CHAPTER 29

INDUSTRIALIZATION AS CATALYST

• Industrialism changed European expansion.– Trade no longer solely luxury goods– Europe sought raw materials for its factories – Markets for its manufactured goods. – While Christian missionary work continued• European governments did not promote it.

• Industrialization – Made it possible to build true overseas empires– Driven by technology

SWITCH TO LAND POWERS• In the early stages of imperial advance• Great trading companies

– Sought to avoid involvement in political rivalries – Favored trade instead– Wars, political administrations cut into company profits– Representatives of companies drawn into regional conflicts.

• With slow communications prior to industrialization– Local commanders conquered large regions – Officials in home countries did not know what was happening

• Examples• British East India Company• Dutch East India Company• French East India Company

PROTOTYPE: THE DUTCH ADVANCE ON JAVA

• The Dutch at Batavia • Initially satisfied to be vassals of the sultan of Mataram

– The kingdom that controlled much of Java's interior. – By intervention in succession wars within Mataram in the 1670s

» Dutch received control over the region around Batavia. » After 1670, Dutch won control of most of Java.

• The local sultans – Were able to retain only small kingdoms on the island– Java became the core of the Dutch Asian empire.

• Dutch expand control in parts of East Indies• Control local ports and some area• Leave interiors to native princes• Control the import, export of goods• Collect tribute

RISE OF BRITISH IN INDIA

• British gradually assumed a position of superiority– Establishment of British control in India

• Had much to do with an imperial rivalry with the French• British emerged as victors and masters of an Asian empire.

– British representative of BEIC was Robert Clive. • Won initial victories in southern India• Won a major battle over ruler of Bengal at Plassey in 1757• Clive had help of Hindu bankers• Successfully bought off the chief general, allies of rival

• Clive's victory sealed British supremacy over the French in India.

CONSOLIDATION OF BRITISH RULE• After Plassey

– British representatives involved themselves in • Succession disputes and wars • Among the Indian rulers who bordered Bengal

– British wrested control of India from declining Mughal Empire• Madras, Bombay, Calcutta became administrative centers • British Presidencies incorporated territory controlled by BEC• Other Indian states were left as dependent allies.

• Despite their awareness of the growing power of the British– Indian princes continued to squabble among themselves– Supplied recruits for the British armies. – Armies recruited from India became a force in British empire– Indian soldiers served British masters throughout empire

EARLY COLONIAL SOCIETY

• At first – British, Dutch representatives

• Established themselves atop indigenous social hierarchies in Asia• Europeans Had to accommodate themselves to the ecology• New types of housing, dress, and work habits were adopted.• Colonial representatives were male

– Liaisons with indigenous women were common– Eurasian mixed races become common

REFORM• By the 1770s, rampant corruption within the East India Company

– Forced the British government to enact reforms– Sweeping reforms were undertaken by Lord Charles Cornwallis in the 1790s– Cornwallis' reforms resulted in

• Cleansing of the East India Company administration • Constricted the participation of Indians in their own government.

– Evangelical religious movements in Britain also induced reform. • Slavery was abolished• Campaigns were launched against what were viewed as Indian social abuses

– British utilitarians supported the cries for social reform – Evangelicals, Utilitarians pressed for English-language instruction in India– Reformers supported infusion of British technology.

• At the center of the social reform program – Abolition of the practice of sati– Despite some resistance, British insisted on an end to the practice

• British transmitted what they regarded as centerpieces of Western civilization– Including education, technology, and administrative organization– Attempted to recast Indian civilization in the Western image.

COMPETITION• Nationalism as competition

• Industrial Competition as nationalism• Militarism as a part of industrialization • Increased European, USA military, technological advantage• Heightened competition among European nations, USA

• Imperialism and colonialism• Race to establish international empires• Colonies: economic insurance for industrialized nations

– They supplied raw materials, markets, – Places to which disgruntled workers could potentially be shipped

• Improved transportation and communications permitted– National leaders to play more direct roles in imperial conquest– National presses gave governments the ability

» To build up public support » To publicize victories abroad.

COLONIAL WARS

• By the late 19th century– European nations could wage devastating war

• Technology had given them great destructive power• Machine guns, steam power, and iron hulls

• The peoples of Asia and Africa – No longer able to provide effective resistance– Asian and African leaders continued to resist– Although they were able to win some victories

• Indigenous peoples could not sustain conventional wars• Most effective resistance was offered by guerrillas.

PATTERNS OF DOMINANCE• European Superiority

• Fueled desire for Western learning– Among Asian and African elites and middle classes– Fueled westernization issues

– Two primary types of colonies• Tropical dependencies

– Small numbers of Europeans ruled large numbers of indigenous peoples.• Settlement, settler colonies.

– Within the settlement colonies there were two patterns. – In the White Dominions, such as Canada and Australia

» Much of the population descended from European immigrants» Possible because of the die-off of native peoples

– In contested settler colonies, such as Algeria, Kenya, New Zealand, Hawaii» Large numbers of European immigrants vied with indigenous peoples» Europeans tried to monopolize best lands, resources

TROPICAL DEPENDENCIES• Europeans followed models established in India and Java• Exploited religious or ethnic divisions• Europeans gained control over vast regions of Asia and Africa.• Administrators rigidified differences

– Division of indigenous peoples into artificial tribes. • Few Europeans governed masses of indigenous peoples

– With the help of Western-educated African and Asian subordinates.– British also drew on educated Indians to support administrative cadre

• In Africa, unlike other colonized regions– Education was left in the hands of missionaries rather than the state– This policy stunted the growth of an African middle class– Such policies

» Intentionally eliminated the development of nationalist leaders» Isolated groups within the colonized peoples

CHANGING SOCIAL RELATIONS• After 1850• Europeans in Asia and Africa tended to isolate themselves• Inclusion of European women in the colonies

– Ended practice of liaisons between European males, local women– Laws were established forbidding mixed marriages. – Measures were passed to prevent social interactions

» Between European women and the indigenous peoples.» Social exclusivity fostered by theory of white racial supremacy.» Called Social Darwinism

– Administrators and colonists • Attempted to create European enclaves • In the midst of what they increasingly saw as savagery.

ECONOMIC EXTRACTION• Coercive Means• Efforts made to increase the production of exportable products• Often used coercive means

– Head and hut taxes were imposed payable only in commodities– In worst case (Belgian Congo)

» Labor quotas represented little more than slavery.

• To facilitate the movement of raw materials, agricultural crops– Imperial nations built roads, railroads from colonial interiors to ports.– Mining and agricultural productivity increased in the colonies– But profits went to European imperialists. – African and Asian workers scarcely benefited from their labor.

• Colonial economies reduced to dependence on industrialized Europe.

CONTESTED SETTLER COLONIES

• Contested settler colonies • Attracted large numbers of European immigrants.

– Unlike earlier settler colonies» Where disease decimated indigenous populations

– 19th-century settler colonies » Were in areas with large indigenous populations » Conflict, competition between indigenous, settler common

SOUTH AFRICA• From their initial foothold at Cape Colony, Boer farmers penetrated the South African interior in search

of farm land. • As in Australia, the Boers found much of the interior sparsely settled and encountered little resistance

to their advance. • The Boers enslaved the first indigenous people they encountered, the Khoikhoi. • The arrival of the British and their annexation of Cape Colony in 1815 set South Africa on a separate

course. • By the 1830s, the Boers fled the Cape Colony to seek independence and the right to continue a pattern

of life now long established. • In the Great Trek, the Boer population crossed the Great Fish River into the South African plains, where

they encountered for the first time the Bantu states of the Zulus and the Xhosa. • War between the Bantu states and the Boer settlers was common during the middle decades of the

19th century. At the same time, the British established a second colonial outpost on the eastern coast of South Africa at Natal.

• In the 1850s, the Boers established two independent republics, the Orange Free State and the Transvaal. When gold and diamonds were discovered in the Boer republics, the finds drew British investors, such as Cecil Rhodes, into the region.

• Relations between the British colonies and the Boer republics deteriorated until war was declared in 1899.

• The Boer War paved the way for decolonization in South Africa and established the political dominance of the Boers over indigenous Africans.

PACIFIC• European, American, and Japanese colonialism

• Resulted in demographic disasters and social disruption• New Zealand and Hawaii serve as examples

• New Zealand• The first contact between Europeans and the indigenous Maoris occurred at the end of the 18th century.

Although European settlement was not extensive, exposure to European diseases and dissemination of firearms among the militant Maori tribes resulted in massive population loss. By the middle of the 19th century, the surviving Maoris had begun to establish sedentary agricultural communities based on European technology and domesticated animals. British settlement began in earnest in the 1850s. As the European immigrants seized the most fertile lands, the Maoris were driven to the interior of the islands. The Maoris survived by acculturating to British law and government. New Zealand was able to construct a multiracial society in which elements of the Maori culture flourished.

– Hawaii• Captain James Cook opened Hawaii to Western development in 1777. With the use of Western weapons,

King Kamehameha united the various clans of Hawaii between 1794 and 1810. Kamehameha encouraged economic exchange with Western merchants. Beginning in 1819, missionaries from the eastern United States began a vigorous campaign to convert the Hawaiians to Christianity. The missionaries brought in their wake cultural change and Western education. As in New Zealand, exposure to Western diseases decimated the population of the Hawaiian islands. Westerners soon began to experiment with plantation crops. As the Hawaiian monarchy declined, planter groups called for more active U.S. intervention. The United States formally annexed Hawaii as a colony in 1898.