Chapter 24The Age of Modernity and Anxiety, 1894-1914

Toward the Modern Consciousness: Intellectual and Cultural Developments Developments in Sciences: The Emergence of a New Physics

Marie Curie (1867-1934) and Pierre Curie (1859-1906) Radiation Atoms

Max Planck (1858-1947) Energy radiated discontinuously

Albert Einstein (1879-1955) Theory of relativity Four dimensional space-time continuum Energy of the atom

Toward a New Understanding of the Irrational Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900)

Glorifies the irrational Blame on Christianity

Henri Bergson (1859-1941) Reality the “life force”

Georges Sorel (1847-1922) Destroy capitalist society New socialist society

Sigmund Freud and the Emergence of Psychoanalysis The Interpretation of Dreams, 1900 The unconscious Repression Inner life

Id, ego, and superego The Impact of Darwinism: Social Darwinism and Racism

Social Darwinism Herbert Spencer (1820-1903)

Societies are organisms that evolve Nationalism Racism

Houston Stewart Chamberlain

The Attack on Christianity and the Response of the Churches Anticlericalism Ernst Renan (1823-1892), Life of Jesus

Questions historical accuracy of Bible Pope Pius IX, 1846-1878

Syllabus of Errors, 1864 Modernism Pope Leo XIII, 1878-1903

De Rerum Novarum, 1891 Salvation Army

The Culture of Modernity Naturalism and Symbolism in Literature

Émile Zola (1840-1902) Naturalism

Leo Tolstoy (1828-1910), War and Peace Fydor Dostoevsky (1821-1881)

Loss of spiritual belief Crime and Punishment, The Brothers Karamazov

Symbolism External world is not real only a collection of

symbols that reflect true reality of the human mind

Modernism in the Arts Impressionism

Paint the countryside directly Changing effects of light Claude Monet (1840-1926) Berthe Morisot (1841-1895)

Post-Impressionism Light and color with structure and form Paul Cézanne ((1839-1906) Vincent van Gogh (1853-1890)

Art a spiritual experienceImpact of photography on artPablo Picasso (1881-1973)

CubismAbstract Expressionism

Modernism in Music Edvard Grieg (1843-1907)

Nationalism Impressionism

Claude Debussy (1862-1918)Moods and sensations

Ballet

Igor Stravinsky (1882-1971)

Politics: New Directions and New Uncertainties Movement for Women’s Rights

Custody and property

Suffrage Millicent Fawcett (1847-1929) Emmeline Pankhurst (1858-1928)

Women’s Social an Political Union Publicity

The New Woman Maria Montessori (1870-1952)

New teaching materials

Jews within the European Nation-State Anti-Semitism Christian Socialism’s Racism Case of Captain Alfred Dreyfus Karl Luegar of Vienna Pogroms of eastern Europe Theodor Herzl (1860-1904)

The Jewish State Zionism

The Transformation of Liberalism: Great Britain and Italy Trade Unions

Britain’s Labour Party Socialism by evolution

David Lloyd George (1863-1945) Benefits for the workers Increased tax burden on the wealthy Transformation of the idea of liberalism

Italy Giovanni Giolitti Transformismo

Growing Tensions in Germany William II (1888-1918) Military and industrial power Social Democratic party Conflict of tradition and modernization

Industrialization and Revolution in Imperial Russia Sergei Witte (1848-1915), Minister of Finance

Railroad, Tans-Siberian Protective tariffs Steel and coal industries

Nicholas II, 1894-1917 Marxist Social Democratic Party Revolution of 1905

Russo-Japanese War, 1904-1905 Port Arthur, February 8, 1904

Impact of the war on poor Russians

Curtailment of power of the Duma, 1907 Rise of the United States

Shift to an industrial nation, 1860-1914 9 percent own 71 percent of wealth American Federation of Labor

8.4 percent of industrial labor

Constitutional monarchy

Bloody Sunday, January 9, 1905 Revolt General strike, October 1905 October Manifesto

Progressive Era Reform Ineffective state laws result in federal legislation Woodrow Wilson, 1913-1921

Growth of Canada The New Imperialism

Causes of the New Imperialism Nationalism Competition among European nations Social Darwinism and racism Religious humanitarianism, “White man’s burden” Economics

Marxist interpretation

Africa in 1914

Africa in 1914

1. By 1880 there were only pockets of European penetration into Africa, amounting to perhaps only ten percent of the continent.

2. France began its activities in Africa with movement into Algeria in 1830 but it was not until 1879 that French civilian rule was establish and substantial numbers of colonists were settled.

3. British and French penetration into Egypt came as a consequence of the desire of the Ottoman governors Muhammad Ali and his grandson Ismail to build a state along western lines. Their modernization policies attracted substantial European investment and by 1876 Egypt owed foreign bondholders $450 million. When it was clear Egypt could no longer pay the debt, France and Britain forced the appointment of their own commissioners to oversee Egyptian finances. A nationalist reaction was capped by bloody anti-European riots in 1882. Britain responded militarily and not only crushed the uprising but established direct British control which lasted from 1883 until 1922.

4. In southern Africa, the British seized the Dutch settlement of Capetown in 1795 and made the presence permanent in 1806. The Dutch farmers, Boers, resented the British and finally migrated north on the Great Trek in 1835. Eventually the Boers formed their own states but hostilities still existed and the two sides fell into war in 1899. The Boer War lasted until 1902 and ended with the defeat of the Boers. By 1910, the Boer states were integrated into the Union of South Africa.

5. The scramble for Africa was set off by the activities of Leopold II of Belgium (1865-1909) whose agents were exploiting the region along the Congo River. The Belgian activity alarmed the French who had signed treaties of protection in 1880 with Africans north of the Congo. Bismarck recognized the implications of the Belgian and British activities in Africa and called an international conference on Africa in 1884 to set the rules for the occupation of Africa. Claims would now have to be based on "effective occupation."

6. German involvement in Africa began in 1884 when it created territorial protectorates over Togo, Cameroons, Southwest Africa, and German East Africa. France pressed south from Algeria, east from its forts on the Senegal coast, and north from the Congo River. Britain pushed south from Egypt into the Sudan where they were temporarily halted at Khartoum by fiercely independent Muslims in 1885. The Muslim resistance was crushed in 1898 at Omdurman. Britain continued to push down the Nile to Fashoda that was held by the French. Unwilling to fight, France withdrew leaving the Sudan to Britain.

7. Only Liberia, protected by the United States, and Ethiopia, with western arms and tactics, remained free from European control.

Questions:1. How did Britain and Belgium set off the scramble for Africa?2. What were the advantages

Africa in 1914

1. By 1880 there were only pockets of European penetration into Africa, amounting to perhaps only ten percent of the continent.

2. France began its activities in Africa with movement into Algeria in 1830 but it was not until 1879 that French civilian rule was establish and substantial numbers of colonists were settled.

3. British and French penetration into Egypt came as a consequence of the desire of the Ottoman governors Muhammad Ali and his grandson Ismail to build a state along western lines. Their modernization policies attracted substantial European investment and by 1876 Egypt owed foreign bondholders $450 million. When it was clear Egypt could no longer pay the debt, France and Britain forced the appointment of their own commissioners to oversee Egyptian finances. A nationalist reaction was capped by bloody anti-European riots in 1882. Britain responded militarily and not only crushed the uprising but established direct British control which lasted from 1883 until 1922.

4. In southern Africa, the British seized the Dutch settlement of Capetown in 1795 and made the presence permanent in 1806. The Dutch farmers, Boers, resented the British and finally migrated north on the Great Trek in 1835. Eventually the Boers formed their own states but hostilities still existed and the two sides fell into war in 1899. The Boer War lasted until 1902 and ended with the defeat of the Boers. By 1910, the Boer states were integrated into the Union of South Africa.

5. The scramble for Africa was set off by the activities of Leopold II of Belgium (1865-1909) whose agents were exploiting the region along the Congo River. The Belgian activity alarmed the French who had signed treaties of protection in 1880 with Africans north of the Congo. Bismarck recognized the implications of the Belgian and British activities in Africa and called an international conference on Africa in 1884 to set the rules for the occupation of Africa. Claims would now have to be based on "effective occupation."

6. German involvement in Africa began in 1884 when it created territorial protectorates over Togo, Cameroons, Southwest Africa, and German East Africa. France pressed south from Algeria, east from its forts on the Senegal coast, and north from the Congo River. Britain pushed south from Egypt into the Sudan where they were temporarily halted at Khartoum by fiercely independent Muslims in 1885. The Muslim resistance was crushed in 1898 at Omdurman. Britain continued to push down the Nile to Fashoda that was held by the French. Unwilling to fight, France withdrew leaving the Sudan to Britain.

7. Only Liberia, protected by the United States, and Ethiopia, with western arms and tactics, remained free from European control.

Questions:1. How did Britain and Belgium set off the scramble for Africa?2. What were the advantages

The Creation of Empires Scramble for Africa

Cape Colony Afrikaners Great Trek, 1835

Orange Free StateTransvaal

Cape Colony seizes Transvaal, 1877 Boer War, 1899-1902 Cecil Rhodes (1853-1902) “Cape to Cairo” Union of South Africa, 1910

Portuguese French British in Egypt Leopold II, 1865-1909

International Association for the Exploration and Civilization of Central Africa, 1876

Congo French reaction is to move into territory north of the

Congo River By 1914 on Liberia and Ethiopia remained independent

Asia 1914

Asia in 1914

1. Although European contacts with the East dated from the sixteenth century, there were restrictions. China had limited western trade to the area of Canton-Macao and the Japanese after 1639 restricted western commerce to only the Dutch who were permitted one ship a year to a tiny island off the commercial port of Nagasaki.

2. Expanding at the expense of the Ottomans, Russia had occupied the area of the Caspian Sea by 1881 and in 1885 was in Turkistan. The appearance of the Russians on the northern borders of Persia and Afghanistan worried the British who were concerned about protecting their Indian territories. In 1907 Britain and Russia agreed to make Afghanistan a buffer and divide Persia into two spheres of influence. Blocked by the British in western Asia, Russia turned its interest to eastern Asia. By 1860 it had occupied Manchuria and in 1898 won a twenty-five year lease for Port Arthur. Conflicting aspirations over Korea, however, brought war with Japan in 1904. Defeated in 1905, Russia had to recognize Korea as a Japanese protectorate. This ended Russian expansion in Asia.

3. The opening of China in the nineteenth century was the result of the government's inability to withstand the pressures of the West. Because the Europeans had few products desired by the Chinese, there was a significant imbalance of trade. This was altered when the British initiated commerce in illegal Indian opium. In 1839 when the Chinese tried to stop the trade, Britain went to war. The peace in 1842 opened new ports and forced China to cede Hong Kong to Britain. Other western states demanded similar concessions. More ports were opened after military operations by the French and British in 1858-1860. In 1860 a helpless China lost Manchuria north of the Amur River to Russia. After a two year war, China in 1885 had to allow France to establish a protectorate over all of Indochina except Siam. Following the Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895), the powers of Russia, Britain, France, Germany, and Japan partitioned China into "spheres of interest." In 1898, Britain leased lands opposite Hong Kong and then a naval base at Wei-Hai-Wei opposite Port Arthur. Finally, in 1912 after an indigenous uprising, the Manchu government was toppled and China became a republic.

4. The presence of the United States in Asia stemmed from the opening of Japan in 1853 and the defeat of Spain in 1898 whereby the Philippines were acquired. When the United States did not grant independence a revolt broke out. It took three years and 60,000 troops to pacify the Philippines.

5. The westernization of Japan under the Meiji led to adventures in imperialism. In the Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895) victorious Japan won Chinese recognition of the independence of Korea, the cession of Formosa, the Pescadores Islands, and the southern projection of Manchuria (though eventually forced to give it up). Later Japan would gain concessions in Fukien opposite Formosa. After the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905) Japan annexed southern Sakhalin Island and gained economic concessions in Manchuria.

6. In Shanghai, following the Opium War and the granting of new trading posts, the influx of foreigners created an “International Settlement” controlled jointly by Britain and the United States while France had a separate settlement in the city.

Question:1. Why was China unable to stop Western advances on its territory?

Asia in 1914

1. Although European contacts with the East dated from the sixteenth century, there were restrictions. China had limited western trade to the area of Canton-Macao and the Japanese after 1639 restricted western commerce to only the Dutch who were permitted one ship a year to a tiny island off the commercial port of Nagasaki.

2. Expanding at the expense of the Ottomans, Russia had occupied the area of the Caspian Sea by 1881 and in 1885 was in Turkistan. The appearance of the Russians on the northern borders of Persia and Afghanistan worried the British who were concerned about protecting their Indian territories. In 1907 Britain and Russia agreed to make Afghanistan a buffer and divide Persia into two spheres of influence. Blocked by the British in western Asia, Russia turned its interest to eastern Asia. By 1860 it had occupied Manchuria and in 1898 won a twenty-five year lease for Port Arthur. Conflicting aspirations over Korea, however, brought war with Japan in 1904. Defeated in 1905, Russia had to recognize Korea as a Japanese protectorate. This ended Russian expansion in Asia.

3. The opening of China in the nineteenth century was the result of the government's inability to withstand the pressures of the West. Because the Europeans had few products desired by the Chinese, there was a significant imbalance of trade. This was altered when the British initiated commerce in illegal Indian opium. In 1839 when the Chinese tried to stop the trade, Britain went to war. The peace in 1842 opened new ports and forced China to cede Hong Kong to Britain. Other western states demanded similar concessions. More ports were opened after military operations by the French and British in 1858-1860. In 1860 a helpless China lost Manchuria north of the Amur River to Russia. After a two year war, China in 1885 had to allow France to establish a protectorate over all of Indochina except Siam. Following the Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895), the powers of Russia, Britain, France, Germany, and Japan partitioned China into "spheres of interest." In 1898, Britain leased lands opposite Hong Kong and then a naval base at Wei-Hai-Wei opposite Port Arthur. Finally, in 1912 after an indigenous uprising, the Manchu government was toppled and China became a republic.

4. The presence of the United States in Asia stemmed from the opening of Japan in 1853 and the defeat of Spain in 1898 whereby the Philippines were acquired. When the United States did not grant independence a revolt broke out. It took three years and 60,000 troops to pacify the Philippines.

5. The westernization of Japan under the Meiji led to adventures in imperialism. In the Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895) victorious Japan won Chinese recognition of the independence of Korea, the cession of Formosa, the Pescadores Islands, and the southern projection of Manchuria (though eventually forced to give it up). Later Japan would gain concessions in Fukien opposite Formosa. After the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905) Japan annexed southern Sakhalin Island and gained economic concessions in Manchuria.

6. In Shanghai, following the Opium War and the granting of new trading posts, the influx of foreigners created an “International Settlement” controlled jointly by Britain and the United States while France had a separate settlement in the city.

Question:1. Why was China unable to stop Western advances on its territory?

Asia in the Age of Imperialism James Cook to Australia, 1768-1771 British East India Company Empress of India bestowed on Queen Victoria, 1876 Russian expansion

Siberia Reach Pacific coast, 1637 Press south into the crumbling Ottoman Empire Persia and Afghanistan Korea and Manchuria

British acquisition of Hong Kong Spheres of Influence United States’ “Open Door” policy for China, 1899

Japan Matthew Perry opens Japan, 1853-1854

Southeast Asia Pacific Islands

Asian Responses to Imperialism China

Boxer Rebellion, 1900-1901, Society of Harmonious Fists

Sun Yat-sen (1866-1925) Fall of the Manchu dynasty, 1912, Republic of China

Japan Samurai Meiji Mutsuhito, 1867-1912

Meiji Era Westernization of military and industry

India British control results in peace and honest government Extreme poverty Indian National Congress, 1883

International Rivalry and the Coming of War The Bismarckian System

Alliances to preserve the new German state Problems in the Balkans

Disintegration of the Ottoman Empire Rivalries of Austria and Russia Serbia and Montenegro attack Ottoman Empire, 1876

Russia attacks the Ottomans, 1876 Treaty of San Stefano, 1878 Congress of Berlin, 1878

Serbia, Montenegro and Romania independent Bosnia and Herzegovina become Austrian protectorate

Triple Alliance, 1882 – Germany, Austria, Italy Reinsurance Treaty between Russia and

Germany, 1887 Dismissal of Bismarck, 1890

The Balkans in 1878

The Balkans in 1878

1. The continued disintegration of the Ottoman Empire in the nineteenth century made the Balkans increasingly vulnerable, especially to Austria and Russia. For Russia, the eastern Balkans represented the shortest overland route to Istanbul and the straits. Austria saw the area as a fertile ground for expansion. In 1876 Serbia and Montenegro (nominally under Turkish control) declared war on the Turks but were defeated. This was followed by a Russian declaration of war and defeat of the Turks. The Treaty of San Stefano in 1878 created a large Bulgarian state that became a Russian satellite. This altering of the balance of power in the Balkans, especially the potential for Russian control of the Dardanelles Strait, prompted the other European states to call a congress to discuss the treaty.

2. The Russian treaty was undone in 1878 by the Europeans meeting in Berlin. The Congress of Berlin decided to reduce the size of Bulgaria by two-thirds and deny it access to the Aegean Sea. The remainder of its territory was returned to Turkey. The states of Serbia, Montenegro, and Romania were recognized as independent. Bosnia and Herzegovina were placed under the protection of Austria, but not to be annexed. Russia was naturally angered by the proceedings. It was especially upset that ally Germany had done nothing to protect Russia and thus withdrew from the Three Emperors' League.

3. All of the Balkan states were upset with the Berlin settlement. Especially resentful were Montenegro and Serbia that were angered by the Austrian occupation of Slavic Bosnia and Herzegovina.

4. In 1885 Bulgaria, which had been granted some degree of autonomy by the congress, seized the Turkish province of East Rumelia. The independent Kingdom of Bulgaria was proclaimed in 1908.

Questions:1. Why was there sparing over the Balkans by the European powers?2. Why were some European states concerned about the provisions of the Treaty of San Stefano? 3. How were the conditions of the Balkans in the late nineteenth century shaping future events of the early twentieth century?

The Balkans in 1878

1. The continued disintegration of the Ottoman Empire in the nineteenth century made the Balkans increasingly vulnerable, especially to Austria and Russia. For Russia, the eastern Balkans represented the shortest overland route to Istanbul and the straits. Austria saw the area as a fertile ground for expansion. In 1876 Serbia and Montenegro (nominally under Turkish control) declared war on the Turks but were defeated. This was followed by a Russian declaration of war and defeat of the Turks. The Treaty of San Stefano in 1878 created a large Bulgarian state that became a Russian satellite. This altering of the balance of power in the Balkans, especially the potential for Russian control of the Dardanelles Strait, prompted the other European states to call a congress to discuss the treaty.

2. The Russian treaty was undone in 1878 by the Europeans meeting in Berlin. The Congress of Berlin decided to reduce the size of Bulgaria by two-thirds and deny it access to the Aegean Sea. The remainder of its territory was returned to Turkey. The states of Serbia, Montenegro, and Romania were recognized as independent. Bosnia and Herzegovina were placed under the protection of Austria, but not to be annexed. Russia was naturally angered by the proceedings. It was especially upset that ally Germany had done nothing to protect Russia and thus withdrew from the Three Emperors' League.

3. All of the Balkan states were upset with the Berlin settlement. Especially resentful were Montenegro and Serbia that were angered by the Austrian occupation of Slavic Bosnia and Herzegovina.

4. In 1885 Bulgaria, which had been granted some degree of autonomy by the congress, seized the Turkish province of East Rumelia. The independent Kingdom of Bulgaria was proclaimed in 1908.

Questions:1. Why was there sparing over the Balkans by the European powers?2. Why were some European states concerned about the provisions of the Treaty of San Stefano? 3. How were the conditions of the Balkans in the late nineteenth century shaping future events of the early twentieth century?

The Balkans in 1913

The Balkans in 1913

1. By the beginning of the twentieth century, nationalism was on the rise in the Balkans. The Serbs, a Slavic people, looked to Slavic Russia for support in their political aspirations. In order to block Serbian expansion and at the same time take advantage of Russian impotency following the revolution of 1905, Austria in 1908 formally annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina which it had occupied and administered since 1878 (see Acetate 78, Map 24.3A). Serbia, its hopes dashed of taking the territory for itself, was outraged. Supported by Russia, Serbia prepared for war. Germany warned Russia that it must accept the annexation or face war. Afraid to risk a confrontation at this time, Russia backed down, thereby forcing Serbia to do the same.

2. In 1912 the Balkan League consisting of Serbia, Bulgaria, Montenegro, and Greece defeated the Turks in the First Balkan War. Taken from the Turks were Macedonia and Albania. The allies, however, could not decide now to divide the conquered territory and soon fell to fighting. The Second Balkan War broke out in 1913 when Greece, Serbia, Romania, and Turkey united to defeat Bulgaria. In the peace, Bulgaria obtained only a small portion of Macedonia while the rest was divided between Serbia and Greece. Significantly, Austria intervened in the Second Balkan War to force Serbia to give up Albania which had become independent.

Questions:1. Why were Austria and Serbia at odds over the Balkans?2. What was the role of nationalism in the Balkan wars?3. What kind of resentments were building in the Balkans that could kindle a third Balkan war?

The Balkans in 1913

1. By the beginning of the twentieth century, nationalism was on the rise in the Balkans. The Serbs, a Slavic people, looked to Slavic Russia for support in their political aspirations. In order to block Serbian expansion and at the same time take advantage of Russian impotency following the revolution of 1905, Austria in 1908 formally annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina which it had occupied and administered since 1878 (see Acetate 78, Map 24.3A). Serbia, its hopes dashed of taking the territory for itself, was outraged. Supported by Russia, Serbia prepared for war. Germany warned Russia that it must accept the annexation or face war. Afraid to risk a confrontation at this time, Russia backed down, thereby forcing Serbia to do the same.

2. In 1912 the Balkan League consisting of Serbia, Bulgaria, Montenegro, and Greece defeated the Turks in the First Balkan War. Taken from the Turks were Macedonia and Albania. The allies, however, could not decide now to divide the conquered territory and soon fell to fighting. The Second Balkan War broke out in 1913 when Greece, Serbia, Romania, and Turkey united to defeat Bulgaria. In the peace, Bulgaria obtained only a small portion of Macedonia while the rest was divided between Serbia and Greece. Significantly, Austria intervened in the Second Balkan War to force Serbia to give up Albania which had become independent.

Questions:1. Why were Austria and Serbia at odds over the Balkans?2. What was the role of nationalism in the Balkan wars?3. What kind of resentments were building in the Balkans that could kindle a third Balkan war?

New Directions and New Crises Military alliance of France and Russia, 1894 “Splendid isolation” of Britain

Concerns about Germany German navy

Entente Cordiale, 1904 – Britain and France First Moroccan Crisis, 1905-1906 Triple Entente, 1907 – Britain, France, Russia Crisis in the Balkans, 1908-1913

Austria annexes Bosnia and Herzegovina, 1908 Serbian protest, Russian support of Serbia First Balkan War, 1912 Second Balkan War, 1913