Chapter 25 Chapter 25

Review and DiscussionReview and Discussion

What were the underlying reasons for the struggles for What were the underlying reasons for the struggles for independence in Latin America in the early nineteenth independence in Latin America in the early nineteenth

century?century? Many of the causes were the same as those that helped spark Many of the causes were the same as those that helped spark

the American and French Revolutions. the American and French Revolutions. Colonists chafed at the political power of colonial officials, the Colonists chafed at the political power of colonial officials, the

lack of representation, and the inability to shape their own lack of representation, and the inability to shape their own institutions. institutions.

Their subordinate position as suppliers of raw materials and Their subordinate position as suppliers of raw materials and consumers of goods manufactured in Europe stirred economic consumers of goods manufactured in Europe stirred economic unrest, for colonists saw themselves as victims of high prices unrest, for colonists saw themselves as victims of high prices and state-supported monopolies. and state-supported monopolies.

The same Enlightenment reasoning that affected the American The same Enlightenment reasoning that affected the American and French Revolutions influenced Latin American radicals. and French Revolutions influenced Latin American radicals.

The final event that triggered Latin American revolutions was The final event that triggered Latin American revolutions was Napoleon’s invasion of Spain and Portugal 1807. Napoleon’s invasion of Spain and Portugal 1807.

Dislocation of authority and control resulting from those Dislocation of authority and control resulting from those invasions as being the final impetus toward a new revolutionary invasions as being the final impetus toward a new revolutionary era.era.

Problems associated with regionalism were important in shaping Problems associated with regionalism were important in shaping Latin American nations as well as the United States. Compare and Latin American nations as well as the United States. Compare and contrast the significance of regionalism throughout the Americas.contrast the significance of regionalism throughout the Americas.

Regionalism in Latin America was very divisive, often splitting nations into competing Regionalism in Latin America was very divisive, often splitting nations into competing factions. factions.

On a larger scale, it ensured the failure of all attempts at creating federations of On a larger scale, it ensured the failure of all attempts at creating federations of states. states.

Example: Bolívar’s failed attempt at creating Gran Colombia as one example. Example: Bolívar’s failed attempt at creating Gran Colombia as one example. Within nations, the wealthy jealously guarded their positions and often instigated civil Within nations, the wealthy jealously guarded their positions and often instigated civil

wars or secession movements to safeguard them. wars or secession movements to safeguard them. This caused more localized divisions, which threatened to split countries apart. This caused more localized divisions, which threatened to split countries apart. Dictators often arose in attempts to unify regions under stronger centralized control. Dictators often arose in attempts to unify regions under stronger centralized control. By 1900, every Latin American country had undergone at least one dictatorship. By 1900, every Latin American country had undergone at least one dictatorship. On the other hand, the United States, with a longer British and colonial history of On the other hand, the United States, with a longer British and colonial history of

constitutional and representative government, never experienced a violent usurpation constitutional and representative government, never experienced a violent usurpation of power or rejection of an election. of power or rejection of an election.

Still, the U.S. Constitution did specifically try to address regional problems and Still, the U.S. Constitution did specifically try to address regional problems and concerns, which included sanctioning slavery. concerns, which included sanctioning slavery.

The problems of regionalism and internal differences were significant enough that The problems of regionalism and internal differences were significant enough that they led to the Civil War in 1861.they led to the Civil War in 1861.

What was the effect of independence and the end of What was the effect of independence and the end of colonialism on Amerindians? Consider former British, colonialism on Amerindians? Consider former British,

Spanish, and Portuguese colonies.Spanish, and Portuguese colonies.

Toward the end of the colonial era, European nations strove to control the Toward the end of the colonial era, European nations strove to control the expansion of their peoples in an effort to end the perpetual fighting with expansion of their peoples in an effort to end the perpetual fighting with Amerindians. Amerindians.

Independence removed that check on expansion, but at the same time the Independence removed that check on expansion, but at the same time the revolutionary struggles for freedom weakened newly independent peoples. revolutionary struggles for freedom weakened newly independent peoples.

Amerindians took advantage of that temporary weakness to push back Amerindians took advantage of that temporary weakness to push back Euro-American advances. Euro-American advances.

Amerindians continued to resist expansion, adapting in unique ways to new Amerindians continued to resist expansion, adapting in unique ways to new technologies and opportunities, such as horses and firearms. technologies and opportunities, such as horses and firearms.

Euro-American setbacks were only temporary, however. Euro-American setbacks were only temporary, however. In places such as the United States, military efforts led by the national In places such as the United States, military efforts led by the national

government forcibly removed Amerindians to more remote and less viable government forcibly removed Amerindians to more remote and less viable reservations. reservations.

In Argentina, powerful Amerindian groups were kept at peace only through In Argentina, powerful Amerindian groups were kept at peace only through an elaborate system of gift giving and prisoner exchanges. an elaborate system of gift giving and prisoner exchanges.

Ultimately, however, Amerindians lost their land. Increases in population and Ultimately, however, Amerindians lost their land. Increases in population and new technologies enabled their opponents to overwhelm them.new technologies enabled their opponents to overwhelm them.

Discuss the processes of development and Discuss the processes of development and underdevelopment.underdevelopment.

All western hemisphere economies grew between All western hemisphere economies grew between 1800 and 1900. 1800 and 1900.

The growth of markets, technology, and population The growth of markets, technology, and population caused increases in wealth; however, growing caused increases in wealth; however, growing economic interdependence and increased competition economic interdependence and increased competition also caused structural problems in some cases. also caused structural problems in some cases.

Two distinct tracks of development evolved: Two distinct tracks of development evolved: development and underdevelopment. development and underdevelopment.

Development included industrial development and Development included industrial development and prosperity and underdevelopment included continued prosperity and underdevelopment included continued colonial dependence on exports of raw materials and colonial dependence on exports of raw materials and low-wage industries. low-wage industries.

What was the nature of immigration to the Americas in the What was the nature of immigration to the Americas in the nineteenth century? What were some of the problems and nineteenth century? What were some of the problems and

contributions of immigration?contributions of immigration? As the African slave trade came to an end, the nature, sources, and As the African slave trade came to an end, the nature, sources, and

numbers of immigrants to the Americas changed dramatically. numbers of immigrants to the Americas changed dramatically. For instance, hundreds of thousands of Indian and Chinese emigrants came For instance, hundreds of thousands of Indian and Chinese emigrants came

to North and South America. to North and South America. Still, most free immigrants came from Europe, particularly those emigrating Still, most free immigrants came from Europe, particularly those emigrating

to the United States, Canada, Argentina, and other nations of southern to the United States, Canada, Argentina, and other nations of southern South America. South America.

This was due in part to discrimination against Asian immigrants in the United This was due in part to discrimination against Asian immigrants in the United States, Canada, and other countries. States, Canada, and other countries.

While this influx of people contributed to the Industrial Revolution in the While this influx of people contributed to the Industrial Revolution in the Americas, supplying the labor for new factories and agriculture, workers in Americas, supplying the labor for new factories and agriculture, workers in the Americas viewed immigrants differently. To workers, immigrants were a the Americas viewed immigrants differently. To workers, immigrants were a threat—pawns used by capitalists to lower wages and degrade working threat—pawns used by capitalists to lower wages and degrade working conditions. Native-born Americans blamed the immigrants’ cultures for these conditions. Native-born Americans blamed the immigrants’ cultures for these immigration-related problems. However, aside from the previously immigration-related problems. However, aside from the previously mentioned economic benefits, immigrants made many significant mentioned economic benefits, immigrants made many significant contributions—in food, music, literature, folklore, and other areas of their contributions—in food, music, literature, folklore, and other areas of their cultural heritage. Schools attempted to assimilate immigrants through cultural heritage. Schools attempted to assimilate immigrants through acculturation. Patriotic songs, symbols, and history lessons were used to acculturation. Patriotic songs, symbols, and history lessons were used to this end.this end.

What factors led to the alteration of the American What factors led to the alteration of the American environment? How was the environment altered?environment? How was the environment altered?

Population growth, economic expansion, new technologies, and the introduction of plants and Population growth, economic expansion, new technologies, and the introduction of plants and animals to new regions dramatically altered the American environment.animals to new regions dramatically altered the American environment.

Many of Cuba’s forests were cut to expand sugar production. Many of Cuba’s forests were cut to expand sugar production. The expansion of livestock raising put a heavy burden on the fragile environments in Argentina, The expansion of livestock raising put a heavy burden on the fragile environments in Argentina,

Uruguay, southern Brazil, and the southwestern United States.Uruguay, southern Brazil, and the southwestern United States. Commercial agriculture, such as increases in cotton production, led to soil exhaustion and Commercial agriculture, such as increases in cotton production, led to soil exhaustion and

erosion. The use of plows on the North American prairies and the Argentine pampas eliminated erosion. The use of plows on the North American prairies and the Argentine pampas eliminated many native grasses and increased the threat of soil erosion.many native grasses and increased the threat of soil erosion.

Coffee planters in Brazil exhausted soil fertility with a destructive cycle of over-planting. Coffee planters in Brazil exhausted soil fertility with a destructive cycle of over-planting. In addition, rapid urbanization put heavy pressure on the environment. New York, Chicago, Rio In addition, rapid urbanization put heavy pressure on the environment. New York, Chicago, Rio

de Janeiro, Buenos Aires, and Mexico City were among the fastest growing cities. de Janeiro, Buenos Aires, and Mexico City were among the fastest growing cities. Governments strained to keep up with the need for sewers, clean water, and garbage disposal. Governments strained to keep up with the need for sewers, clean water, and garbage disposal. The rising demand for building materials led to the spread of the timber industry. The rising demand for building materials led to the spread of the timber industry. Mining also advanced into Nevada, Montana, and California after 1860 and erosion and Mining also advanced into Nevada, Montana, and California after 1860 and erosion and

pollution resulted. pollution resulted. Also, efforts to meet increasing domestic demand for food and housing and to satisfy foreign Also, efforts to meet increasing domestic demand for food and housing and to satisfy foreign

demands for exports led to environmental degradation but also contributed to the world demands for exports led to environmental degradation but also contributed to the world economy and regional prosperity. economy and regional prosperity.

By the end of the nineteenth century, small-scale conservation efforts were under way in many By the end of the nineteenth century, small-scale conservation efforts were under way in many nations.nations.

Compare and contrast the revolutionary Compare and contrast the revolutionary movements in Venezuela, Mexico, and Brazilmovements in Venezuela, Mexico, and Brazil

Venezuelan independence was initiated by creoles (colonial-born whites), who were large landowners Venezuelan independence was initiated by creoles (colonial-born whites), who were large landowners seeking to hold on to their power and wealth. seeking to hold on to their power and wealth.

They wanted to retain slavery and keep power from the black and mixed-race populace. They wanted to retain slavery and keep power from the black and mixed-race populace. Their narrow aims angered most Venezuelans, who broadened the movement, unifying behind Simón Their narrow aims angered most Venezuelans, who broadened the movement, unifying behind Simón

Bolívar. Bolívar. Although defeated on many occasions, Bolívar successfully adapted his objectives and policies to attract Although defeated on many occasions, Bolívar successfully adapted his objectives and policies to attract

new allies and build coalitions. new allies and build coalitions. Although initially opposed to the abolition of slavery, he agreed to support emancipation in order to draw Although initially opposed to the abolition of slavery, he agreed to support emancipation in order to draw

slaves and freemen to his cause and to gain supplies from Haiti. slaves and freemen to his cause and to gain supplies from Haiti. Bolívar made astute adjustments in his goals both politically and militarily and won independence.Bolívar made astute adjustments in his goals both politically and militarily and won independence. Mexico was much more conservative and wealthier than other Spanish colonies, with a higher percentage of Mexico was much more conservative and wealthier than other Spanish colonies, with a higher percentage of

Spanish-born settlers as well. Spanish-born settlers as well. On hearing of Napoleon’s invasion of Spain, the wealthiest Spaniards in Mexico feared that the local viceroy On hearing of Napoleon’s invasion of Spain, the wealthiest Spaniards in Mexico feared that the local viceroy

would be too sympathetic to the creoles, and so they overthrew him. would be too sympathetic to the creoles, and so they overthrew him. Establishing a precedent of undermining the colonial government, the revolution spread to the rural and Establishing a precedent of undermining the colonial government, the revolution spread to the rural and

urban poor. urban poor. It was the news of a military revolt in Spain in 1820 that shattered the conservative coalition. It was the news of a military revolt in Spain in 1820 that shattered the conservative coalition. In 1821, Colonel Agustin de Iturbide and other loyalist commanders forged an alliance and declared Mexico’s In 1821, Colonel Agustin de Iturbide and other loyalist commanders forged an alliance and declared Mexico’s

independence. independence. However this transition to independence was conservative and highlighted by the decision to create a However this transition to independence was conservative and highlighted by the decision to create a

monarchial form of government and crown Iturbide emperor. monarchial form of government and crown Iturbide emperor. In 1823, Mexico became a republic. In 1823, Mexico became a republic. The situation in Brazil was different mainly because of its Portuguese affiliation. When Napoleon invaded The situation in Brazil was different mainly because of its Portuguese affiliation. When Napoleon invaded

Portugal, the Portuguese royal family fled into exile in Brazil. Portugal, the Portuguese royal family fled into exile in Brazil. Even after the French in Portugal were defeated, the royal family remained in America. Even after the French in Portugal were defeated, the royal family remained in America. The king returned to Portugal only when a liberal revolt threatened the Iberian government. His son Pedro The king returned to Portugal only when a liberal revolt threatened the Iberian government. His son Pedro

declared Brazilian independence in 1822 and established a constitutional monarchy with himself as its head.declared Brazilian independence in 1822 and established a constitutional monarchy with himself as its head.