Chapter 3 Child Development=Developmental PsychologyBasic Ideas

Genetic Heritage + Environment = Personality

Parenting + nurturing + Environment is important

Development is effected by deprivation + Enrichment

Emotional bonds with caregivers is very important

Language learning is a key step in development

Piaget’s Stage Theory- maps how thinking develops

Vygotsky’s Theory- says A child’s mind is shaped by human relationships

Effective Child Discipline- is consistent, humane, encouraging + respectful communication

Genetics Research tells us stuff = Predications Related to Genetic Problems can be made

Developmental Psychology = the study of progressive changes in behavior & abilitiesIncludes Nature Vs Nurture DebateNature= Heredity-from parents-chromosomes

Physical and Psychological CharacteristicsNurture= Environment

Chromosomes- 46 Chromosomes- contained in each human cell nucleusSperm and Ovum Carry 23 Chromosomes EachDNA- deoxyribonucleic Acid

P94- DNA Diagram Sugar PhospateDNA has 3 billion Pairs

Genes –Small areas of DNA code40,000 genes in cellsEffects a Process or Personal Feature

Polygenic- something controlled by many genes

Dominant and Recessive- Dominant- The feature will appear when Gene is presentRecessive- Must be parallel with 2nd recessive gene before effect will be expressedBrown Eyes are Dominant

An abnormal gene on one of the autosomal chromosomes (one of the first 22 "non-sex" chromosomes) from each parent is required to cause the disease. People with only one abnormal gene in the gene pair are called carriers, but since the gene is recessive they do not exhibit the disease.

In other words, the normal gene of the pair can supply the function of the gene so that the abnormal gene is described as acting in a recessive manner. BOTH parents must be carriers in order for a child to have symptoms of the disease. A child who inherits the gene from one parent will be a carrier.

The inheritance of genetic diseases, abnormalities, or traits is described by both the type of chromosome on which the abnormal gene resides (autosomal or sex chromosome), and by whether the gene itself is dominant or recessive. This is due to whether a single defective gene from one parent (dominant inheritance) or both copies of the gene (one from each parent) are defective (recessive inheritance).

Autosomal diseases are inherited through the non-sex chromosomes, (pairs 1 through 22). Sex-linked diseases are inherited through one of the sex chromosomes, the X chromosome (diseases are not inherited through the Y chromosome).

Dominant inheritance occurs when an abnormal gene from ONE parent is capable of causing disease even though the matching gene from the other parent is normal. The abnormal gene dominates the outcome of the gene pair.

Recessive inheritance occurs when BOTH genes of a pair must be abnormal to produce disease. If only one gene in the pair is abnormal, the disease is not manifested or is only mildly manifested. However the abnormal gene can be passed on to the children.

CHANCES OF INHERITING A TRAITFor an autosomal recessive disorder: When both parents are carriers of an autosomal recessive trait, there is a 25% chance of a child inheriting abnormal genes from both parents, and therefore of developing the disease. There is a 50% chance of each child inheriting one abnormal gene (being a carrier).In other words, if it is assumed that 4 children are produced, and both parents are carriers (neither exhibits any disease), the STATISTICAL expectation is for:

1 child with 2 normal chromosomes (normal) 2 children with 1 normal and 1 abnormal chromosome (carriers, without disease) 1 child with 2 abnormal chromosomes (has the disease)

X and Y ChromosomesTwo of the chromosomes (the X and the Y chromosome) determine your gender and are called sex chromosomes:

Females have 2 X chromosomes. Males have 1 X and 1 Y chromosome.

The Y chromosome determines the male gender, but does little else.

Each parent contributes one half of each chromosome pair to their child – 22 autosomal chromosomes and 1 sex chromosome. The mother always contributes an X chromosome to the child. The father may contribute an X or a Y. Father determines the gender of the child.

Down syndrome is the most common chromosomal disorder (1 out of 800). Affected individuals have an extra copy of chromosome 21. This unbalanced set of genes results in mild to moderate mental retardation and numerous physical changes.

Types of Children (Charts of Developmental Milestones) another

New Born Temperament:SensitivityIrritabilityDistractibilityTypical mood40% are easy=relaxed + agreeable10% difficult= moody intense, easily angered15% Slow to Warm- restrained, unresponsive, shyGeneric

“What about Crack Babies?” research

Environment= NurtureThe environment influences people

Sensitive Periods- Times when children are more susceptible to environmental influences

Prenatal Care-Nutrition-importantDrugs, diseases, injuries may cause birth defects= congenital problems

“Congenital disorder involves defects in or damage to a developing fetus.Genetic Disorders”

Inherited Sickle Cell Anemia, hemophilia, cystic Fibrosis, Muscular Dystrophy, Albinism

Fetal Vulnerability-Mothers can pass on addiction to babiesMany medications & drugs are harmful to the feotus (page 96)

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome

Repeated Heavy DrinkingLow BrithrateSmall HeadBodily defectsFacial MalformationsEmotional- Behavioral Mental Handicaps

Smoking is BadLower scores on language & mental abilities

Teratogens: Anything that can cause a birth defectCan include drugs, medications, infections, chemicals

Healthy PregnancyNutritionRelaxation- Stress ReductionAvoid TeratogensExerciseEducation

Child Birth- General Anesthesia during childbirth may cause lag in muscular & neural developmentEpidural Block- helps

Prepared Child Birth=Lamaze Classes- Ferdinand LemazeLearn about what to expect and how it worksCoping + emotional support

Child DevelopmentNew Born

Brain has fewer dendrites + SynapsesDuring first 3 years- brain density increasesStimulation causes brain growth

Deprivation vs. EnrichmentEnrichment

Complex EnvironmentIntellectually Stimulating*Extra Enhanced Stimulation- increases brain sizeSo enriched complex, stimulating environment is good.Parents open kids to experiences- colors, music, people, things to see, taste, smell, touch

DeprivationLack of stimulationIQ downEmotional Scaring

Poverty can impact development-Lower IQ- Fearful, unhappyProne to hostile- aggressive behavior

The Mozart Effect-Piano SonataSmall increase in spatial intelligence in a few studiesNot replicable

Developmental Periods:

Neonates= New Born InfantVery ResponsiveInterest in Human Face

Inborn BehaviorsGrasping Reflex- object pressed for the palm of neonateRooting Reflex= head turning & Nursing

Caused by touching babies cheekSucking Reflex= to obtain foodMoro Reflex= baby clings to mom when fear/sounds

Neonates-Mimic Facial ExpressionsCan see 1 foot awayFamiliar facesBabies can see large patterns & shapesAdult vision is 30 times sharperSee curves, circles, bright lights

At 6 months different shapesAt 9 months differentiates between animalsAge 2 unusual objects interest kids

Page 103 Chart of Motor Development

MaturationConcept of physical growth + Body-Brain SystemThere is an ordered sequence of development

1. CephalocaudelFrom head to toe

2. ProximodistalFrom center of body to extremities

Motor Skills:Must be refined by practice

Concept of Readiness:Relates to development Children need to be developmentally ready to progress. Tasks cannot be too difficult = frustration

Example- toilet training- between 24 months - 3 years (girls earlier)

Pg 104 Emotion al Development (see chart)Patterns exist Basics of Anger, Fear, JoyAll basic emotions appear before age 2They appear in an order

Social Smile:By age of 10 months- infants smile when someone is nearby

Early growth is extremely rapid

Pg 105 Social Development:Includes:Self AwarenessRelationships- attachments to parents and caregivers

Social Attachments (key aspect)Self Awareness 1. Depends on brain maturation 2. Self recognition-

Occurs usually 15 months

Social Referencing:End of first yearBabies use social referencingObserving others to obtain information or guidanceHelps tell us how to respond

Imprinting (Animals/some birds only) (Rapid early learning of permanent behavior patterns

Konrad LorenzEthologist (Studied animal behavior patterns)Study of ImprintingGeese follow first large moving object they seeGeese- imprinted on Lorenz

Imprinting applied to humans = Emotional Attachment

Emotional Attachment (bonding)During first year of lifeAttachment by infant to caregivers

Separation Anxiety (evidence of emotional attachment)When babies exhibit behavior of crying, fear, When left alone or with strangersIntense Separation Anxiety is a problem

Separations Anxiety Disorder 5% of all children (1 in 20) Children manifest misery when separated Excessive fear Reluctant to leave home Reluctant to sleep at friends house Reluctant to go to school

Causes Childhood StressIllness Death in FamilyMoving schools

Attachment Qualities:

1. Securely Attached:When mothers leave and returnStable positive emotional bondsUpset by mom’s absence but seek to be near when returned Secure Attached by year 1 is good

o More resilient- show curiosityo Problem solving abilityo Social Competence in preschool

2. Insecure-Avoidant:Anxious emotional bondTurn away from motherWhen they return

3. Insecure AmbivalentAnxcious emotional bondSeek to be near returning momResist contact with mom

To Promote Attachment Mothers Should:Be sensitive + AcceptingWarm Family Helps- secure feeling of children2nd Children causes resentment

Special efforts to include first child in the moment are appropriate

Baby Monkey Studies:Harry Harlow-

Baby Monkey Separated from mothersSurrogate mothers- Wire and SoftMonkeys went to soft mom

Contact Comfort Babies cling to soft mothers for Security + Comfort in fearful situationsBabies/kids get reassured feelingsRelates to sensitivity of brain development

Breast Feeding Colostrum- Rich protein produced by breast first days after birthPrevents disease includes anti-bodiesIncludes lots of touching

IQ: Study showed average of 6 point IQ Boost For babies fed for 7-9 months

Why?:Brain nourishment + more touching

Close to mother infant relationshipDay Care:

High quality is goodLow quality is badBabies need a lot of affection

Maternal/Paternal InfluencesMaternal Influences

Best to allow/provide children- educational experienceLet children initiate activities

Optimal Caregiving:1. Proactive maternal Involvement2. Parental Responsiveness

a. To child – feelings & needsb. Parent need to change approach over time

3. Parental influencesa. Playmate for infants b. Tactile- lifting ticklingc. Physically Arousing-

i. Rough playii. Come and go

iii. Action orientediv. Exploratoryv. Risk taking

P 112Parenting Styles

Researchers Diana Baumrind found 3 styles:

Authoritarian:Expectations stay out of troubleRigid rules Strict obediencePut responsibilities on kidsKids have few rightsChildren- usually obedient, self controlled

Must accept parent view of right and wrongEmotionally stiffWithdrawnHigher rates of drug abuse

Overly Permissive:Little guidanceToo much freedomLow accountabilityRights but few responsibilitiesRules not enforcedSpoiled kids

= poorly behaved child

AuthoritativeFirm consistent guidanceWith love & affectionNot harshNot rigid

Encourage child:To act responsibilityTo thinkTo make good decisions

Children are competentIndependentSelf controlledAssertive

P113-114Ethnic Differences in Child Rearing:African AmericansHispanic Arab

Types of Discipline:

1. Power Assertion:Physical PunishmentForce Take away privileges

Effects:Defiance, rebellious, fear, hatred of parents

2. Withdrawal of LoveWithholding affectionRefusing to speak to a childRejectingThreatening to leave

Effects:AnxiousInsecure, dependent on adults for approval

3. Management Techniques:CombinePraiseRecognitionApprovalRules Reasoning

Related to self-esteem

Problem:Need to adjust to kids level

SpankingStudies say no

Most kids show no signs of long term damageIf spanking is used with supportive parenting

Problem: Frequent spanking = aggression

Could cause emotional damage

Problem: spanking doesn’t change behavior by itself.

Self –Esteem= Self Regard

High Self Esteem = worthwhile= is important

Low Self Esteem = connected to physical punishment and withholding of love

Language Development:Tied to Maturation1 month old- child use crying for:

AttentionPainHungerAnger= Tone of crying

6-8 Weeks = Babies cooing

7 Months Grasp SmileLaugh Sit upBabble

1yrCan stand for short periodCan respond to hi + no“Mama + Dada”Words + objects connected

18 months – 2yrsCan stand + Walk aloneVocab 24 to 200 wordsAt first- single word stage

“Go, up, Juice”Then Two word sentences=Telegraphic Speech

“Want Teddy”“Mama Gone”

2 years on “Terrible Twos”Two or three words placed togetherIndependenceUnderstand some commandsCapable of mischief and temper tantrums

3 yrs The World of LanguageComprehension- use of words dramatic increase 8000 words understood400 words used

Roots of LanguageResearchers William Conden and Louis Sander

Found infants move to human speech -perhaps Language is innate

Noam Chomsky = LinguistHumans have a biological predispositionOrHereditary readiness to develop language

Language patterns are inbornEvidence = global language patterns

Patterns IdentificationNon-existencePossessionAgent-ActionNegationQuestion

Critics of ChomskySay language is most influencedBy imitation by adults + rewardsQuestioning

Environmental Forces influence simple or sophisticated language

Early communicationSounds/intonation/emphasis/vocalization= signals and responses

Parent- child interactionReally about Social Relationships

Parentese = Parent TalkChildren mimic parent emphasisMusical quality

Patterns of Parent talk

Cognitive Development

Jean Piaget (Swiss 1950s)Theory & Insight into how kids develop thinkingFound cognition progresses through stages

Children’s thinking is concrete (less abstract)Need examples- objects to see or touch

Piaget believed learning occurs through Assimilation:

Kids use existing knowledge to new situations

Accommodation:Ideas + knowledge are modified to fit new requirements“New ideas are created to accommodate new experiences.”

P120Piaget Stages:

Age 0-2 Sensorimotor StageNon-verbal intellectLearning CoordinationSensesObject permanence

Objects continue to exist when out of sight

Age 2-7 Preoperational Stage Before 6-7 children think concretelyAge 7 more logical thinking

Begin to think symbolicallyStill intuitive beginning logicLanguage developingEgocentric= unable to see the viewpoint of others – self concerned

Selfish

Age 7-11 Concrete Operational StageConcept of conservation developed

Idea that objects have mass and volume constancyProportions Children begin to use time, space and number

Logical ThinkingConcrete objects Categories Principles

Age 11 and up Formal Operational: AbstractAbstract Principles developLess egocentricAdolescentCan consider Hypothetical Possibilities

Adult abilitiesInductive ReasoningDeductive Reasoning

Formal thinking needs and enhanced by (not just maturity)EnvironmentKnowledgeExperienceWisdom

Piaget and Parenting:Intellectual enrichment should match child’s level of developmentKey to Zone of Proximal Development

Near or just above a child’s level“One step ahead”

Watch out for Forced TeachingProblem of over zealous parent trying to push kids too much

Piaget Today:Holds upRoad map for understanding how children think

Problem- Piaget did not give enough credit to learning-He attributed most to stages

Piaget under-estimated cognition

Piaget said Infant CognitionSaid infants younger that 1 can not thinkEvidence shows they do@3 months infants know objects are solid and do not disappear

Piaget didn’t realize based on physical issues of infants probablyUsed children motor skills to reach touch objects

Evidence says babies are born with capacity to form concepts

Vygotsky and Socio-Cultural TheoryChildren’s thinking develops through dialogues with expert others (more skilled)Children are guided by experts = Tutors= parents=teachers

Zone of Proximal (close) DevelopmentChildren can achieve more complex/higher levels with support working with expert others or skilled partners

Scaffolding=Temporary Support to help kids learnMust be responsible to children’s needsMental bridges

Psychology in Action= Effective Parenting*most people parent the way they were parented.

Thus more mistakes are made.

2 Ingredients of Effective Parenting:1 Communication 2 DisciplineBoundaries of behavior for kidsBe consistent= stable rules of conduct- creates security

Problems

Saying one thing and doing something else

Making statements you don’t mean

Overstating consequences

Not checking to see if the child has done something wrong

Contradicting rules set by spouse

Mean what you say

Responding differently to same behavior