Chapter 21: Toward Empire

AP United States HistoryWeek of April 4, 2016

America Looks OutwardAmerican expansion of the 1890s was different; land wasn't sought for settlement but rather for naval bases, trading outposts, or commercial centers — essentially, as colonies

• The story of the 19th century was isolationism

• US followed Monroe Doctrine, and was impregnable to foreign attack

• Telegraphs, telephones, undersea cables led to sense of internationalism

• Gradually, attention shifted outwards

• Reasons for imperialism:

• Economic: new markets abroad, as domestic markets could not contain production

• Social and intellectual: biological concepts seemed to call for triumph of the fit, elimination of unfit

• Primitive peoples needed supervision and protection

• Political: worldwide scramble for empire, as Germany, Great Britain and France took colonies around the world

Foreign Policy, 1867-1900American foreign policy of the last third of the 19th century was fragmented. In regards to Europe, it was avoiding entanglements. Trade and Pan-American unity characterized relations in the western hemisphere, while the US coveted territories in Asia

• Secretaries of State…

• William Seward (1861-69) pushed aggressive foreign policy

• 1867: purchased Alaska, annexed Midway Islands

• Hamilton Fish negotiated Treaty of Washington

• Treaty settled demands that US wanted Britain to pay for damaged Union ships

• Promoted independence of Cuba

• James G. Blaine, Frederick Frelinghuysen pushed for Caribbean markets for American goods

• Negotiated treaties to bind countries to American interests

• Richard Olney negotiated treaty of arbitration with Great Britain over a border dispute between British Guiana and Venezuela

• Affirmed United States as the dominant power in the western hemisphere

Foreign Policy, 1867-1900, Part II: Hawaii and Samoa

The US viewed Hawaii as a way station to the Asian markets

• After Civil War, US tightened connections to Hawaii

• Reciprocity agreement effectively made islands a US protectorate

• 1887: US was granted exclusive use of Pearl Harbor

• Queen Liliuokalani granted power to native Hawaiians

• US responded by “invading” and annexing Hawaii in 1893

• Senate did not ratify treaty, Queen declared Republic of Hawaii

• McKinley finally annexed Hawaii in 1898

• US also gained Pago Pago harbor in Samoa in 1899

United States Possessions, 1857-1917

Foreign Policy, 1867-1900, Part III: The Great White Fleet

The US viewed Hawaii as a way station to the Asian markets

• After Civil War, US tightened connections to Hawaii

• Reciprocity agreement effectively made islands a US protectorate

• 1887: US was granted exclusive use of Pearl Harbor

• Queen Liliuokalani granted power to native Hawaiians

• US responded by “invading” and annexing Hawaii in 1893

• Senate did not ratify treaty, Queen declared Republic of Hawaii

• McKinley finally annexed Hawaii in 1898

• US also gained Pago Pago harbor in Samoa in 1899

Foreign Policy, 1867-1900, Part III: The Great White Fleet

By 1880, the United States Navy had fallen into rapid decline

• Naval officers with business interests convinced Congress to build new naval ships to protect international trade

• Civil War-era ships were old and in disrepair

• Capt. Alfred T. Mahan: The Influence of Sea Power Upon History, 1660-1783 – the US needed a powerful navy to protect overseas interests

• Congress established Naval Advisory Board in 1881, passed Naval Act of 1890

• By 1900, the United States had one of the most powerful navies in the world

Spanish-American War: Cuban Rebellion, Yellow JournalismWar with Spain in 1898 built a mood of national confidence and reshaped how the US saw itself with the rest of the world. The US emerged from the war as the dominant force in the 20th century

• Cuba was a Spanish possession in the 1800s, but had resisted Spanish rule

• Amidst a collapsing economy, Cubans rebelled against Spain and Weyler’s policy of reconcentration

• Cuban journalist José Martí urged the US to intervene

• Yellow journalism: Hearst and Pulitzer sensationalised stories of Weyler and reconcentration camps

• Presidents Cleveland and McKinley both opposed war and annexation of Cuba

• Cuban guerillas destroyed American sugar mills and plantations in Cuba

• McKinley sent USS Maine into Havana’s harbour following eruption of riots

• Enrique Dupuy de Lôme and the de Lôme Letter (February 9, 1898): "...McKinley is weak and catering to the rabble and, besides, a low politician who desires to leave a door open to himself and to stand well with the jingos of his party”

• Explosion of the USS Maine (February 15, 1898) led to American public blaming Spain

Spanish-American War, Part II• McKinley asked Spain to declare an armistice and end reconcentration policy

• April 19: US declared Cuba independent

• Teller Amendment: US had no interest in annexing Cuba

• April 21: Spain severed diplomatic relations; US blockaded Cuba

• By August, Spanish-American War was over

• There was much segregation in the ranks of soldiers invading Cuba

• Commodore George Dewey defeated Spanish fleet at Manila Bay (Philippines)

• June: Marines seized Guantánamo Bay, and then Santiago

• August 13: Spain surrendered Manila

• Treaty of Paris: Cuba’s independence; Philippines, Puerto Rico, Guam granted to US and become unincorporated territories

Spanish-American War, Part III: Treaty of Paris Debate

What was the role of racism in American foreign policy of the late 1800s and early 1900s?

• McKinley, on the Filipinos: “There was nothing left for us to do but to take them all, and to educate the Filipinos, and uplift and civilize and Christianize them”

• American anti-imperialists argued against annexation

• Labour leaders feared importation of cheap labour from Pacific

• Violated American founding principles of self-determination

• Carnegie: keeping Philippines would divert attention from industrial development

• Booker T. Washington: US had domestic issues to worry about, such as treatment of Native Americans and Blacks

• Imperialism opponents formed Anti-Imperialist League

• Treaty of Paris finally ratified, pressured by news of fighting between Filipinos and Americans

War in the PhilippinesThe Philippine-American War lasted from 1898-1902, and resulted in the death of 4,300 Americans and roughly 50,000-200,000 Filipinos

• Emilio Aguinaldo felt American victory would grant independence

• Cooperated with Americans

• When McKinley concluded Filipinos were not ready, warfare broke out

• Filipinos adopted guerilla tactics

• McKinley won 1900 election, and sent Philippine Commission to islands

• July 4, 1901: authority transferred to Taft; new government administered reforms

• Independence came July 4, 1946

Philippine-American War: Filipino soldiers outside Manila, American troops in 1899, Aguinaldo aboard USS Vicksburg after capture

The New US EmpireHow would the US govern the Hawaii, Alaska, Guam, and Puerto Rico

• Supreme Court: Constitution did not automatically and immediately apply to people of annexed territories

• Congress granted Hawaii (1900) and Alaska (1912) territory status

• Puerto Rico accepted Spanish-American War outcome

• Foraker Act (1900) established civil government

• Cuba: Platt Amendment (1901) Cuba may not make treaties that impair its independence

• Also: leased Guantánamo Bay to the US

Open Door PolicyBeginning in 1898, China was increasing unable to resist foreign influence. The US pushed for a China policy that was more open than spheres of influence

• Japan, England, France, Germany and Russia wanted concessions

• Nations would be granted exclusive rights to develop particular areas

• McKinley wanted Open Door Policy

• Nations would respect rights, privileges of other nations in sphere

• China would collect duties in all spheres

• Nations would not discriminate against other nations in levying duties within sphere

• US, Britain, Germany ended nationalist Boxer Rebellion (1900)