Chapter 25 – The Birth of Modern European Thought

Key Topics-Science dominated in the second half of the nineteenth century. - Conflict between church and state over education- Island and late-nineteenth-century European- The effect of modernism, psychoanalysis, and the revolution in physics on intellectual.- Racism and the resurgence of Anti- Semitism- Late nineteenth century and early twentieth century developments in feminism

The New Reading Public

-More people than ever knew how to read.

- In 1850 half of western Europe was illiterate.

Advances in Primary (elementary school) Education

-Literacy improved because of the Government’s providing of elementary education.

- By 1900, Britain, France, Belgium, Netherlands, Germany, and Scandinavia, about 85 % of the people could read.-But Italy, Spain, Russia, Austria- Hungary, and the Balkans, had literacy rates of 30-60 % , much lower. - Women got jobs as teachers.

Reading Material for the Mass Audience

- Cheap newspapers with ads.- Mediocre books, sensational crimes, scandals, pornography- News censored by the government

Science at Midcentury

-By 1850s science was strong in French and German universities.-The word “Scientist” was invented in the early 1830s

Comte Positivism, and the Prestige of Science

French Philospher, Auguste Compte developed Positivism. Positivism- A philosophy of human intellectual development that culminated in science. Compte wrote “ The Positive Philosophy”.(Human Thought had 3 stages)

1. Physical Nature explained by spirits2. Meta Physical Stage- abstract principles3. Positive Stage – nature is explained by science

Compte is known as the “Father of Socialogy”

The Birth of Science FictionJules Verne- “20,000 leagues under the Sea”H. G Wells- “ War of the Worlds” and the “Time Machine Both published stories in cheap illustrated magazines, with mass circulations.Jules Verne is considered the “Father of Science Fiction”

Darwins Theory of Natural Selection-1859 Charles Darwin published “ On the Origin of Species”- Alfred Wallace also worked on explaining evolution.- Darwin developed the principle of survival of the fittest called “ Natural Selection”. - Later an Austrian Monk Gregar Mendel created the pundit square.- In 1871 Darwin wrote “ The descent of Man” that’s when he applied evolution to human beings.

Science and Ethics- Herbert Spencer (social Darwinism) might make right (strongest dominates the weak). He thought that the weak shouldn’t get any protection. View of thinking was called “ Social Darwinism”

-Thomas Henry Huxley was an opponent to Social Darwinism. He said humans should be ethical. Supported Charles Darwin.

Christianity and the Church under Siege

Intellectual Skepticism

David Friedrich Strauss published “ The Life of Jesus”, tried proving that the story of Jesus was a myth, and that it was a normal book written by primitive human beings. It questioned the historical accuracy of the bible. The book caused more people to loose faith in Christianity than any other cause.

During the second half of the century, scholars such as Julius Wellhausen in Germany, Ernst Renan in France, and William Robertson Smith in Great Britain all questioned the accuracy of the bible as well.

Science Charles Lyell suggested that Science contradicts the Bible; the Earth is older than the Bible says and there are natural causes to explain Mountains, Floods, and Valleys.

Morality Friedrich Nietzsche in Germany said that Christianity glorified weakness instead of strength. He said war and courage have accomplished more great things than “ love of neighbor” As a result of these things Christianity followers lost respect , fewer educational people joined the Clergy, and especially in cities whole generations of the urban poor had little to no interaction with the Church.

Conflict between Church and StatePrimary conflict between Church and State was education.Previously most education in Europe had taken place in Church schools. The Church was worried that state schools would not teach religion.

Great Britain’s approach to Education.

The Education Act of 1870 supported state schools.By 1902 the Government supported religious and non-religious schools but imposed the same standard on each.

FranceUnder the Falloux Law of 1850 the priests gave religious education in public schools. By 1905 the Church and State were separated.

German and the Kulturkampf

Kulturkampf- Cultural struggle against the Catholic Church in the 1870s (Germany) by Bismarck. Bismarck forced the clergy out of the schools in Prussia. He had the power to veto the appointment of priests. Gave the state power of the church instead of the pope. And tried to expel all the Catholic Bishops from Prussia. In the end it failed, in the 1870s he abandoned his attack. He did however gain control of schools.

The Roman Catholic Church and the Modern world

1864 Pope Pius IX 9th issued “ Syllabus of errors” Catholic Church came out against science, philosophy, and politics.Pope Pius IX had the first Vatican council which issued Papal Infallibility which stated that the pope could never be wrong.The church tried to sustain power by making the Pope strong.

After Pope Pius, Leo 13th embraced the philosophy of Thomas Aquinas.He issued “ Rerum Novarum” which was a document that defended private property, religious education, marriage laws, and he condemned Socialism and Marxism. He still wanted workers to be treated fairly.

Islam and late Nineteenth century European Though

The Quran like the Bible was being analyzed whether the events that occurred were actually possible. French influential writers Ernest Renan stated that like Judaism was a “manifestation of the ancient Semitic mentality which had given rise to a powerful monotheistic vision”. Jamal al-din Al- Afghani, an Egyptian intellectual argued that over time Islam, which had arisen six hundred years after Christianity, would eventually produce modern culture. Christians blamed Islams for economic backwardness, for mistreating women, and for condoning slavery.Christian missionaries founded schools and hospitals in hope of converting Muslims to Christianity, few converted but these institutions did educate young Arabs in

western science and medicine and many of these students became leaders in the Middle East.The Salafi believed there was no contradiction between science and Islam. They took a moderate view of the QuranOther Islamic leaders rejected the west and modern thought all together. ( Mahdist, Sanussiya, and Wahhabi) places where their was no western influence.

Toward a Twentieth-Century Frame of Mind

Science: The Revolution in Physics

Ernst Mach published “ Science of Mechanics”, where he urged scientist to consider that all they are is describing are their sensations not what is in the physical world. Henri Poincare urged that theories are hypothesis not accurate facts. Hans Vaihinger- suggested that the concepts of science be described as “ as- if” description.

X Rays and RadiationWilhelm Roentgen- published a paper on his discovery of X-Rays a form of energy that penetrated various opaque materials.Henri Becquerel – discovered that Uranium emitted energy.J.J Thomson- formulated a theory on the Electron Ernest Rutherford- explained the cause of Radiation through the disintegration of the atoms of radioactive materials.

Theories of Quantum Energy, Relativity, and UncertaintyMax Planck- developed quantum theory of energy. Albert Einstein- Published papers on relativity stating that time and space exist not separately. Werner Heisenberg- set forth an uncertainty principle, stating that subatomic particles behavior is a matter of statistical probability.

Literature : Realism and NaturalismRealist- no romance, projected dark side of lifeGustave Flauberts- wrote “ Madame Bovary, story of colorless provincial life, a woman’s hapless search for love in and outside of marriage.Emile Zola- wrote a lot of the dark side of life (prostitution, labor strife, drinking, etc.) published 20 volumes novels.Henrik Ibsen- wrote “ A doll’s house”( play) , “ Ghosts”, and “ The Master Builder”. Were all about families and bad situations in them.

George Bernard Shaw- wrote “ Waren’s profession”, “ In the Arms of Man , and “ Man and Superman”.

Realist writers believed it was their duty to portray reality and the commonplace. “ Way life is”

The Birth of Psychoanalysis Sigmund Freud- published a book called “ Studies in Hysteria” with Josef Breur Freud abandoned hypnosis and allowed his patients to talk freely and spontaneously about themselves. He found that they associated their particular neurotic symptoms with experiences related to childhood experiences. He also noted that sexual matters were significant in patients problems.

Freud believed that infants had sexual drives and energy, and that it does not simply emerge at puberty. ( Human beings are sexual creatures from birth through adulthood.

Freud’s Concern With Dreams- Concluded that dreams allow unconscious wishes, desires, and drives that had been excluded from everyday conscious life to enjoy freer play in the mind. “ The interpretation of Dreams” was the most important book written by Freud.

Conflicts and struggles in the mind was made up of three entities

Id- Consists of amoral, irrational, driving instincts for sexual gratification, aggression, and general physical and sensual pleasure. Superego- Embodies the external moral imperatives and expectations imposed on the personality by society and cultureEgo- Meditates between the impulses of the id and the asceticism of the super ego and allows the personality to cope with the inner and outer demands of its existence. Consequently every day behavior displays the activity of the personality as its inner drives are partially repressed through the ego’s coping with external moral expectations, as interpreted by the super ego.

Carl Jung-Freud’s most regarded student-Freud and Jung disagreed on the primacy of sexual drives in forming personality and in contributing to mental disorder. -Jung believed that the human subconscious contains inherited memories from previous generations.- Wrote “ Modern Man in Search of a Soul”

Retreat from Rationalism in Politics

Max Weber- Saw bureaucratization as the basic feature of modern life. Regarded as the “ Father of Bureaucracy. Wrote the essay “ The Protestant Ethic and the spirit of Capitalism.

Racism

Count Arthur De Gobineau- Enunciated the first important theory of race as the major determinant of

human history. - Wrote a four volume essay called “ Essay on the Inequality of the Human

Races”

Houston Stewart Chamberlain- wrote “ Foundations of the Nineteenth Century”