Chapter 2.2 Game Design

Chapter 2.2Game Design

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Overview

Game design as… full-time occupation is historically new field of practical study – even newer

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Overview

Folk games [Costikyan] “Traditional” games with cultural

origins Examples:

Tic-Tac-Toe (Naughts and Crosses) Chess Go Backgammon Poker

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Overview

This introduction covers: Terms Concepts Approach

All from a workaday viewpoint

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Overview

There is no one “right” way to design

There are many successful approaches Specific requirements and constraints

of each project and team determine what works and what does not.

This introduction is but a scratch

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The Language of Games

Game development – a young industry

Standards are still being formulated Theory Practice Terminology

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Debate continues over high-level views

Lack of standard (concrete) definitions Game Play

High-level concepts tricky to articulate

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Workplace differences usually low-level Working terminology

Example “actors” instead of “agents” “geo” instead of “model”

Workflow – how things get done Individual responsibilities Processes under which work is performed

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Why do we play? Not a designer’s problem

What is the nature of games? Not a designer’s problem

How is a game formed of parts? A designer’s problem

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Our simplistic high-level definitions Easy to modify to fit multiple cultures Practical over metaphysically true

play game aesthetics

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Play and Game

Play Interactions to elicit emotions

Game Object of rule-bound play

General enough to cover everything

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Aesthetics and Frame

Aesthetics Emotional responses during play

Naïve practical approach, not classical

Frame The border of a game’s context

Inside the frame is in the game Outside the frame is real life

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Approaching Design Computer games are an art form Game design practices can be taught Technical discipline like music, film,

poetry

The art of making dynamic models

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Approaching Design

Mental/Cognitive Concepts Beliefs Maps

Examples: Locations Relationships

Mathematical Equations Formulas Algorithms

A model represents something

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Approaching Design Abstract model

Conceptual and idealized A tool for investigating specific questions Simplifies thinking to help understand problems May include assumptions thought to be false

Abstract game One rule

The piece is moved to the open square

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A Player-Game Model A model of the player – game

relationship

M e c hanic s Inte r fac e Sys te m

P LAYER G AM E

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A Player-Game Model

Mechanics Things the player does

Interface Communication between player and

game System

Underlying structure and behavior

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Control and State Variables

Defined by Isaacs in Differential Games

Control variables Inputs from players

State variables Quantities indicating game state

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Play Mechanics

Gameplay Feelings of playing a particular game Activities engaged in a particular

game (Play/game) Mechanics

Specific to game activities “What the player does”

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Seven Stages of Action

Execution Intention to act Sequence of action Execution of action

sequence

Evaluation Evaluating

interpretations Interpreting

perceptions Perceiving states

P e rc e ivings tate s

Inte rpre t ingpe rc e ptio ns

E valuat inginte rpre tat io ns

E xe c utio n o fac t io n s e que nc e

Se que nc e o fac t io n

Inte nt io nto ac t

G o als

T H E GA M E

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A goal is formed Models the desired state The desired result of an action Examples:

Have a glass of water in hand Capture a queen Taste ice cream






Inte nt io nto ac t

G o als

T H E GA M E

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Goals turned into intentions to act Specific statements of what is to be done






Inte nt io nto ac t

G o als

T H E GA M E

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Intentions put into an action sequence The order internal commands will be performed






Inte nt io nto ac t

G o als

T H E GA M E

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The action sequence is executed The player manipulates control variables






Inte nt io nto ac t

G o als

T H E GA M E

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The state of the game is perceived State variables are revealed via the interface






Inte nt io nto ac t

G o als

T H E GA M E

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Player interprets their perceptions Interpretations based upon a model of the system






Inte nt io nto ac t

G o als

T H E GA M E

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Player evaluates the interpretations Current states are compared with intentions and

goals






Inte nt io nto ac t

G o als

T H E GA M E

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Donald Norman’s approximate model Actions not often in discrete stages Not all actions progress through all

stages

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Scales to… …an individual mechanic

A “primary element” Examples:

Move Shoot Talk

…an entire game A generalized model of interaction

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Designer and Player Models Systems are built from designer mental

models Design models may only anticipate player

goals

Designer U ser

Us er 'sM o d el

D es ig nM o d el

S y s tem I m ag e

System

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Designer and Player Models Players build mental models from mechanics

Based upon interactions with the system image The reality of the system in operation

Not from direct communication with designers Player and designer models can differ significantly

Designer U ser

Us er 'sM o d el

D es ig nM o d el

S y s tem I m ag e

System

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Core Mechanics

Typical patterns of action Fundamental mechanics cycled

repeatedly Examples:

Action shooters – run, shoot, and explore Strategy game – explore, expand, exploit,

exterminate referred to as the “four X’s”

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Premise

The metaphors of action and setting

Directs the player experience Provides a context in which

mechanics fit Players map game states to the

premise

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Premise

Story is the typical example of premise Time Place Characters Relationships Motivations Etc.

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Premise

Premise may also be abstract Tetris operates under a metaphor

The metaphor: arranging colored shapes

Encompasses all game elements Player discussions use the language

of the premise

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Premise

Games are models Activities being modeled form

premise Actions may appear similar in model Usually are fundamentally quite

different Sports games are good examples

Playing video games isn’t like playing the sport

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Premise

Goes beyond setting and tone Alters the players mental model

Basis of player understanding and strategy

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Premise

Possible Capable of happening in the real world

Plausible Possible within the unique world of

premise “Makes sense” within the game’s premise Consistent with the premise as understood

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Choice and Outcome

Choice A question asked of the player

Outcome The end result of a given choice

Possibility space Represents the set of possible events A “landscape” of choice and outcome

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Choice and Outcome

Consequence or Weight The significance of an outcome

Greater consequences alter the course of the game more significantly

Choices are balanced first by consequence

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Choice and Outcome

Well-designed choice Often desirable and undesirable effects Should relate to player goals Balanced against neighboring choices

Too much weight to every choice is melodrama

Orthogonal choices – distinct from others Not just “shades of grey”

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Qualities of Choice Terms in which to discuss choices

Hollow – lacking consequence Obvious – leaves no choice to be made Uninformed – arbitrary decision Dramatic – strongly connects to feelings Weighted – good and bad in every choice Immediate – effects are immediate Long-term – effects over extended period Orthogonal – choices distinct from each other

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Goals and Objectives

Objectives Designed tasks players must perform

Rigid requirements – formal

Goals An intentional outcome

Notions that direct player action Scales all levels of motivation

From selecting particular strategies… …to basic motor actions (e.g. pressing a button)

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Goals and Objectives

Objectives and goals can differ Players goals reflect their understanding of the game Designers must consider how the game communicates

with players Affordances – the apparent ways something can be used

Designer U serSystem

F in d s w o r dKill d r ag o nR es c u e p r in c es s

F in d s w o r dR es c u e d r ag o nKill p r in c es s

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Resources

Resources Things used by agents to reach goals To be meaningful, they must be…

Useful – provide some value Limited – in total or rate of supply

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Economies Economies

Systems of supply, distribution, consumption

Questions regarding game economies: What resources exist? How and when will resources be used? How and when will resources be supplied? What are their limits?

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Player Strategy

People usually reason with commonsense A view of linear causation – cause and effect

Complex systems do not behave linearly Players need information to support linear

strategy

Situat io n R e s ul tAc tio n

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Game Theory Game Theory

Branch of economics Studies decision making

Utility A measure of desire associated with an

outcome Payoffs

The utility value for a given outcome Preference

The bias of players towards utility

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Game Theory

Rational Players Abstract model players – not real

people Always try to maximize their potential

utility Solve problems using pure logic Always fully aware of the state of the

game

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Game Theory Games of skill

One-player games Outcomes determined solely by choices

Games of Chance One-player games Outcomes determined in whole or part by nature

(chance)

Games of Strategy Competitions between two or more players

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Game Theory

Decision under certainty Players know the outcome of any

decision Risky decisions

Probabilities of nature are known Decision under uncertainty

Probabilities of nature are unknown

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Interface

Interface Input, presentation, and feedback.

Input Player to game

Output Game to player

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Interface Contains both hardware, software, and

performance elements. Hardware such as game pads Software such as engines Performance such as pressing a button

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Interface

Graphical user interface (GUI) A visual paradigm of control

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Interface

Typical perspectives: First-person Over-the-shoulder (OTS) Overhead (top-down) Side Isometric

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Interface

General categories of audio Music Sound effects Dialog

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Interface

Music Powerful tool for establishing mood and

theme

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Interface

Controls Physical input devices

Control inputs User manipulations of the controls

They are not strategies Example: a sequence of buttons to perform a

combo Strategies involve deciding when to

perform

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Interface

Key map or control table A diagram showing control input,

action, and context

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Interface Control diagrams

Show input, action, and context

Action Con tro l Con text

Le ft a ll

R igh t a ll

Fo rwa rd a ll

Backwa rd a ll

Sprin t a ll

Pass O ffense

Lob O ffense

Shoo t O ffense

Stea l De fense

Block De fense

Hit De fense

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Interface

Front-end In application software

The visible portion of the application In games

GUI elements not displayed during play

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Interface HUD (Head-Up Display)

Displays during play Shows and other information difficult to

present directly in the game environment Examples

Scores Resource levels Mini Map Chat Alerts Level

2>need backup!!!>No>...

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Interface

Mapping An understood relationship between two

things Especially the relationship of a model to its

subject Examples

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HCI and Cognitive Ergonomics

HCI – Human-Computer Interaction Study of…

Communication between users and computers How people design, build, and use interfaces Better support for cooperative work

Cognitive Ergonomics Analyzes the cognitive representations and

processes involved with performing tasks

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Design of Everyday Things Norman’s five principles of design

Visibility Making the parts visible

Mappings Understandable relationships between controls

and actions Affordances

The perceived uses of an object Constraints

Prevent the user from doing things they shouldn’t Feedback

Reporting what has been done and accomplished

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Systems System

A set of interrelated components Their function and relationships form a whole

Architecture The particular arrangement of system elements

Game systems exist to enable play mechanics

Relationships between components determine how the system works to produce results

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Systems Objects

Pieces of a system Attributes

Properties determining what objects are Behaviors

Actions the objects can perform Relationships

How the behavior and attributes of objects affect each other while the system operates

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Systems Two general approaches to design

Special case Experiences built one scene/level at a time Anticipate states while pre-scripting events Solved by discovering the intentions of the

designer Systemic

General behaviors are designed Scenes/Levels are specific configuations Some events may still be pre-scripted Solved by understanding the system

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Systems

Emergent complexity Behaviors that cannot be predicted

simply from the rules of a system Emergence

Coined by George Henry Lewes in 1873

See: John Conway’s Game of Life

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Systems

Dynamics The behavior of systems over time

Generalizing dynamic behavior is hard Dynamics determined by a given

architecture

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Systems Cybernetics

Study of communication, control, and regulation

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Systems A basic cybernetic system has:

Sensor – detects a condition Thermometer

Comparator – evaluates the information Switch

Activator – alters the environment when triggered by the comparator

Senso r

C om parato r

Ac t i vato r

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Systems Feedback

The portion of a system’s output that is returned into the system

Feedback Loop The path taken by the feedback

L e v e l

G o a l

Info rm a tio nA c tio n

R a te

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Systems Positive feedback

Leads to runaway behavior Difficult to make use of

Negative feedback Leads to goal seeking behaviors Most common form in systems

P o s it ive Fe e dbac k N e gative Fe e dbac k

go al

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Systems Negative feedback

Stabilizes the game Forgives the loser Prolongs the game Magnifies late

successes

Positive feedback Destabilizes the game Rewards the winner Can end the game Magnifies early

successes

Marc Leblanc

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Systems

System Dynamics Created by Jay Forrester 1956, MIT A discipline for modeling and

simulation Originally a tool for policy analysis

Applicable to any system

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Constraints

Platform General description of hardware and

software Personal computer – PC, Mac, etc. Console – Game Cube, PlayStation, Xbox, etc. Handheld – DS, Game Boy Advance, PSP, etc. Mobile device – Cel Phones, NGage, PDA, etc. Arcade – custom vending games (e.g. Time Crisis)

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Constraints

Game Saves Save triggers Save-anywhere Save points Coded text saves

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Genres

Genre – a category describing generalities of conventions, style, and content

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Genres Action Adventure Arcade Casual Education Fighting First-person

shooter Platform

Racing Rhythm Role-Playing (RPG) Simulation Sports Strategy Puzzle Traditional

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Audiences

Target audience Group of expected consumers

Demographics Study of relevant economic and social

statistics about a given population Demographic variables

The relevant factors

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Audiences

Market Demographic segmentation of

consumers Market segments

Smaller sub-segment of the market; more tightly defined

Demographic profile Typical consumer attributes in a

market

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Audiences Heavy Users

Those of the numeric minority of potential users responsible for majority of sales of any product

“80/20 rule”

Hardcore gamer Game industry term for heavy video game

users Casual gamer

Game industry term for all other gamers

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Audiences

Typically assumptions of the hardcore:

Play games over long sessions Discuss games frequently and at length Knowledgeable about the industry Higher threshold for frustration Desire to modify or extend games creatively Have the latest game systems Engage in competition with themselves, the game,

and others

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Audiences Why We Play Games – Nicole Lazzaro

Internal experience Enjoyment from visceral activities

Hard fun Challenge of strategy and problem solving

Easy fun Intrigue and curiosity – exploration and adventure

Social experience Stimulating social faculties – competition,

teamwork, bonding, and recognition

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Iterating

Waterfall method Development methodology Design and production are broken into

phases

Iterative development Practice of producing things incrementally

Refining and re-refining the product

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Iterating

Prototypes Early working models of the product Used to test ideas and techniques

Physical prototypes Non-electronic models; physical materials

Software prototypes Used regularly during iterative development

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Iterating Software testing

Process of verifying performance and reliability of a software product

Tester Person trained in methods of evaluation

Bug Discrepancy between expected and actual behavior

Problem/Bug report Description of the behavior of the discrepancy

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Iterating

Focus test Testing session using play-testers Testers represent the target audience Lots of feedback at one time Data can be compromised by group

think

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Iterating

Tuning Developing solutions by adjusting

systems Iterations are faster Changes are less dramatic

Balance Equilibrium in a relationship

Player relationships, mechanics, systems, etc.

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Iterating Intransitive relationships

Multiple elements offer weaknesses and strengths relative to each other as a whole

Balanced as a group Example: Rock-Paper-Scissors (RPS)

H e a v yI n f a n t r y

C a v a lr yA r c h e r s

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Creativity

Ability to create Ability to produce an idea, action,

or object considered new and valuable

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Creativity Classic approach - Graham Wallace

Preparation Background research and comprehension

Incubation Mulling things over

Insight Sudden illumination – Eureka!

Evaluation Validating revealed insights

Elaboration Transforming the idea into substance

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Creativity

Brainstorming Generating ideas without

discrimination Evaluation after elaboration Can be unfocused

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Creativity Six Thinking Hats

White Hat – neutral and objective Red Hat – intuition, gut reaction Black Hat – gloomy, naysayer Yellow Hat – Pollyannaish, optimistic Green Hat – growth and creativity Blue Hat – process and control

Symbolize perspective worn by people involved in the creative endeavor

Edward de Bono

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Inspiration Board games

Spatial relationships Card games

Resource management Paper RPGs

Dynamic narratives Books

Fantasy and agency Sports

Team competition

Film Continuity techniques

Television Serialized stories

Music Temporal systems

Martial arts Discipline in action

Children Invention

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Communication

Documentation Methods vary widely Written, descriptive model of the

game Depth varies according to the needs of the game

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Communication Treatment

A brief, general description of the game and the fundamental concepts

May include: Concept statement Goals and objectives Core mechanics and systems Competitive analysis Licensing and IP information Target platform and audience Scope Key features

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Communication Other document types may

include: Preliminary design document Initial Design Document Revised Design Document General Design Document Expanded Design Document Technical Design Document Final Design Document

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Communication Flowcharts

A typical technique for diagramming steps in a process

Most developers are familiar

Star t /E ndP ro c e s s /

Ac tio nD e c is io n

Y/N D e lay

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Communication

S t artW an d eri n g

C i t yS e a r c h f o r

Q u e s tQ u e s t

Q u e s t D e ta il sA c c e p t

G a th e r P C A ll ie s E m b a r k/Sp l it G o to

W ild e r n e s s

C i ty

N o

Y e s

Y e s

N o

Re c r u i ts

R e c r u it

E q u ip

G e a r

G a th e r

S e e k A id

A r t if a c ts A ss is ta n c e

Reg ro u p

En co u n ter

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Communication Associative diagram

Drawing that helps manage and organize information visually

Mind Map A style of associative diagram Key words and figures are placed on branches

we ap o n

fi ghti ng

r a n g e

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Psychology

Working Memory Holds roughly 7 ± 2 items at one time

while other cognitive operations on them

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Psychology

Attention Method of enhancing perceptions

relative to other stimuli in the same environment

How we focus on important things Limited capacity

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Psychology Classical conditioning

Reaction to stimulus is conditioned by pairing with another stimulus that elicits the desired response naturally

C o ndit io ning Af te r c o ndit io ning

B e fo re c o ndit io ning

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Psychology Unconditioned stimulus – Meat Unconditioned response – Salivation over meat Conditioned stimulus – Tone Conditioned response – Salivation over tone

C o ndit io ning Af te r c o ndit io ning

B e fo re c o ndit io ning

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Psychology Operant conditioning

Learning by encouraging or discouraging

Operant A response; the action in question

Example: pressing a button Reinforcement contingency

Consistent relationship between the operant and a result in the environment

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Psychology Reinforcers

Increase the probability an action will be repeated Positive reinforcement

Positive stimulus that reinforces the behavior Ex. Use umbrella and be dry

Negative reinforcement The removal or prevention of a negative stimulus

Ex. Use umbrella and keep from getting wet Punishment

Reduces the likelihood of a behavior with a stimulus Ex. Being burned by a hot stove

Documents

Chapter 2.2 Game Design