sinking materials against the total cost of the equipment to be borne by the farmer~9

10. When seen for the country as a whole there is considerable ground water still required to be

developed. However when viewed at micro level, there are pockets or areas where intensive

development has led to rather critical situation and manifestation of problems like declining

ground water level, shortage in supply, saline water encroachment in coastal areas etc~0

11. Over exploitation of ground water has resulted in consequent decline in yield and

productivity of wells, drying of springs and shallow tubewells, increasing cost of lifting of

water due to declining water levels, reduction in the free flows and even local subsidence at

some places.51

461bid. 47 ibid 48 ibid 49 ibid 50 Md.Ali, George Radosvich, and Akbar Ali Khan opcit. 51 Chaudhuri M.and Siddiqui, M.H. "Towards a National Water Plan in Bangladesh. Regional Symposium on Water Resources Policy in Agro- Socio-Economic Development. Dhaka. August 1985

104

12. A huge number of unauthorized connections are mainly allowed by an unscrupulous section

of W ASA employees in lieu of bribes and illegal gratification, as a result in the dry season

the situation gets from bad to worse52•

13. With the advent of intensive irrigation through surface irrigation projects, in certain canal

command areas, because of excessive application of surface irrigation waters and due to poor

subsurface drainage, the water table is progressively rising and has already created water

logging and salinity in several parts of the country, making the soils unproductive and

restricting the growth of plants resulting ultimately in decline in crop yields:3

14. A process of desertification is evident in the entire South-Western region of the country due

to excessive withdrawal of ground water for irrigation and very lean flow of rivers during dry

season .. This may lead to an environmental disaster in the region, experts say.

15. Some 17,000 crore cubic feet of ground water is used in a season for cultivating Boro crops

on about seven lakh acres in 10 districts of Khulna division alone. There are some 2,000 deep

tubewells, 70,000 shallow tubewells, 1200 power pumps and nearly 2,500 hand driven

tubewells in 10 districts. Only power pumps lift surface water and others lift ground water.

Environmentalists have been warning against excessive use of ground water and stressing the

need for increased utilisation of surface water, by way of constructing more embankments for

preserving water. This could also help increase flow of water in morbid rivers.

Re-excavation of morbid and silted up rivers could help preservation of water and irrigation, they

said.

The Water Development Board (WDB) took up a number of projects for water resources

development in the South-Western districts in the last few years but none of those have been

properly implemented. The WDB's "Upper Bhairab Mathabhanga Project" has not been

implemented in more than one and a half decades' time. "ICO" had prepared yet another project

for utilizing surface water by constructing a barrage at the confluence of Mathabhanga and

Bhairab rivers. This project was aimed at providing irrigation facilities in Chuadanga,

Alamdanga, Damurhuda, Meherpur, Jhenidah, Kotchandpur areas during dry season. A total of

Tk 3.22 crore was sanctioned for implementation of the project. But work on the project was

abandoned after a few days of work owing to lack of funds. Later, the government prepared a

new, more costly project profile but work on that also did not start. At least 25,000 acres of land

could be irrigated with surface water through this project.

Experts opine that water can be preserved for irrigation by constructing barrages along the

52 The Daily Star, May,1999. 53 Prasad, R.K.,Conjunctive use of surface and ground water, CGWB Journal, Aug 1995.

105

Kabodak, lower Bhairab, Nabaganga, Betna and Chitra rivers, among others. For example, a Tk

seven crore barrage in the river Kumar in Magura district has improved water preservation and

irrigation situation there.54

16. Existing ground water contamination, is also a socioeconomic problem and is likely to

become more troublesome in the future because of long time factors involved in the decay of

the pollutants, the slow movement of the affected ground water within an aquifer; the

exhaustion of the soils ability to reduce the concentrations of or to remove, specific

pollutants; and the ever increasing volume and complexity of contamination fluids. Because

of subsurface geological discontinuities, pollutants introduced into an aquifer at one location

has now become a localized or a regional problem. 55

Ground Water Markets in Bangladesh

The inability of governments to respond quickly to changing demands has led to the

spontaneous development of local water markets. Informal water markets are widespread in South

Asia, including Bangladesh. In a typical trade, a farmer sells surplus ground water for a specified

period to a neighboring farmer with a greater need. In this way, water is reallocated to more

valuable uses without formalizing existing water rights. At the same time, the ability to sell

provides an incentive for conserving water and using it more rationally. Moreover, informal water

markets in South Asia operating without government intervention are able to increase access to

water for some of the poorest farmers.

In Bangladesh, with the rapid expansion of tubewell irrigation over the last decade, informal water

markets for irrigation have developed quickly. With the expansion of water markets in the private

sector, the pricing system has also been undergoing changes to suit the needs of farmers. In the initial

stage, the most common practice was sharing one-fourth of the harvest with the owner of the

equipment in exchange for water. That gave way to a flat seasonal fee, the rate depending on the

availability of electricity and the price of diesel. In recent years, the market has moved toward

charging fees per hour of tubewell operation. The hourly charge has provided incentives to adopt

supplementary irrigation in time of drought and has encouraged cultivation of modem varieties in the

wet season.56

The main concern about developing a private sector water market was that irrigation

equipment would be concentrated in the hands of higher-income groups, which might lead to

differential pricing and inequitable access to irrigation. The Bangladesh Institute of Development

54 The Daily Star 01/3/99. • 55 Dasgupta, A. ,Ground water quality Management in Asish Biswas book, "Water For Sustainable Development", 1996. 56 ibid

106

Studies developed two large-scale sample surveys covering the same households; these indicate that

irrigation increased substantially between the 1987 and 1994, more for the relatively large farmers

than for the medium and small ones. The difference in access to irrigation between small and large

farmers remained. The important point is that during this period of large-scale private-market

expansion, the irrigation charge paid by farmers did not increase. In fact, the average water charge

declined by 4 percent, while the price of rice increased by nearly 30 percent. Thus, in real terms,

irrigation water has become substantially cheaper after liberalization of the water market in

Bangladesh (Hossain 1996).57

57 Hossain, "Irrigation and Agricultural Performance in Bangladesh: Some further results", BDS, 14( 4): 37-56.

107